Cancer is caused by uncontrolled cell growth and can develop in almost any part of the body. It is caused by genetic mutations that alter the genes regulating cell growth. There are four main types of cancer: prostate cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, and colorectal cancer. Prostate cancer occurs in the prostate gland and early stages often cause no symptoms. It is usually diagnosed via a PSA blood test and confirmed with a biopsy. Breast cancer occurs in the breast tissue and may cause lumps, nipple discharge or pain. It is diagnosed via imaging tests and biopsy.

2. • Cancer is a group of diseases characterised
by uncontrolled or abnormal cell proliferation.
• When cells in a part of the body divide
without control, the excess tissue that
develops is called a tumor or neoplasm.
• Cancer is a group of more than 100 different
diseases, as it can develop almost anywhere
in the body

6. • Cancer is fundamentally a disease of tissue growth
regulation. In order for a normal cell to transform into a
cancer cell, the genes that regulate cell growth and
differentiation must be altered.
• The affected genes are divided into two broad
categories:
– Oncogenes are genes that promote cell growth and
reproduction.
– Tumor suppressor genes are genes that inhibit cell
division and survival.

7. • Typically, changes in multiple genes
are required to transform a normal
cell into a cancer cell.
• Genetic changes can occur at
different levels and by different
mechanisms. The gain or loss of an
entire chromosome can occur
through errors in mitosis. More
common are mutations, which are
changes in the nucleotide sequence
of genomic DNA.

8. Four main types of cancer are:

9. • Prostate cancer is cancer that occurs in the prostate
— a small walnut-shaped gland in men that
produces the seminal fluid that nourishes and
transports sperm.
• Prostate cancer is one of the most common types of
cancer in men. Usually prostate cancer grows slowly
and is initially confined to the prostate gland, where
it may not cause serious harm. However, while
some types of prostate cancer grow slowly and may
need minimal or even no treatment, other types are
aggressive and can spread quickly.

10. • It usually starts in the glandular cells. This
is known as adenocarcinoma. Tiny
changes occur in the shape and size of
the prostate gland cells, known as
prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN).
This tends to happen slowly and does not
show symptoms until further into the
progression.
• Nearly 50 percent of all men over the age
of 50 years have PIN. High-grade PIN is
considered pre-cancerous, and it requires
further investigation. Low-grade PIN is not
a cause for concern.
• Prostate cancer can be successfully
treated if it is diagnosed before metastasis,
but if it spreads, it is more dangerous.
It most commonly spreads to the bones.

11. • Prostate cancer may cause no signs or symptoms in its
early stages.
• Prostate cancer that's more advanced may cause signs
and symptoms such as:
– Trouble urinating
– Decreased force in the stream of urine
– Blood in semen
– Discomfort in the pelvic area
– Bone pain
– Erectile dysfunction

13. • it is performed by visualising the
prostate through the urethra and
removing tissue by
electrocautery or sharp
dissection.
• Transrectal biopsy is a biopsy
procedure in which a sample of
tissue is removed from the
prostate using a thin needle that
is inserted through the rectum
and into the prostate.
BIOPSY:

14. • Cancer begins when healthy cells in the breast change and grow out of control,
forming a mass or sheet of cells called a tumor. A tumor can be cancerous or benign.
A cancerous tumor is malignant, meaning it can grow and spread to other parts of the
body. A benign tumor means the tumor can grow but will not spread.
• Breast cancer spreads when the cancer grows into other parts of the body or when
breast cancer cells move to other parts of the body through the blood vessels and/or
lymph vessels. This is called metastasis.

15. • Breast cancer can be invasive or noninvasive. Invasive breast
cancer is cancer that spreads into surrounding tissues. Noninvasive
breast cancer does not go beyond the milk ducts or lobules in
the breast. Most breast cancers start in the ducts or lobes and are
called ductal carcinoma or lobular carcinoma:
• Ductal carcinoma. These cancers starts in the cells lining the milk
ducts and make up the majority of breast cancers.
– Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS). This is cancer that is located only in
the duct.
– Invasive or infiltrating ductal carcinoma. This is cancer that has
spread outside of the duct.
• Lobular carcinoma. This is cancer that starts in the lobules.
– Lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS). LCIS is located only in the lobules.
LCIS is not considered cancer. However, LCIS is a risk factor for
developing invasive breast cancer in both breasts

17. • a lump in the breast or armpit,
• Bloody teat discharge,
• Inverted teats,
• orange-peel texture or dimpling of the breast's
skin,
• breast pain or sore teats,
• swollen lymph nodes in the neck or armpit, and
a change in the size or shape of the breast or
teats.

