A brief intro of cancer, what is benign & malignant cancer, how it begins, how it spreads. Different stages of cancer. what is the pathophysiology. Different types of cancer their etiology,pathophysiology and diagnosis.
Awareness on Cancer
what are the causes for cancer
Terminology
Classification of Cancers
Signs and Symptoms
Stages of Cancers (TSM)
Types of Cancer Treatments
Surgery, Chemotherapy, Radiation Therapy etc
Side effects on treatment
Palliative care
A brief intro of cancer, what is benign & malignant cancer, how it begins, how it spreads. Different stages of cancer. what is the pathophysiology. Different types of cancer their etiology,pathophysiology and diagnosis.
Awareness on Cancer
what are the causes for cancer
Terminology
Classification of Cancers
Signs and Symptoms
Stages of Cancers (TSM)
Types of Cancer Treatments
Surgery, Chemotherapy, Radiation Therapy etc
Side effects on treatment
Palliative care
Oncology Nursing:-An oncology nurse is a specialized nurse who cares for cancer patients. These nurses require advanced certifications and clinical experiences in oncology further than the typical baccalaureate nursing program provides. Oncology nursing care can be defined as meeting the various needs of oncology patients during the time of their disease including appropriate screenings and other preventive practices, symptom management, care to retain as much normal functioning as possible, and supportive measures upon the end of life.
What is oncology?
Oncology is the branch of medicine that researches, identifies, and treats cancer. A physician who works in the field of oncology is an oncologist.
Oncologists must first diagnose cancer, which is usually carried out via biopsy, endoscopy, X-ray, CT scanning, MRI, PET scanning, ultrasound, or other radiological methods. Nuclear medicine can also be used to diagnose cancer, as can blood tests or tumor markers. Oncology is often linked with hematology, which is the branch of medicine that deals with blood and blood-related disorders.
Treatment
Once a diagnosis is made, the oncologist discusses the disease stage with the patient. Staging will dictate the treatment of cancer. Chemotherapy — which is defined as the destruction of cancer cells — may be used, as well as radiation therapy. Surgery is used to remove tumors. Hormone therapy is used to treat certain types of cancers, and monoclonal antibody treatments are gaining popularity. Research into cancer vaccines and immunotherapies is ongoing. Palliative care in oncology treats pain and other symptoms of cancer.
Treatment team
Cancer is often treated in a team effort, with at least two or three types of oncologists, including medical, surgical, or radiation. The oncology treatment team may also include a pathologist, a diagnostic radiologist, or an oncology nurse. In the event of a new or a difficult-to-treat case of cancer, the oncology care team may consult a tumor board, made up of various medical experts from all relevant disciplines. The tumor board reviews the case and recommends the best course of cancer treatment for the patient.
Oncology nurse
The oncology nurse has many roles, from helping with cancer screening, detection, and prevention, to the intensive care focus of bone marrow transplantation. Work settings for oncology nurses also vary and include acute care hospitals, ambulatory care clinics, private offices, radiation therapy facilities, and home care agencies. Oncology nurses work with adult and pediatric patients with cancer.
Pediatric Oncology
Pediatric oncology is a medical specialty that focuses on cancer care for children.
The National Cancer Institute estimates that 10,270 new cases of cancer will be diagnosed in children in 2017. Of these, 1,190 children will die from the disease.
Pediatric oncology is an important medical field that treats all pediatric cancer types, including acute lymphocytic leukemia,
A brief description on cancer.Cancer – a large group of diseases characterized by the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells,Some topics are genesis of cancer,types of cancer,causes of cancer like Heredity,Immunity,Chemical,Physical,Viral Bacterial,Lifestyle.
