Cancer staging
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Cancer staging describes the size and extent of a cancer and is important for determining the appropriate treatment. There are two main staging systems - TNM and number staging. TNM describes the size of the tumor (T), whether it has spread to lymph nodes (N), and presence of metastases (M). Number staging uses TNM to divide cancers into 4 stages based on tumor size and spread, with higher stages indicating greater extent of disease. Accurate staging allows doctors to standardize treatment and compare outcomes across studies.
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Breast carcinoma
1. Breast carcinoma is classified based on histology, with invasive ductal carcinoma accounting for 70-85% of cases. Common risk factors include age, family history, and genetic mutations like BRCA1/2.
2. Presentation varies but may include a breast lump, nipple changes, or asymptomatic findings on screening. Diagnosis involves history, exam, and imaging tests.
3. Spread occurs via lymphatics to axillary nodes or bloodstream to distant sites like bone and lung. Prognosis depends on stage, with early-stage disease having better survival.
Staging of cancer
Staging of cancer involves assessing how far a cancer has spread both locally and systemically. It is important for determining prognosis and selecting the most appropriate treatment. There are clinical, pathological, and radiological methods used for staging. Clinically, exam assesses tumor size, mobility, and lymph node involvement. Pathological exam of biopsied tissue confirms cancer diagnosis. Radiological exams like mammography, CT, MRI, PET scans provide additional information on tumor characteristics and metastasis. Together these methods are used to divide cancer into stages to guide management and predict outcomes.
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This document discusses the management of locally advanced breast cancer (LABC). Key points:
1. LABC includes stages IIIA, IIIB, IIIC breast cancer with large tumors (>5cm), chest wall involvement, skin ulcers, or fixed lymph nodes. Inflammatory breast cancer is an aggressive subtype of LABC.
2. Diagnosis involves history, physical exam, imaging like mammography and MRI, and biopsy. Staging workup includes labs, imaging of chest, abdomen, pelvis and bone.
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Prevention and early detection of cancer ver 3.0
Cancer is caused by both external and internal factors and can progress from a benign tumor to metastatic cancer if mutations accumulate in cancer genes. Two-thirds of cancer deaths can be prevented by avoiding risk factors like smoking, obesity, poor diet, and lack of exercise. Early detection through screening tests is important because treatment is more effective for early-stage cancers. Common cancer screening tests include mammograms for breast cancer, Pap tests and HPV tests for cervical cancer, and colonoscopies for colorectal cancer. Modifying lifestyle risk factors can significantly reduce cancer risk.
Oncology and surgical practice
Oncology and surgical practice are becoming more integrated, as surgeons are often responsible for initially diagnosing and managing solid tumors. A thorough understanding of cancer epidemiology, etiology, staging, and natural history is required to determine the optimal surgical therapy for each patient. Tumor cells acquire several characteristics before becoming fully malignant, including establishing independence from normal growth controls, achieving immortality and angiogenesis, and developing the abilities to invade other tissues and disseminate throughout the body. Both genetic and environmental factors contribute to cancer development in complex ways. A combination of inherited predispositions and exposures to carcinogenic chemicals, viruses, radiation, and other external factors drive the transformation of normal cells into malignant tumors.
Cancer Staging
Cancer staging classifies how far a cancer has spread and is an important factor in determining treatment. The TNM system stages most cancers based on tumor size (T), lymph node involvement (N), and metastasis (M). A pathological stage is assigned after surgery. Staging helps doctors determine prognosis and the most appropriate treatment for a patient's individual cancer.
Staging and grading of tumors
Staging and grading of tumors provides essential prognostic information and guides treatment decisions. Staging evaluates the extent of a malignant tumor using the TNM system which considers the size/spread of the primary tumor (T), involvement of lymph nodes (N), and presence of distant metastases (M). Grading evaluates the differentiation of tumor cells on a scale of 1 to 4, with higher grades indicating less differentiation. Both staging and grading systems aim to predict patient outcomes and tumor aggressiveness. Precise histological diagnosis through biopsy is needed to determine the stage and grade of tumors.
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1. LABC includes stages IIIA, IIIB, IIIC breast cancer with large tumors (>5cm), chest wall involvement, skin ulcers, or fixed lymph nodes. Inflammatory breast cancer is an aggressive subtype of LABC.
2. Diagnosis involves history, physical exam, imaging like mammography and MRI, and biopsy. Staging workup includes labs, imaging of chest, abdomen, pelvis and bone.
3. Treatment involves neoadjuvant chemotherapy to downstage the cancer and allow for surgery. Surgery may include mastectomy or breast conservation. Postoperative radiation and endocrine therapy
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Cancer is caused by both external and internal factors and can progress from a benign tumor to metastatic cancer if mutations accumulate in cancer genes. Two-thirds of cancer deaths can be prevented by avoiding risk factors like smoking, obesity, poor diet, and lack of exercise. Early detection through screening tests is important because treatment is more effective for early-stage cancers. Common cancer screening tests include mammograms for breast cancer, Pap tests and HPV tests for cervical cancer, and colonoscopies for colorectal cancer. Modifying lifestyle risk factors can significantly reduce cancer risk.
