1. Heat and work are two modes of energy transfer that can change a system's state; equilibrium is required for thermodynamic equations relating properties to be valid. 2. Heat is energy transferred due to temperature differences across boundaries; the amount of heat needed to change states depends on the process path. 3. The Zeroth Law defines temperature as a property such that equal temperatures between objects or systems indicates thermal equilibrium.

1. 1.3 Changing the State of a System with Heat
and Work
Changes in the state of a system are produced by interactions with the
environment through heat and work, which are two different modes of
energy transfer. During these interactions, equilibrium (a static or quasi-static
process) is necessary for the equations that relate system properties to one-
another to be valid.
1.3.1 Heat
Heat is energy transferred due to temperature
differences only.
1. Heat transfer can alter system states;
2. Bodies don't ``contain'' heat; heat is
identified as it comes across system
boundaries;
3. The amount of heat needed to go from one
state to another is path dependent;
4. Adiabatic processes are ones in which no
heat is transferred.

2. 1.3.2 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Zeroth Law: There exists for every thermodynamic system in
equilibrium a property called temperature. Equality of temperature is
a necessary and sufficient condition for thermal equilibrium.
The Zeroth Law thus defines a property (temperature) and
describes its behavior.
Note that this law is true regardless of how we
measure the property temperature. (Other
relationships we work with will typically
require an absolute scale, so in these notes we
use either the Kelvin
or Rankine
The zeroth law is depicted schematically in
Figure 1.8.

3. Figure 1.8: The zeroth law schematically

4. 1.3.3 Work
Section 1.3.1 stated that heat is a way of changing the energy of a
system by virtue of a temperature difference only. Any other
means for changing the energy of a system is called work. We can
have push-pull work (e.g. in a piston-cylinder, lifting a weight),
electric and magnetic work (e.g. an electric motor), chemical work,
surface tension work, elastic work, etc. In defining work, we focus
on the effects that the system (e.g. an engine) has on its
surroundings. Thus we define work as being positive when the
system does work on the surroundings (energy leaves the system).
If work is done on the system (energy added to the system), the
work is negative.
Consider a simple compressible substance, for
example, a gas (the system), exerting a force
on the surroundings via a piston, which moves
through some distance The work done
on the surroundings, is

5. therefore
Why is the pressure instead of ? Consider (vacuum).
No work is done on the surroundings even though changes and the system volume
changes.

6. Consider
Therefore, when is small (the process is quasi-static),
Therefore, when is small (the process is quasi-static),
and the work done by the system is the same as the
work done on the surroundings.

7. Under these conditions, we say that the process
is ``reversible.'' The conditions for reversibility
are that:
1. If the process is reversed, the system and the surroundings will be
returned to the original states.
2. To reverse the process we need to apply only an infinitesimal .
A reversible process can be altered in direction by infinitesimal changes
in the external conditions
Remember this result, that we can only relate work done on surroundings to
system pressure for quasi-static (or reversible) processes. In the case of a ``free
expansion,'‘ where
(vacuum), is not related to (and thus, not related to the work) because the
system is not in equilibrium

8. 1.3.4 Work vs. Heat - which is which?
We can have one, the other, or both: it depends on what
crosses the system boundary (and thus, on how we define our
system). For example consider a resistor that is heating a
volume of water (Figure 1.14):
Figure 1.14: A resistor heating water
1. If the water is the system, then the
state of the system will be changed by heat
transferred from the resistor.
2. If the system is the water and the
resistor combined, then the state of the system
will be changed by electrical work.

9. 2.1 First Law of Thermodynamics
There exists for every system a property called energy, . The system
energy can be considered as a sum of internal energy, kinetic energy,
potential energy, and chemical energy.
1.Like the Zeroth Law, which defined a useful property, ``temperature,'' the
First Law defines a useful property called ``energy.''
2.The two new terms (compared to what you have seen in physics and
dynamics, for example) are the internal energy and the chemical energy.
For most situations in this class, we will neglect the chemical energy. We
will generally not, however, neglect the internal energy, . It arises from the
random or disorganized motion of molecules in the system, as shown in
Figure 2.1. Since this molecular motion is primarily a function of
temperature, the internal energy is sometimes called ``thermal energy.''
Figure 2.1: Random motion is the physical basis for internal energy

10. The internal energy, , is a function of the state of the system. Thus