,sign&symptom:*Change in bowel habits or bladder function,*Sores that do not heal,*Unusual bleeding or discharge,*Thickening or lump in breast or other parts of the body,Indigestion or trouble swallowing,*Recent change in a wart or mole,Nagging cough or hoarseness,
diagnosis and staging,treatment:Surgery,Radiation,Chemotherapy,Immunotherapy,Hormone therapy, Gene therapy,side effect of cancer treatment,prevention of cancer
Running head INEFFECTIVE CANCER TREATMENTS LEADING TO DEATHS1.docxcowinhelen
Running head: INEFFECTIVE CANCER TREATMENTS LEADING TO DEATHS 1
INEFFECTIVE CANCER TREATMENTS LEADING TO DEATHS 18
Ineffective Cancer treatments leading to deaths
Name
Course
Tutor
Date
Abstract
The main focus of the report will be to research on the various methods through which cancer can be treated with a keen eye on why some methods are ineffective and lead to death. A discussion on different cancer treatment will be done followed by the types of cancer that cause millions of death today. Presentation of answers to the research questions will be done in line with ineffective cancer treatment methods. Relevant literature review will be conducted and used to support the claims of ineffective cancer treatments. Lastly, recommendations on the best cancer treatment will be done.
Introduction
Cancer is an ailment caused by the unrestrained division of abnormal cells in the body. The cancer cells are malignant meaning they can spread from the origin to distant organs and tissues. The disease can be genetically hereditary hence can be crossed over from one generation to another. Some of the forms of cancer treatment include targeted therapy, hormone therapy, chemotherapy, precision medicine, surgery, immunotherapy, and stem cell transplant. Some of the common types of this disease include lung, liver, stomach, and bowel cancers.
Cancer is also called as malignancy which means abnormal cells growth. More than 100 types of cancer are found in this world today, including breast cancer (widely spread among women), skin cancer (found in the person of almost every age), lung cancer (common among smokers), colon cancer, lymphoma and prostate cancer. Each kind of cancer has varying symptoms. Cancer differs with respect to the cell it affects first. The uncontrollable division of cells harm the body and form lumps and the masses of tissues which are known as tumors. The tumor grows in size and sometimes even intervene the digestive system, circulatory system, excretory system and nervous system. In the case of leukemia, cancer inhibits the normal blood functioning which is caused due to the abnormal cell division into the blood stream. Cancer also causes the systems of the body to secrete hormones that alter the body functioning. Tumors that do not grow and remain limited to one spot are considered to slightly less harmful and benign. The sign of the more dangerous and malignant cells is:
1. The harmful cancerous cells move from one spot to another throughout the body using blood as a medium and invade the organs and the healthy tissues of the body.
2. These cells grow and divide rapidly, they make blood vessels of their own which are used by them in the process of feeding, called as angiogenesis.
Then comes a stage is known as metastasized in which the tumor spread successfully to the other parts of the body, penetrating into the healthy tissues of the body and damaging them badly. The process is known as metastasis. It cause ...
Cancer Symptoms And Prognosis Stages Early Detection.pptxDr.Kanury Rao
Cancer is one of the most frequent diseases in which cells are damaged and malignant. The rapid growth of technology is giving people living with cancer new hope. Dr. Kanury Rao and his colleagues are at the forefront of this transition and are committed to developing improved cancer therapies and cures.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Factory Supply Best Quality Pmk Oil CAS 28578–16–7 PMK Powder in Stockrebeccabio
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TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
2. Cancer is a generic term for a large group of diseases
that can affect any part of the body. Other terms used
are malignant tumours and neoplasm’s.
One defining feature of cancer is the rapid creation of
abnormal cells that grow beyond their usual
boundaries, and which can then invade adjoining parts
of the body and spread to other organs, the latter
process is referred to as metastasizing. Metastases are a
major cause of death from cancer.
3. Cancer is the second leading cause of death globally, and is responsible for an
estimated 9.6 million deaths in 2018. Globally, about 1 in 6 deaths is due to cancer.
Approximately 70% of deaths from cancer occur in low- and middle-income
countries.
Around one third of deaths from cancer are due to the 5 leading behavioral and
dietary risks: high body mass index, low fruit and vegetable intake, lack of physical
activity, tobacco use, and alcohol use.
Tobacco use is the most important risk factor for cancer and is responsible for
approximately 22% of cancer deaths (2).
Cancer causing infections, such as hepatitis and human papilloma virus (HPV), are
responsible for up to 25% of cancer cases in low- and middle-income countries (3).
Late-stage presentation and inaccessible diagnosis and treatment are common. In
2017, only 26% of low-income countries reported having pathology services
generally available in the public sector. More than 90% of high-income countries
reported treatment services are available compared to less than 30% of low-income
countries.
The economic impact of cancer is significant and is increasing. The total annual
economic cost of cancer in 2010 was estimated at approximately US$ 1.16 trillion
(4).