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Oncology and surgical practice are becoming more integrated, as surgeons are often responsible for initially diagnosing and managing solid tumors. A thorough understanding of cancer epidemiology, etiology, staging, and natural history is required to determine the optimal surgical therapy for each patient. Tumor cells acquire several characteristics before becoming fully malignant, including establishing independence from normal growth controls, achieving immortality and angiogenesis, and developing the abilities to invade other tissues and disseminate throughout the body. Both genetic and environmental factors contribute to cancer development in complex ways. A combination of inherited predispositions and exposures to carcinogenic chemicals, viruses, radiation, and other external factors drive the transformation of normal cells into malignant tumors.
Cancer Staging
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Staging and grading of tumors
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2) Tamoxifen is the standard adjuvant hormonal therapy and has been shown to reduce breast cancer recurrence rates by 24-43% and mortality by 14-23% depending on duration of therapy.
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Melanoma
Cutaneous Melanoma
also known as malignant melanoma, is a type of cancer that develops from the pigment-containing cells known as melanocytes.
Classification Of Melanoma
I : De novo melanoma
A. Melanoma in situ (MIS)
B. Lentigo maligna melanoma (LMM)
C. Superficial spreading melanoma (SSM)
D. Nodular melanoma (NM)
E. Acral-lentiginous melanoma (ALM)
F. Melanoma of the mucous membranes
G. Desmoplastic melanoma
II Melanoma arising from precursors
Melanoma arising in dysplastic nevomelanocytic nevi
B. Melanoma arising in congenital nevomelanocytic nevi
C. Melanoma arising in common NMN
Etiology And Pathogenesis
The etiology and pathogenesis of cutaneous melanoma are unknown.
Epidemiologic studies demonstrate a role for genetic predisposition and sun exposure in melanoma development.
The major genes involved in melanoma development reside on chromosome 9p21.
Etiology
UVR, mostly of the UVB spectrum (290–320 nm) that induces mutations in suppressor genes. The propensity for multiple BCC may be inherited. Associated with mutations in the PTCH gene in many cases.
Predisposing Factors
Genetic markers (CDKN2a mutation)
Skin type I/II
Family history of dysplastic nevi or melanoma
Personal history of melanoma
Ultraviolet irradiation, particularly sunburns during childhood and intermittent burning exposures
Number (>50) and size (>5 mm) of melanocytic nevi
Congenital nevi
Number of dysplastic nevi (>5)
Dysplastic melanocytic nevus syndrome
Immune suppression (debatable)
Number (>50) and size (>5 mm) of melanocytic nevi
Congenital nevi
Number of dysplastic nevi (>5)
Dysplastic melanocytic nevus syndrome
Immune suppression (debatable)
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A- Asymmetry in shape—one-half unlike the other half.
B- Border is irregular—edges irregularly scalloped, notched, sharply defined.
C- Color is not uniform; mottled—haphazard display of colors; all shades of brown, black, gray, red, and white.
D- Diameter is usually large.
E- Elevation is almost always present and is irregular—surface distortion is assessed by side-lighting. others use E for Enlargement— a history of an increase in the size of lesion is one of the most important signs of malignant melanoma.
Lentigo Maligna Melanoma (LMM)
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This document provides information on head and neck cancer including:
1. It describes the anatomy of the head and neck region including lymph nodes and locations of salivary glands.
2. It discusses imaging techniques like CT and PET scans which are used to detect and stage head and neck cancers.
3. It outlines the AJCC TNM staging system for various head and neck cancers and describes how the cancer can spread from different primary sites.
Melanoma video slides
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Cancer Staging
Cancer arises from changes in normal cells that cause them to grow uncontrollably and spread. The document discusses cancer staging using the TNM system to describe the size and spread of tumors (T), involvement of lymph nodes (N), and presence of metastases (M). Together this information is used to determine the stage of cancer and guide treatment planning and prognosis. Staging involves physical exams, biopsies, imaging tests and can vary depending on the cancer type.
MANAGEMENT OF BREAST CARCINOMA
1) The document discusses the management of breast cancer including surgical approaches such as mastectomy, radiotherapy, hormone therapy, and chemotherapy.
2) Surgical approaches range from conservative surgeries to radical mastectomies and include procedures such as lumpectomy, quadrantectomy, and total mastectomy.
3) Management depends on the stage of breast cancer and may involve a multi-pronged approach using combinations of surgery, radiotherapy, hormone therapy, and chemotherapy. Single modalities are generally not effective.
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In-service presentation for pharmacists regarding the common etiology and presentation of cancer as well as an overview of common cancer therapies.
