Basiceconomicproblems
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The three basic economic problems are: (1) what goods to produce and in what quantities, (2) how to produce the goods, and (3) who receives the goods. These problems arise due to scarcity of resources and unlimited human wants. An economy achieves static efficiency by solving all three problems efficiently at once, while dynamic efficiency is achieved by optimally solving the problems over the long run.
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3) Gay-Lussac's law states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature if volume remains constant.
4) The general gas law combines Boyle's, Charles', and Gay-Lussac's laws to relate the pressure, volume, temperature, and amount of gas in a system.
Chemicalcombinationsmoles,molecularandempirical
1) The document discusses concepts related to chemistry including relative atomic mass, relative molecular mass, moles, and empirical and molecular formulae.
2) It provides examples of calculating relative atomic mass, relative molecular mass, moles, percentage composition by mass, and determining empirical and molecular formulae.
3) Key formulas and concepts covered include using the atomic masses of elements to determine relative atomic mass and molecular mass, the definition of a mole in relation to Avogadro's number, and methods for calculating the number of moles and atoms in a sample.
Chemicalcombinationsbalancingchemeqns
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Separationof mixtures andpurification of chemicalsubstances
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Work,energyandpower
Work is done when a force moves an object through a distance in the direction of the force. Work (W) is equal to the product of the force (F) and distance (s) moved, or W=Fxs. Energy is the capacity to do work and is also measured in joules. The principle of conservation of energy states that in a closed system, the total amount of energy remains constant. Power is the time rate of doing work and is measured in watts. Power is equal to work done divided by the time taken, or W/t.
WavesPREPWALK
A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy through a medium without displacing the medium. There are two types of waves: transverse waves, where the direction of vibration is perpendicular to the direction of travel, and longitudinal waves, where the direction of vibration is parallel. The amplitude of a wave is its maximum displacement from the mean position. Important wave properties include speed, frequency, wavelength, and the equation that describes a traveling wave using variables like amplitude, angular velocity, time, and position. Waves can be progressive, traveling in one direction, or stationary, formed by the combination of two progressive waves traveling in opposite directions. Key wave properties include reflection, refraction, diffraction, polarization, and interference.
Unitsandmeasurements
This document discusses the International System of Units (SI) used to measure physical quantities. It defines fundamental units like length, time and temperature, and derived units obtained by combining fundamental units, like volume. Multiples and submultiples are used to modify units. Dimensional analysis determines if equations are dimensionally correct by examining the dimensions of each term. Various instruments are described for measuring length, time, mass and weight at different scales, including vernier calipers, micrometer screws, stopwatches, balances and more. The key difference between mass and weight is also noted.
Thermalexpansion
Thermal expansion describes how the size of materials changes with increasing temperature. There are three main types of thermal expansion:
1. Linear expansion is the increase in length per unit length for each degree rise in temperature.
2. Area expansion can be calculated from linear expansion.
3. Volume expansion also relates to linear expansion, with volume expansion being three times the linear expansion rate.
Water is an anomaly as it contracts in volume from 0 to 4 degrees C before expanding normally at higher temperatures.
Temperatureanditsmeasurement
This document discusses temperature and its measurement. It defines temperature as a measure of hotness or coldness, while heat is a form of energy that can transfer between bodies with different temperatures. There are several types of thermometers discussed for measuring temperature, including mercury-in-glass, gas, thermoelectric, and resistance thermometers. Gas and resistance thermometers provide the widest measurement ranges, from -270°C to 1500°C and -180°C to 1520°C respectively. The document also provides examples of converting between Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin temperature scales.
Soundwaves
This document summarizes key concepts about sound waves, including:
- The speed of sound varies in different mediums, such as 332 m/s in air, 1500 m/s in water, and up to 500 m/s in steel.
- The Doppler effect describes the change in frequency or pitch of a sound wave emitted by a moving source as it approaches or moves away from an observer.
- For vibrations in closed and open pipes, the fundamental frequency and harmonic frequencies are determined by the length of the pipe based on quarter, half, and three-quarter wave patterns.
- The velocity of a wave propagated along a fixed medium like a string or wire depends on the square root of
Simpleharmonicmotion
This document discusses simple harmonic motion and provides useful formulas. It explains that the period of a simple pendulum is calculated as T = 2π√l/g, where T is the period, l is the length of the pendulum, and g is the acceleration due to gravity. For an elastic spring undergoing simple harmonic motion, the total energy is calculated as the kinetic energy (1/2mv^2) plus the potential energy (1/2kx^2), where k is the spring constant. The document also states that the total energy is equal to the maximum potential energy when the kinetic energy is zero, and equal to the maximum kinetic energy when the potential energy is zero.
Refractionoflight onplanesurfacescurved
This document discusses refraction of light through plane and curved surfaces as well as glass prisms. It defines refractive index as the ratio of the speed of light in one medium to the speed in another. Snell's law states that the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant, known as the refractive index, depending on the optical densities of the two media. Total internal reflection occurs when light passes from a denser to a less dense medium and the incident angle exceeds the critical angle.
Reflection of light at plane or curved surfaces
This document discusses the reflection of light at plane and curved surfaces. It covers the laws of reflection, the formation of images in plane mirrors, reflection using inclined and curved mirrors, and mirror formulas. The two laws of reflection are that the incident ray, reflected ray, and normal all lie in the same plane, and that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Images in plane mirrors are virtual, upright, and laterally inverted with the same size and distance behind the mirror as the object is in front. Reflection by curved mirrors depends on whether the mirror is convex or concave, with concave mirrors forming real images and convex mirrors forming virtual images.
Projectiles
This document defines a projectile as an object launched into the air under the influence of gravity and air resistance. It describes useful parameters for projectiles like time of flight, maximum height, and range. Formulas are provided for calculating time to maximum height, maximum height, range, and maximum range based on the initial velocity, angle of projection, and gravitational acceleration. The document also explains how to resolve projectile motion into horizontal and vertical components.
Pressure
Pressure is defined as force per unit area. Pressure in liquids is determined by the density of the liquid, height of the liquid column, and acceleration due to gravity. According to Pascal's principle, pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished throughout the fluid and to the walls of its container. Atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of the air above the earth's surface and decreases with increasing altitude. Simple devices like mercury barometers and aneroid barometers can be used to measure atmospheric pressure.
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