Only 1 in 5 low- and middle-income countries have the necessary data to drive
cancer policy (5).
4.
5. Cancer arises from the transformation of normal cells into tumour cells
in a multistage process that generally progresses from a pre-cancerous
lesion to a malignant tumour. These changes are the result of the
interaction between a person's genetic factors and 3 categories of
external agents, including:
physical carcinogens, such as ultraviolet and ionizing radiation;
chemical carcinogens, such as asbestos, components of tobacco smoke,
aflatoxin (a food contaminant), and arsenic (a drinking water
contaminant); and
biological carcinogens, such as infections from certain viruses,
bacteria, or parasites.
WHO, through its cancer research agency, International Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC), maintains a classification of cancer-
causing agents.
6. Tobacco use, alcohol use, unhealthy diet, and physical
inactivity are major cancer risk factors worldwide and are
also the 4 shared risk factors for other noncommunicable
diseases.
Some chronic infections are risk factors for cancer and have
major relevance in low- and middle-income countries.
Approximately 15% of cancers diagnosed in 2012 were
attributed to carcinogenic infections, including Helicobacter
pylori, Human papillomavirus (HPV), Hepatitis B virus,
Hepatitis C virus, and Epstein-Barr virus3.
Hepatitis B and C virus and some types of HPV increase the
risk for liver and cervical cancer, respectively. Infection
with HIV substantially increases the risk of cancers such as
cervical cancer.
7. Signs and symptoms caused by cancer will vary depending on what part of the body is
affected.
Some general signs and symptoms associated with, but not specific to, cancer, include:
Fatigue
Lump or area of thickening that can be felt under the skin
Weight changes, including unintended loss or gain
Skin changes, such as yellowing, darkening or redness of the skin, sores that won't heal, or
changes to existing moles
Changes in bowel or bladder habits
Persistent cough or trouble breathing
Difficulty swallowing
Hoarseness
Persistent indigestion or discomfort after eating
Persistent, unexplained muscle or joint pain
Persistent, unexplained fevers or night sweats
Unexplained bleeding or bruising
8. Staging is the process of finding out how much cancer is in
a person’s body and where it’s located. It’s how the doctor
determines the stage of a person’s cancer.
Why is cancer staging needed?
For most types of cancer, doctors need to know how much
cancer there is and where it is (among other things) to help
determine the best treatment options. For example, the best
treatment for an early-stage cancer may
be surgery or radiation, while a more advanced-stage cancer
may need treatments that reach all parts of the body, such
as chemotherapy, targeted drug therapy, or immunotherapy.
9. Aid treatment planning,
Provide an indication of prognosis,
Assist in the evaluation of treatment results,
Facilitate the exchange of information between
treatment centres,
Contribute to continuing investigations of human
malignancies,
Support cancer control activities, including through
cancer registries.
10. What goes into the stage: The TNM system
There are different types of systems used to stage cancer,
but the most common and useful staging system for most
types of cancer is the TNM system.
The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) and the
Union for International Cancer Control (UICC) maintain
the TNM classification system as a way for doctors to stage
many different types of cancer based on certain common
standards.
In the TNM system, the overall stage is determined after the
cancer is assigned a letter or number to describe the tumor
(T), node (N), and metastasis (M) categories.
11. In the TNM system, the overall stage is determined
after the cancer is assigned a letter or number to
describe the tumor (T), node (N), and metastasis (M)
categories.
T describes the original (primary) tumor.
N tells whether the cancer has spread to the nearby
lymph nodes.
M tells whether the cancer has spread (metastasized)
to distant parts of the body
12. Different types of exams and tests can be used to figure out a
cancer’s stage.
Depending on where the cancer is located, a physical exam may
give some idea as to how much cancer there is.
A biopsy often is needed to confirm a cancer diagnosis. Biopsies
might also be needed to find out if a lump felt on an exam or if
something seen on an imaging test in another part of the body is
really from the spread of cancer. During a biopsy, the doctor
removes a tumor or pieces of a tumor to be looked at in the lab.
Some biopsies are done during surgery. But biopsies can also be
done using a thin, hollow needle or through an endoscope. For
more on biopsies, see Testing Biopsy and Cytology Specimens
for Cancer.