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The document discusses survey results from clinical investigators and practicing oncologists on their use of adjuvant chemotherapy regimens for breast cancer patients. The most common regimens used were anthracycline-containing regimens like AC for node-negative patients and TAC for node-positive patients. More clinicians were using taxane-containing regimens like AC followed by paclitaxel or docetaxel-cyclophosphamide over time. Most were also aware of and using genomic assays like Oncotype DX or MammaPrint to guide treatment decisions.
Breast Cancer
What is breast cancer
types of breast cancer
risk factors associated with breast cancer
prevention
signs and symptoms
diagnosis
treatment
diagnosis of cancer
There are several methods used to diagnose cancer including radiological, cytological, histological, and molecular diagnoses. Radiological exams like x-rays, CT scans, MRIs are non-invasive methods to detect cancers early. Cytological diagnosis involves examining cells through fine needle aspiration of tumors. Histological diagnosis requires biopsying tissue via various methods to examine under a microscope. Molecular diagnosis and tumor markers in blood can also help detect cancers and minimal residual disease. Making an accurate cancer diagnosis often requires using multiple diagnostic methods and sometimes getting a second opinion.
Kidney
This document discusses cancers of the genitourinary system including kidney cancer, bladder cancer, prostate cancer and testicular cancer. It provides information on risk factors, staging systems and treatments for these cancers. The TNM staging system is described which evaluates the size of the tumor (T), involvement of lymph nodes (N) and presence of metastases (M). Stages are provided for kidney cancer (T1-T4), testicular cancer (I-IV), prostate cancer (T1-T4, N0-N1, M0-M1) and bladder cancer (Ta-T4, N0-N3, I-IV). Treatment options are mentioned which depend on the cancer type and stage.
malignant and benign tumors , the stages and grading of tumor , type of malig...
malignant and benign tumors , the stages and grading of tumor , type of malig...imam univarsity , college of medicine .
The document discusses various topics related to tumors and cancer in the colon:
1. It compares malignant and benign tumors, noting that malignant tumors are cancerous and can spread, while benign tumors are usually localized and non-cancerous.
2. It describes the TNM staging system for classifying tumor spread, including size, lymph node involvement, and presence of metastases.
3. It explains the progression from dysplasia to carcinoma, where dysplasia involves abnormal cell growth that has not invaded tissue or metastasized, and carcinoma refers to cancer that develops from epithelial cells.More Related Content
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Hormonal therapy in breast cancer
1) Around 60-70% of breast cancer patients have estrogen receptor positive tumors, making them candidates for hormonal therapy which has been shown to improve survival rates.
2) Tamoxifen is the standard adjuvant hormonal therapy and has been shown to reduce breast cancer recurrence rates by 24-43% and mortality by 14-23% depending on duration of therapy.
3) Aromatase inhibitors like letrozole and anastrazole are also used as adjuvant therapy and have been shown in trials to further reduce recurrence rates compared to tamoxifen alone.
Melanoma (malignant melanoma)
Melanoma
Cutaneous Melanoma
also known as malignant melanoma, is a type of cancer that develops from the pigment-containing cells known as melanocytes.
Classification Of Melanoma
I : De novo melanoma
A. Melanoma in situ (MIS)
B. Lentigo maligna melanoma (LMM)
C. Superficial spreading melanoma (SSM)
D. Nodular melanoma (NM)
E. Acral-lentiginous melanoma (ALM)
F. Melanoma of the mucous membranes
G. Desmoplastic melanoma
II Melanoma arising from precursors
Melanoma arising in dysplastic nevomelanocytic nevi
B. Melanoma arising in congenital nevomelanocytic nevi
C. Melanoma arising in common NMN
Etiology And Pathogenesis
The etiology and pathogenesis of cutaneous melanoma are unknown.
Epidemiologic studies demonstrate a role for genetic predisposition and sun exposure in melanoma development.
The major genes involved in melanoma development reside on chromosome 9p21.
Etiology
UVR, mostly of the UVB spectrum (290–320 nm) that induces mutations in suppressor genes. The propensity for multiple BCC may be inherited. Associated with mutations in the PTCH gene in many cases.
Predisposing Factors
Genetic markers (CDKN2a mutation)
Skin type I/II
Family history of dysplastic nevi or melanoma
Personal history of melanoma
Ultraviolet irradiation, particularly sunburns during childhood and intermittent burning exposures
Number (>50) and size (>5 mm) of melanocytic nevi
Congenital nevi
Number of dysplastic nevi (>5)
Dysplastic melanocytic nevus syndrome
Immune suppression (debatable)
Number (>50) and size (>5 mm) of melanocytic nevi
Congenital nevi
Number of dysplastic nevi (>5)
Dysplastic melanocytic nevus syndrome
Immune suppression (debatable)
Six Signs of Malignant Melanoma (ABCDE Rule):
A- Asymmetry in shape—one-half unlike the other half.
B- Border is irregular—edges irregularly scalloped, notched, sharply defined.
C- Color is not uniform; mottled—haphazard display of colors; all shades of brown, black, gray, red, and white.
D- Diameter is usually large.