18. Imaging tests:
• Imaging tests show pictures of the inside of the body. The following imaging tests of the breast
may be done to learn more about a suspicious area found in the breast during screening.
• Diagnostic mammography. Diagnostic mammography is similar to screening mammography
except that more pictures of the breast are taken. It is often used when a woman is experiencing
signs, such as a new lump or nipple discharge. Diagnostic mammography may also be used if
something suspicious is found on a screening mammogram.
• Ultrasound. An ultrasound uses sound waves to create a picture of the breast tissue. An
ultrasound can distinguish between a solid mass, which may be cancer, and a fluid-filled cyst,
which is usually not cancer.
• MRI. An MRI uses magnetic fields, not x-rays, to produce detailed images of the body. A special
dye called a contrast medium is given before the scan to help create a clear picture of the possible
cancer. This dye can be injected into a patient’s vein or given as a pill to swallow. A breast MRI
may be used after a woman has been diagnosed with cancer to check the other breast for cancer
or to find out how much the disease has grown throughout the breast. It may also be used before
surgery to find out if chemotherapy is working to shrink the tumor
Biopsy
• A biopsy is the removal of a small amount of tissue for examination under a microscope. Other
tests can suggest that cancer is present, but only a biopsy can make a definite diagnosis.

19. Lung cancer, also known as lung carcinoma, is a malignant lung
tumor characterized by uncontrolled cell growth in tissues of
the lung. This growth can spread beyond the lung by the process
of metastasis into nearby tissue or other parts of the
body. Most cancers that start in the lung, known as primary lung
cancers, are carcinomas.
The two main types are small-cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) and non-
small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC).
– Small-cell carcinoma (also known as "small-cell lung
cancer", or "oat-cell carcinoma") is a type of
highly malignant cancer that most commonly arises within
the lung, although it can occasionally arise in other body
sites, such as the cervix, prostate, and gastrointestinal
tract. Compared to non-small cell carcinoma, small cell
carcinoma has a shorter doubling time, higher growth
fraction, and earlier development of metastases.
– Non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) is any type of
epithelial lung cancerother than small cell lung
carcinoma (SCLC). NSCLC accounts for about 85% of all
lung cancers. As a class, NSCLCs are relatively
insensitive to chemotherapy, compared to small cell
carcinoma. When possible, they are primarily treated by
surgical resection with curative intent, although
chemotherapy is increasingly being used both pre-
operatively (neoadjuvant chemotherapy) and post-
operatively (adjuvant chemotherapy).

20. • smoking
• Randon gas
• Asbestos
• Air pollution
• Genetics
•Coughing up blood
(hemoptysis),
•Shortness of breath
•Chest pain
•Hoarseness
•Losing weight
•Bone pain
•Headache

21. • Imaging tests. An X-ray image of your lungs
may reveal an abnormal mass or nodule. A CT
scan can reveal small lesions in your lungs that
might not be detected on an X-ray.
• Sputum cytology. If you have a cough and are
producing sputum, looking at the sputum under
the microscope can sometimes reveal the
presence of lung cancer cells.
• Tissue sample (biopsy). A sample of abnormal
cells may be removed in a procedure called a
biopsy.

22. • Also called: colorectal cancer
• Colon cancer is cancer of the large intestine (colon),
which is the final part of your digestive tract. Most cases
of colon cancer begin as small, noncancerous (benign)
clumps of cells called adenomatous polyps. Over time
some of these polyps can become colon cancers.
• Colorectal cancer (CRC), also known as bowel
cancer and colon cancer, is the development
of cancer from the colon or rectum (parts of the large
intestine).

23. • Greater than 75–95% of colorectal cancer occurs in people with little
or no genetic risk. Risk factors include older age, male gender, high
intake of fat, alcohol, red meat, processed meats, obesity, smoking,
and a lack of physical exercise. Approximately 10% of cases are
linked to insufficient activity.

24. Signs and symptoms of colon cancer include:
• A change in your bowel habits, including diarrhea or
constipation or a change in the consistency of your
stool, that lasts longer than four weeks
• Rectal bleeding or blood in your stool
• Persistent abdominal discomfort, such as cramps, gas
or pain
• A feeling that your bowel doesn't empty completely
• Weakness or fatigue
• Unexplained weight loss

25. • Colonoscopy. As described in Screening, a colonoscopy allows the doctor to look
inside the entire rectum and colon while a patient is sedated.
• Biopsy. A biopsy is the removal of a small amount of tissue for examination under a
microscope. Other tests can suggest that cancer is present, but only a biopsy can
make a definite diagnosis of colorectal cancer.
• Molecular testing of the tumor. Your doctor may recommend running laboratory
tests on a tumor sample to identify specific genes, proteins, and other factors unique
to the tumor.
• Blood tests. Because colorectal cancer often bleeds into the large intestine or
rectum, people with the disease may become anemic.
• Computed tomography (CT or CAT) scan. A CT scan creates a 3-dimensional
picture of the inside of the body using x-rays taken from different angles. A computer
combines these images into a detailed, cross-sectional view that shows any
abnormalities or tumors.
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). An MRI uses magnetic fields, not x-rays, to
produce detailed images of the body. MRI can be used to measure the tumor’s size.
• Ultrasound. An ultrasound uses sound waves to create a picture of the internal
organs to find out if cancer has spread.

26. • Melanoma, also known as malignant
melanoma, is a type of cancer that
develops from the pigment-containing cells
kownas melanocytes. Melanomas typically
occur in the skin, but may rarely occur in
the mouth, intestines, or eye.