Lab tests of cancer cells (from a biopsy or surgery) and blood
tests can also be used to help stage some types of cancer.
13. Imaging tests like x-rays, CT scans, MRIs, ultrasound,
and PET scans may also give information about how
much and where cancer is in the body.
Endoscopy exams are sometimes used to look for
cancer. For these exams, an endoscope, which is a thin,
lighted tube (usually with a small video camera on the
end) is put inside the body to look for cancer.
14. When trying to determine how much and where the cancer is in
the body, doctors first look at the primary (main) tumor, which
is where the cancer started. The tumor’s size, location, and
whether it has grown into nearby areas can all be important.
Doctors also check for other nearby tumors.
The T category can be assigned a letter or a number:
TX means there’s no information about the primary tumor, or it
can’t be measured.
T0 means there is no evidence of a primary tumor (it cannot be
found).
Tis means that the cancer cells are only growing in the layer of
cells where they started, without growing into deeper layers. This
may also be called in situ cancer or pre-cancer.
15. Lymph nodes near the primary tumor are usually are
checked to find out if cancer has spread into them. Lymph
nodes are small, bean-shaped collections of immune cells.
Many types of cancer often spread to nearby lymph nodes
before they reach other parts of the body.
The N category can be assigned a letter or a number:
NX means there’s no information about the nearby lymph
nodes, or they can’t be assessed.
N0 means nearby lymph nodes do not contain cancer.
A number after the N (such as N1, N2, or N3) might
describe the size, location, and/or the number of nearby
lymph nodes affected by cancer. The higher the N number,
the greater the cancer spread to nearby lymph nodes.
16. Doctors might also look at other parts of the body to see if the
cancer has spread. Cancer spread to parts of the body far from
the primary tumor is known as metastasis.
The M category is assigned a number:
M0 means that no distant cancer spread has been found.
M1 means that the cancer has been found to have spread
to distant organs or tissues.
Each cancer type has its own version of the TNM categories, so
letters and numbers don’t mean the same thing for every type of
cancer. For example, for some types of cancer, the T categories
describe the size of the main tumor, while for others they
describe how deeply the tumor has grown into the organ it started
in, or whether the tumor has grown into nearby structures
(regardless of its size).
17. Tumour, node and metastasis (TNM) staging is the
most common way that doctors stage stomach cancer.
Doctors may also use the number staging system.
The stage of a cancer tells you how big it is and how
far it’s spread. It helps your doctor decide which
treatment you need.
Your scans will give some information about the stage
of your cancer, but your doctor may not be able to tell
you the exact stage until you have surgery.
18. Tumour describes the size of the tumour.
There are 4 main stages of tumour size in stomach cancer.
T1 means the tumour has started to grow into the wall of the stomach. It’s
divided into T1a and T1b:
T1a means the tumour is within the inner layers of the stomach (the mucosa)
T1b means the tumour has grown through the mucosa and into a layer of
supportive tissue called the submucosa
T2 means the tumour has grown into the muscle layer of the stomach
T3 means the tumour has grown into the outer lining of the stomach
T4 means that the tumour has grown through the outer lining of the stomach.
It’s divided into T4a and T4b:
T4a means the tumour has broken through the outer lining of the stomach wall
T4b means the tumour has grown through the stomach wall and into other
organs or body structures nearby such as the liver, food pipe (oeosphagus) or
abdominal wall
19. Node (N) describes whether the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes.
Lymph nodes are a network of glands throughout the body, for
example in your armpits, neck and groins. They drain away waste fluid,
waste products and damaged cells, and contain cells that fight
infection.
There are 4 possible stages describing whether cancer cells are in the
lymph nodes – N0, N1, N2 and N3:
N0 means there are no lymph nodes containing cancer cells.
N1 means there are cancer cells in 1 to 2 lymph nodes near to the
stomach.
N2 means there are cancer cells in 3 to 6 nearby lymph nodes.
N3 is split into N3a and N3b:
N3a means there are cancer cells in 7 to 15 nearby lymph nodes
N3b means there are cancer cells in 16 or more nearby lymph nodes
20. Metastasis describes whether the cancer has spread to a
different part of the body.
There are 2 stages of metastasis:
M0 means the cancer has not spread to other organs
M1 means the cancer has spread to other parts of the
body