E- Elevation is almost always present and is irregular—surface distortion is assessed by side-lighting. others use E for Enlargement— a history of an increase in the size of lesion is one of the most important signs of malignant melanoma.
Lentigo Maligna Melanoma (LMM)
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This document provides information on head and neck cancer including:
1. It describes the anatomy of the head and neck region including lymph nodes and locations of salivary glands.
2. It discusses imaging techniques like CT and PET scans which are used to detect and stage head and neck cancers.
3. It outlines the AJCC TNM staging system for various head and neck cancers and describes how the cancer can spread from different primary sites.
Melanoma video slides
Malignant melanoma begins in melanocytes in the epidermis and is becoming more common, rising 3% per year. It accounts for about 2-4% of skin cancers. Risk factors include sun exposure and fair skin. Early stage melanoma is treated with wide local excision, while more advanced cases may also require sentinel node biopsy. Treatment of metastatic melanoma has advanced significantly with targeted therapies blocking oncogenic pathways like BRAF and immunotherapies disrupting checkpoints like CTLA-4. Long term survival depends on factors like depth of invasion and ulceration.
Metastatic breast cancer..
This document summarizes treatment guidelines for metastatic breast cancer. It discusses supportive therapy for bone metastases including bisphosphonates and denosumab to prevent skeletal complications. For endocrine therapy, aromatase inhibitors and fulvestrant are recommended for hormone receptor positive disease. Chemotherapy options include anthracyclines, taxanes, and capecitabine. For HER2-positive cancer, trastuzumab with pertuzumab and taxanes is preferred initially, with T-DM1 for subsequent lines. Local therapy to the primary tumor does not improve survival outcomes.
Esophagus cancer
This document summarizes key information about cancer of the esophagus. It notes that in 2014 there were 18,170 new esophagus cancer cases in the US, with a lifetime risk of 0.5% and 5-year survival rate of 17.5%. Risk factors include tobacco, alcohol, Barrett's esophagus, obesity, and gastroesophageal reflux disease. The two main types are squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma, with adenocarcinoma now more common due to rising obesity rates. Staging involves assessing tumor depth (T), lymph node involvement (N), and metastases (M). Survival rates vary significantly based on cancer type, stage, and treatment received.
Central nervous system tumors in children
Central nervous system tumors are the second most common type of cancer in children. 20-25% of childhood cancers are CNS tumors. The most common types are astrocytic tumors such as pilocytic astrocytoma and medulloblastoma. Medulloblastoma is an embryonal tumor that occurs most often in the cerebellum and has a high risk of spreading through the cerebrospinal fluid. Treatment involves maximal surgical resection followed by craniospinal radiation therapy and chemotherapy, with doses and regimens varying based on risk factors like age and extent of resection. Treatment planning for craniospinal irradiation aims to deliver a uniform dose to the entire target volume while minimizing risks of under-
aetiology,pathology & clinical features of breast cancer
Breast cancer arises from the epithelial cells of the ducts or lobules of the breast. Ductal carcinoma accounts for 85-90% of cases and arises from the ducts, while lobular carcinoma arises from the lobules. The main risk factors include age, family history, genetic factors, reproductive history, and benign breast conditions. Clinically, breast cancer may present as a painless lump, nipple discharge or retraction, skin or nipple changes, or metastatic signs. Pathologically, ductal carcinoma can be in situ, invasive, or inflammatory, and lobular carcinoma also has in situ and invasive types.
Cancer Staging
Cancer arises from changes in normal cells that cause them to grow uncontrollably and spread. The document discusses cancer staging using the TNM system to describe the size and spread of tumors (T), involvement of lymph nodes (N), and presence of metastases (M). Together this information is used to determine the stage of cancer and guide treatment planning and prognosis. Staging involves physical exams, biopsies, imaging tests and can vary depending on the cancer type.
MANAGEMENT OF BREAST CARCINOMA
1) The document discusses the management of breast cancer including surgical approaches such as mastectomy, radiotherapy, hormone therapy, and chemotherapy.
2) Surgical approaches range from conservative surgeries to radical mastectomies and include procedures such as lumpectomy, quadrantectomy, and total mastectomy.
3) Management depends on the stage of breast cancer and may involve a multi-pronged approach using combinations of surgery, radiotherapy, hormone therapy, and chemotherapy. Single modalities are generally not effective.
Non hodgkins lymphoma
This document provides an overview of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, including its history, statistics, biology, classification and staging, symptoms, causes and risk factors, diagnosis, and treatment. Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma is cancer of the lymphatic system that begins in the lymphocytes and can spread throughout the body. It is the sixth and seventh most common cancer in men and women respectively, with over 54,000 new cases and 19,000 deaths estimated in 2004 in the United States. Diagnosis involves imaging tests and biopsy, while treatment options include chemotherapy, radiation, bone marrow transplantation, surgery, immunotherapy, and targeted therapies.