27. • Melanomas are usually caused by DNA damage
resulting from exposure to ultraviolet light from the sun.
Genetics also plays a role. Having more than fifty moles
indicates an increased risk melanoma might arise.

28. • ABCDE rule
• Changes in the size, shape, color, or feel of a mole is often the first warning sign of melanoma.
These changes can occur in an existing mole, or melanoma may appear as a new or unusual-
looking mole. The "ABCDE" rule is helpful in remembering the warning signs of melanoma:
• Asymmetry. The shape of one half of the mole does not match the other.
• Border. The edges are ragged, notched, uneven, or blurred.
• Color. Shades of black, brown, and tan may be present. Areas of white, gray, red, or blue may
also be seen.
• Diameter. The diameter is usually larger than 6 millimeters (mm) or had grown in size; this is 1/4
inch, about the size of a pencil eraser. Melanoma may be smaller when first detected.
• Evolving. The mole has been changing in size, shape, color, or appearance, or it is growing in an
area of previously normal skin. Also, when melanoma develops in an existing mole, the texture of
the mole may change and become hard or lumpy. Although the skin lesion may feel different and
may itch, ooze, or bleed, a melanoma skin lesion usually does not cause pain.
• Ugly duckling
• Biopsy

29. • It is a group of cancers that usually begin in the bone marrow and result in
high numbers of abnormal white blood cells.These white blood cells are not
fully developed and are called blasts or leukemia cells.

30. • In general, leukemia is thought to occur when some blood
cells acquire mutations in their DNA — the instructions inside
each cell that guide its action. There may be other changes in
the cells that have yet to be fully understood that could
contribute to leukemia.
• Certain abnormalities cause the cell to grow and divide more
rapidly and to continue living when normal cells would die.
Over time, these abnormal cells can crowd out healthy blood
cells in the bone marrow, leading to fewer healthy white blood
cells, red blood cells and platelets, causing the signs and
symptoms of leukemia.
• Radiation
• genetic conditions.

31. Common leukemia signs and symptoms include:
• Fever or chills
• Persistent fatigue, weakness
• Frequent or severe infections
• Losing weight without trying
• Swollen lymph nodes, enlarged liver or spleen
• Easy bleeding or bruising
• Recurrent nosebleeds
• Tiny red spots in your skin (petechiae)
• Excessive sweating, especially at night
• Bone pain or tenderness

32. • Diagnosis is usually based on
repeated complete blood counts(Cbc) and
a bone marrow examination following
observations of the symptoms. Sometimes,
blood tests may not show that a person has
leukemia, especially in the early stages of the
disease or during remission. A lymph node
biopsy can be performed to diagnose certain
types of leukemia in certain situations.

33. • Lymphoma is a cancer of the lymphatic system, which is part of the body's germ-
fighting network.
• The lymphatic system includes the lymph nodes (lymph glands), spleen, thymus
gland and bone marrow. Lymphoma can affect all those areas as well as other
organs throughout the body.
Many types of lymphoma exist. The main subtypes are:
– Hodgkin's lymphoma (formerly called Hodgkin's disease)
– Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma
• Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL) is a type of lymphoma in which cancer originates from a
specific type of white blood cells called lymphocytes. Symptoms may
include fever, night sweats, and weight loss. Often there will be non-painful enlarged
lymph nodes in the neck, under the arm, or in the groin. Those affected may feel tired
or be itchy.
• Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) is a group of blood cancers that includes all types
of lymphoma except Hodgkin's lymphomas. Symptoms include enlarged lymph
nodes, fever, night sweats, weight loss and tiredness. Other symptoms may include
bone pain, chest pain or itchiness. Some forms are slow-growing, while others are
fast-growing.

34. • Doctors aren't sure what causes lymphoma. But it begins when a disease-
fighting white blood cell called a lymphocyte develops a genetic mutation.
The mutation tells the cell to multiply rapidly, causing many diseased
lymphocytes that continue multiplying.
• The mutation also allows the cells to go on living when other cells would die.
This causes too many diseased and ineffective lymphocytes in your lymph
nodes and causes the lymph nodes to swell.

35. • Swollen lymph nodes
• Painless swelling of lymph nodes in your neck,
armpits or groin
• Persistent fatigue
• Fever
• Night sweats
• Shortness of breath
• Unexplained weight loss

36. • Bone marrow biopsy
• Tests and procedures used to diagnose lymphoma include:
• Physical exam. Your doctor checks for swollen lymph nodes, including in your neck, underarm and groin, as well as a
swollen spleen or liver.
• Removing a lymph node for testing. Your doctor may recommend a lymph node biopsy procedure to remove all or
part of a lymph node for laboratory testing. Advanced tests can determine if lymphoma cells are present and what types
of cells are involved.
• Blood tests. Blood tests to count the number of cells in a sample of your blood can give your doctor clues about your
diagnosis.
• Removing a sample of bone marrow for testing. A bone marrow aspiration and biopsy procedure involves inserting
a needle into your hipbone to remove a sample of bone marrow. The sample is analyzed to look for lymphoma cells.
• Imaging tests. Your doctor may recommend imaging tests to look for signs of lymphoma in other areas of your body.
Tests may include CT, MRI and positron emission tomography (PET).