Head and Neck Cancer
Head and neck cancer refers to cancers that develop in the throat, mouth, sinuses, and lymph nodes in the neck. The most common type is squamous cell carcinoma, which arises in the lining of the mouth, nose and throat. Staging involves determining if the cancer is localized, regional (spread to lymph nodes), or distant (metastasized). Treatment depends on the stage and location but may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and rehabilitation. Regular follow-up is important after treatment to monitor for recurrence or new cancers.
Carcinoma buccal mucosa
This document provides information about carcinoma of the buccal mucosa, including its anatomy, clinical presentation, diagnostic workup, staging, treatment approaches, and outcomes. Carcinoma of the buccal mucosa commonly presents as an ulcerative or exophytic lesion in the cheek, and risk factors include tobacco and betel nut use. Treatment involves surgery such as wide local excision with or without neck dissection, and postoperative radiotherapy may be used for advanced cases. Radiotherapy alone can also be used for early-stage lesions. The document reviews surgical, radiation, and chemotherapy approaches in detail.
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In-service presentation for pharmacists regarding the common etiology and presentation of cancer as well as an overview of common cancer therapies.
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A paraneoplastic syndrome is a disease or symptom that is caused by cancer but is not due to direct involvement of cancer cells. They occur in 10-15% of cancer patients and are typically seen in lung, breast, ovarian, and lymphoma cancers. Paraneoplastic syndromes can be endocrine, neurological, mucocutaneous, or hematological in nature. Common endocrine paraneoplastic syndromes include Cushing syndrome, SIADH, hypercalcemia, hypoglycemia, polycythemia, hyperaldosteronism, and carcinoid syndrome, which result from hormones or cytokines secreted by tumor cells.
Breast Adjuvant Chemotherapy
The document discusses survey results from clinical investigators and practicing oncologists on their use of adjuvant chemotherapy regimens for breast cancer patients. The most common regimens used were anthracycline-containing regimens like AC for node-negative patients and TAC for node-positive patients. More clinicians were using taxane-containing regimens like AC followed by paclitaxel or docetaxel-cyclophosphamide over time. Most were also aware of and using genomic assays like Oncotype DX or MammaPrint to guide treatment decisions.
Breast Cancer
What is breast cancer
types of breast cancer
risk factors associated with breast cancer
prevention
signs and symptoms
diagnosis
treatment
diagnosis of cancer
There are several methods used to diagnose cancer including radiological, cytological, histological, and molecular diagnoses. Radiological exams like x-rays, CT scans, MRIs are non-invasive methods to detect cancers early. Cytological diagnosis involves examining cells through fine needle aspiration of tumors. Histological diagnosis requires biopsying tissue via various methods to examine under a microscope. Molecular diagnosis and tumor markers in blood can also help detect cancers and minimal residual disease. Making an accurate cancer diagnosis often requires using multiple diagnostic methods and sometimes getting a second opinion.
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aetiology,pathology & clinical features of breast cancer
aetiology,pathology & clinical features of breast cancer
Similar to Cancer staging
Kidney
This document discusses cancers of the genitourinary system including kidney cancer, bladder cancer, prostate cancer and testicular cancer. It provides information on risk factors, staging systems and treatments for these cancers. The TNM staging system is described which evaluates the size of the tumor (T), involvement of lymph nodes (N) and presence of metastases (M). Stages are provided for kidney cancer (T1-T4), testicular cancer (I-IV), prostate cancer (T1-T4, N0-N1, M0-M1) and bladder cancer (Ta-T4, N0-N3, I-IV). Treatment options are mentioned which depend on the cancer type and stage.
malignant and benign tumors , the stages and grading of tumor , type of malig...
malignant and benign tumors , the stages and grading of tumor , type of malig...imam univarsity , college of medicine .
The document discusses various topics related to tumors and cancer in the colon:
1. It compares malignant and benign tumors, noting that malignant tumors are cancerous and can spread, while benign tumors are usually localized and non-cancerous.
2. It describes the TNM staging system for classifying tumor spread, including size, lymph node involvement, and presence of metastases.
3. It explains the progression from dysplasia to carcinoma, where dysplasia involves abnormal cell growth that has not invaded tissue or metastasized, and carcinoma refers to cancer that develops from epithelial cells.tnmstagingoftumor-220322164305.pptx
The document discusses the TNM classification system for staging tumors. It defines tumors as benign or malignant growths and explains that staging is used to describe how much a cancer has grown and spread. The TNM system stages cancers based on the Tumor size and extent (T), involvement of Regional Lymph Nodes (N), and presence of Distant Metastasis (M). Together, the TNM factors determine the overall stage of the cancer from 0 to IV. The document also discusses grading of tumors based on histopathological characteristics.
TNM Staging of tumor
1. The document discusses the TNM classification system for staging tumors, which evaluates the size of the primary tumor (T), whether the cancer has spread to regional lymph nodes (N), and the presence of distant metastasis (M).
2. Staging provides information on cancer prognosis and treatment by assessing how far the cancer has progressed. The TNM system is overseen by organizations like the International Union Against Cancer and the American Joint Committee on Cancer.
3. In addition to staging, tumors are also graded based on their histopathological characteristics like differentiation and growth rate, with higher grades indicating faster growth and worse prognosis. Grading provides additional details beyond tumor staging.
Cancer vaccines
A cancer vaccine is a vaccine, that either treats existing cancer or prevents development of a cancer. Vaccines that treat existing cancer are known as therapeutic cancer vaccines.
Cancer vaccines
Cancer vaccines aim to teach the immune system to recognize and destroy cancer cells. There are several types of cancer vaccines being studied including dendritic cell vaccines, antigen vaccines, anti-idiotype vaccines, DNA vaccines, and tumor cell vaccines. These vaccines target various cancers like prostate, melanoma, breast, lung, colorectal, leukemia, kidney and more. If successful, cancer vaccines could open up a new approach in fighting cancer by boosting the body's natural defenses.
TNM staging system.pptx
The TNM staging system describes the extent of cancer in a patient's body using TNM classifications. T describes the size and spread of the primary tumor, N describes spread to nearby lymph nodes, and M describes metastasis or spread to other organs. Higher numbers in each category indicate larger tumors, involvement of more lymph nodes, or greater metastasis. Together, the TNM classifications are used to assign an overall stage from 0 to IV, with higher stages indicating more advanced or widespread cancer.
big-C.pdf for lungs and colon cancer only
Cancer is caused by abnormal cell growth and can affect many organs like the colon and lungs. Symptoms and treatment options vary depending on the type and stage of cancer, with early stage cancers often treated with surgery while more advanced cancers may require chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or palliative care. Caregivers play an important role in supporting cancer patients through their treatment and managing side effects that can impact daily life.
big-C.pdf power for colon and lung cancer presentation
Cancer is caused by abnormal cell growth and can affect many organs like the colon and lungs. Symptoms and treatment options vary depending on the type and stage of cancer, with early stage cancers often treated with surgery while more advanced cancers may require chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or palliative care. Caregivers play an important role in supporting cancer patients through their treatment and managing side effects.
Tumor immunology.pptx
Tumor immunology is the study of:
- The host immune response to tumor cells in the body
- The immune system's ability to recognize and promote the eradication of tumor cells
- Mechanisms by which tumors evade the immune system and immunotherapy approaches to target tumors
ANTICANCER.ppt
Cancer chemotherapy and treatment involves several methods. Chemotherapy uses drugs to prevent or treat cancer by killing cancer cells. Common chemotherapies include fluorouracil, capecitabine, and cytarabine which are pyrimidine analogues that interfere with DNA synthesis in cancer cells. These drugs have similar mechanisms of action but different routes of administration and toxicity profiles. Combination chemotherapy uses multiple agents to increase effectiveness while reducing resistance. Careful dosing and administration is needed due to the narrow therapeutic index of chemotherapy drugs.
Testicular cancer
Testicular cancer, or cancer of the testes, occurs in the testicles (testes), inside the scrotum. The scrotum is a loose bag of skin under the penis. Male sex hormones, testosterone, and sperm for reproduction are produced in the testicles. The testicles are a pair of male sex glands, also known as gonads.
Testosterone controls the development of the reproductive organs, and other male physical characteristics.
Prostate cancer
early detection helps ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Principles of oncology
Principles of Oncology discusses the study, diagnosis, and treatment of tumors (neoplasms). It defines key terms like benign and malignant, carcinomas and sarcomas, and describes methods of examining and categorizing tumors microscopically and visually. Imaging, biopsies, and tumor markers are used to diagnose cancers before discussing common treatment techniques like surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and immunotherapy.
MALIGNANT TUMOR.pptx
Malignant tumor their diagnosis, treatment, risk factors, grading, staging, treatments.
Brief information about all type of surgeries for the treatment of malignant tumor. useful for medical student for the subject - general surgery.
Management of Oral Cancer.pptx
This document discusses the management of oral cancer including clinical staging, diagnostic methods, treatment options, prognosis, and prevention. It provides detailed information on tumor staging using the TNM system and stage grouping. Diagnostic methods covered include biopsy techniques, toluidine blue staining, cytology, and various imaging modalities. Treatment options discussed are analgesics, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, surgery, and management of complications from cancer therapy.
Presentation of diagnosis related to cancer by heena
A bone marrow biopsy and aspiration uses needles to collect bone marrow samples from the hip or breastbone. The samples are examined under a microscope to check for abnormalities in the production of blood cells which can indicate cancers like leukemia. A fine needle aspiration uses thin needles to collect fluid and cell samples from suspicious areas in the body, like lumps or enlarged lymph nodes, for cytological examination. Together with other tests, cytology can help diagnose whether cancer is present and identify its type.
cervical cancer.pptx
Cervical cancer develops slowly over time and is usually caused by HPV infection. It begins in the cervix and can spread to other nearby tissues and organs. Early stage cancers are often asymptomatic while later stages may cause abnormal bleeding or discharge. Diagnosis involves pap smears, biopsies, and imaging tests. Treatment depends on the stage but may include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, or a combination. Adopting safe sex practices, getting the HPV vaccine, and undergoing regular pap smears can help prevent cervical cancer.
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malignant and benign tumors , the stages and grading of tumor , type of malig...
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big-C.pdf power for colon and lung cancer presentation
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Presentation of diagnosis related to cancer by heena
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Biodiversity of pakistan
Pakistan has high biodiversity due to its varied landscapes including mountains and forests. It is home to over 7% of the world's plant species as well as many endemic animal species. However, biodiversity is under threat from deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, salinity, waterlogging, and hunting. The government has established protected areas covering 11.4% of the country and enacted legislation to promote conservation. NGOs also support measures to protect Pakistan's biodiversity and ensure sustainable use of natural resources.
Antibacterial & anticoagulant activity of seed extract of aesculus indica
Antibacterial & anticoagulant activity of seed extract of aesculus indicaMirpur University of Science and Technology, Mirpur AJK
This document summarizes research on the antibacterial and anticoagulant activity of seed extracts of Aesculus indica. The study found that methanol extracts of A. indica seeds showed antibacterial effects against four bacterial strains, including Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus, in disc diffusion assays. Extracts also demonstrated significant anticoagulant activity in prolonging prothrombin time in a dose-dependent manner compared to controls. Overall, the research concluded the seed extracts have potential medicinal value as antibacterials and anticoagulants, warranting further investigation.Vitamins and its classifications
This document provides an overview of vitamins, including their classification and sources. It discusses fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K and water-soluble vitamins including the B vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, etc.) and vitamin C. Each vitamin is defined and its role, deficiency symptoms, toxicity risks, and major food sources are outlined. The document categorizes vitamins based on whether they are fat-soluble and can accumulate in the body or water-soluble and excreted in urine.
Ethical issues of genetic engineering
This document discusses the ethical issues related to genetic engineering in agriculture. It describes how genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are used in agriculture by modifying plant DNA to introduce new traits. Some key ethical issues discussed are the unpredictability of introducing GMOs into ecosystems, concerns over biopiracy by multinational companies, potential damage to the environment from GM crop production, and risks to the food web from pesticides or herbicides harming other organisms.
Pandoraviruse Salinus
Pandoravirus salinus is the largest known virus discovered to date, measuring 1 μm long and 0.5 μm across. It was discovered by researchers in France and has a genome of over 2.5 megabases containing 2556 genes, only 7% of which match existing databases. Pandoravirus salinus belongs to the group of dsDNA viruses and the family Pandoraviridae. It replicates within 10-15 hours in its amoeba host cell through a lytic life cycle, assembling new virions in cytoplasmic factories before cell lysis.
Wildlife of pakistan threat and consservation
Wildlife of pakistan threat and consservationMirpur University of Science and Technology, Mirpur AJK
The document discusses wildlife and conservation efforts in Pakistan. It provides information on the types of wildlife found in Pakistan, including 188 mammal species and 666 bird species. It then outlines several major threats facing Pakistani wildlife, such as habitat loss due to deforestation, agriculture, and urban growth. The document also describes Pakistan's national parks system and the 21 national parks established to protect the country's biodiversity and wildlife. It emphasizes that conservation is important to preserve Pakistan's biological heritage for future generations.‘Poliomyeliti’ or Polio
Poliomyelitis, commonly called polio, is caused by the poliovirus. It spreads through fecal-oral transmission and can cause paralysis in rare cases. Children under 5 are most at risk. While outbreaks were once common, vaccination efforts have led to polio being eradicated in most countries. Both inactivated and live attenuated polio vaccines provide effective immunity, though the live version has advantages of lower cost and stronger intestinal immunity. With continued vaccination, polio can be eliminated worldwide.
Biodiversity in pakistan
This document discusses biodiversity and its importance. It defines biodiversity as the variety of life on Earth, and notes that it is the result of 3.5 billion years of evolution. It then covers topics like the levels of biodiversity (genetic, species, ecosystem), tools to measure biodiversity, the current status and decline of biodiversity, threats to biodiversity like habitat loss and climate change, and ways to prevent further biodiversity loss through research, legislation, education and sustainable practices. The conclusion emphasizes that conserving biodiversity and the environment is important for human survival.
Bio piracy and bio prospecting farmers rights and plant breeder rights biodiv...
Bio piracy and bio prospecting farmers rights and plant breeder rights biodiv...Mirpur University of Science and Technology, Mirpur AJK
1. Biopiracy refers to the unauthorized commercial use of genetic resources and traditional knowledge. It occurs when biological material or traditional knowledge is collected without permission from the indigenous community and then patented.
2. Farmers' rights and plant breeders' rights aim to protect the contributions of farmers and plant breeders. Farmers' rights recognize the role of farmers in conserving biodiversity, while plant breeders' rights provide legal protection for new plant varieties.
3. Biopiracy can negatively impact biodiversity and food security by altering the environment and reducing genetic diversity. The loss of biodiversity also means a loss of future options.Challenges faced in gene therapy
Gene therapy involves introducing normal genes into cells to replace missing or defective genes and correct genetic disorders. There are two main types of gene therapy: somatic cell therapy and germline therapy. The document discusses four main challenges of gene therapy: 1) delivering genes to the right tissues and cells and ensuring gene activation, 2) immune responses against foreign genes, 3) disrupting important genes in target cells, and 4) the commercial viability of treating rare genetic disorders given the high costs of clinical trials.
Immunology roll no 26 (1)
There are three main types of transplant rejection: hyperacute rejection, acute rejection, and chronic rejection. Hyperacute rejection occurs within minutes when the recipient has pre-existing antibodies against the donor tissue. Acute rejection normally happens days to weeks after transplantation and is triggered by donor dendritic cells. Chronic rejection presents as blood vessel occlusion in vascularized organs and eventually leads to organ ischemia. The major prevention methods are donor-recipient antigen matching and immunosuppressive drug regimens that block the immune response.
Structure & types of rna
RNA has several important functions and types. It has a similar structure to DNA but contains ribose rather than deoxyribose. The four main types of RNA are messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and catalytic RNA. mRNA carries protein instructions from DNA to ribosomes. tRNA transfers amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis. rRNA is the main component of ribosomes and helps in protein synthesis. RNA can also function as an enzyme.
Asthma
Asthma is a chronic inflammatory airway disease characterized by recurrent wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness and coughing due to narrowing of the bronchioles. There are different types of asthma including allergic, non-allergic, cough variant, occupational, exercise-induced, and medication-induced asthma. Diagnosis involves assessing symptoms, conducting pulmonary function tests like spirometry and peak flow measurements, and allergy testing to identify triggers.
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3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
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3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
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Cancer staging
- 1. CANCER STAGING SYED DAWOOD SHAH slamic International University (IIUI), Islamabad
- 2. WHAT CANCER STAGING IS? • Staging is a way of describing the size of a cancer and how far it has grown. When doctors first diagnose a cancer, they carry out tests to check how big the cancer is and whether it has spread into surrounding tissues. They also check to see whether it has spread to other parts of the body. • Cancer staging may sometimes include the grading of the cancer. This describes how similar a cancer cell is to a normal cell
- 3. WHY STAGING IS IMPORTANT? • Staging is important because it helps your treatment team to know which treatments you need. • Doctors may recommend a local treatment, such as surgery or radiotherapy, if your cancer is just in one place. This could be enough to get rid of the cancer completely. A local treatment treats only an area of the body.
- 4. WHY STAGING IS IMPORTANT? • But you may need treatment that circulates throughout the whole body if your cancer has spread. These are called systemic treatments and include: • chemotherapy • hormone therapy • targeted cancer drugs • You can read more about the different types of cancer treatment.
- 5. TYPES OF STAGING SYSTEMS • There are 2 main types of staging systems for cancer. These are the TNM system and the number system. • The systems mean that: • Doctors have a common language to describe the size and spread of cancers • Treatment results can be accurately compared between research studies • Different hospitals and clinics have standard treatment guidelines • Some blood cancers or lymph system cancers have their own staging systems.
- 6. THE TNM STAGING SYSTEM • TNM stands for Tumour, Node, Metastasis. This system describes the size of the initial cancer (the primary tumour), whether the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes, and whether it has spread to a different part of the body (metastasised). The system uses letters and numbers to describe the cancer
- 7. THE TNM STAGING SYSTEM • T refers to the size of the cancer and how far it has spread into nearby tissue – it can be 1, 2, 3 or 4, with 1 being small and 4 large • N refers to whether the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes – it can be between 0 (no lymph nodes containing cancer cells) and 3 (lots of lymph nodes containing cancer cells) • M refers to whether the cancer has spread to another part of the body – it can either be 0 (the cancer hasn't spread) or 1 (the cancer has spread)
- 8. NUMBER STAGING SYSTEMS • Number staging systems usually use the TNM system to divide cancers into stages. Most types of cancer have 4 stages, numbered from 1 to 4. Often doctors write the stage down in Roman numerals. So you may see stage 4 written down as stage IV. • Stage 1 usually means that a cancer is relatively small and contained within the organ it started in • Stage 2 usually means that the tumour is larger than in stage 1, but the cancer has not started to spread into the surrounding tissues. Sometimes stage 2 means that cancer cells have spread into lymph nodes close to the tumour. This depends on the particular type of cancer
- 9. NUMBER STAGING SYSTEMS…. • Stage 3 usually means the cancer is larger. It may have started to spread into surrounding tissues and there are cancer cells in the lymph nodes in the area • Stage 4 means the cancer has spread from where it started to another body organ. This is also called secondary or metastatic cancer
- 10. RELATED INFORMATION • I have collected all data from Cancer.Net Editorial Board and Cancer Research UK. • You can read more from given links: • Cancer grading • Cancer treatments • Specific staging systems for different types of cancer