Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen throughout the body. It binds to oxygen in the lungs and transports it to tissues and organs via the bloodstream. This transport of oxygen through chemical bonding of hemoglobin molecules is essential for cellular respiration. Issues like low oxygen levels at high altitudes like Mount Everest as well as pH changes can impact hemoglobin's ability to carry oxygen. Blood doping artificially boosts red blood cell counts through practices like autologous blood transfusions or injections of EPO to increase oxygen transport capacity, but it has significant health risks and is banned in competitive sports.
The document discusses water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance in the human body. It covers the distribution of body fluids between intracellular and extracellular compartments, the intake and output of water and electrolytes, and the mechanisms that regulate fluid balance and electrolyte concentrations. It also addresses acid-base balance and the buffer systems, respiration, and kidneys that help regulate hydrogen ion concentrations in the body.
Blood performs three major functions: transport, defense against infection, and homeostasis. It transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, hormones, and more. White blood cells defend the body against infections and foreign materials. Blood also regulates temperature, water and salt balance, acid-base balance, and forms blood clots. Red blood cells are responsible for oxygen and carbon dioxide transport via hemoglobin, which contains iron and can bind oxygen. Plasma contains proteins like albumins and globulins.
Blood is the only fluid tissue in the human body. It is composed of plasma and formed elements, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells carry oxygen through hemoglobin and lack a nucleus. White blood cells help defend the body against disease. Platelets are involved in clotting to stop blood loss from damaged blood vessels. The bone marrow produces blood cells through hematopoiesis. Clotting factors in the blood allow hemostasis to stop bleeding from broken blood vessels. Certain disorders can cause undesirable clotting or bleeding.
Blood transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, carbon dioxide, and waste throughout the body. It regulates pH and temperature, and protects the body through white blood cells and clotting. Blood is composed of plasma, which is 90% water and contains proteins, electrolytes, nutrients, gases, and waste. Formed elements in blood include red blood cells that carry oxygen, platelets that aid clotting, and white blood cells that protect against disease.
Major intra and extra cellular electrolyteskalyaniGopale1
This document discusses the major intracellular and extracellular electrolytes in the body. It begins by defining electrolytes as ions that dissociate in body fluids. The main electrolytes discussed are sodium, calcium, chloride, potassium, magnesium, sulfate, bicarbonate, and phosphate. For each electrolyte, the normal levels, locations, and functions in the body are described. Potential deficiencies or excesses of each electrolyte are also summarized, along with their symptoms and treatment.
Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen throughout the body. It binds to oxygen in the lungs and transports it to tissues and organs via the bloodstream. This transport of oxygen through chemical bonding of hemoglobin molecules is essential for cellular respiration. Issues like low oxygen levels at high altitudes like Mount Everest as well as pH changes can impact hemoglobin's ability to carry oxygen. Blood doping artificially boosts red blood cell counts through practices like autologous blood transfusions or injections of EPO to increase oxygen transport capacity, but it has significant health risks and is banned in competitive sports.
The document discusses water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance in the human body. It covers the distribution of body fluids between intracellular and extracellular compartments, the intake and output of water and electrolytes, and the mechanisms that regulate fluid balance and electrolyte concentrations. It also addresses acid-base balance and the buffer systems, respiration, and kidneys that help regulate hydrogen ion concentrations in the body.
Blood performs three major functions: transport, defense against infection, and homeostasis. It transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, hormones, and more. White blood cells defend the body against infections and foreign materials. Blood also regulates temperature, water and salt balance, acid-base balance, and forms blood clots. Red blood cells are responsible for oxygen and carbon dioxide transport via hemoglobin, which contains iron and can bind oxygen. Plasma contains proteins like albumins and globulins.
Blood is the only fluid tissue in the human body. It is composed of plasma and formed elements, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells carry oxygen through hemoglobin and lack a nucleus. White blood cells help defend the body against disease. Platelets are involved in clotting to stop blood loss from damaged blood vessels. The bone marrow produces blood cells through hematopoiesis. Clotting factors in the blood allow hemostasis to stop bleeding from broken blood vessels. Certain disorders can cause undesirable clotting or bleeding.
Blood transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, carbon dioxide, and waste throughout the body. It regulates pH and temperature, and protects the body through white blood cells and clotting. Blood is composed of plasma, which is 90% water and contains proteins, electrolytes, nutrients, gases, and waste. Formed elements in blood include red blood cells that carry oxygen, platelets that aid clotting, and white blood cells that protect against disease.
Major intra and extra cellular electrolyteskalyaniGopale1
This document discusses the major intracellular and extracellular electrolytes in the body. It begins by defining electrolytes as ions that dissociate in body fluids. The main electrolytes discussed are sodium, calcium, chloride, potassium, magnesium, sulfate, bicarbonate, and phosphate. For each electrolyte, the normal levels, locations, and functions in the body are described. Potential deficiencies or excesses of each electrolyte are also summarized, along with their symptoms and treatment.
- Fluid and electrolyte balance is essential for normal human functioning. The body maintains balance through regulating water intake and output and electrolyte levels.
- Sodium is a key electrolyte that helps regulate blood volume, pressure, and pH. Both too little (hyponatremia) and too much (hypernatremia) sodium can cause issues. Other important electrolytes include potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate.
- Imbalances can occur from excessive intake/loss, medical conditions, or medications. Symptoms depend on the electrolyte and severity of imbalance. Treatment focuses on identifying and addressing the underlying cause while correcting electrolyte levels. Careful fluid management is often important.
Although some lymphocytes have a lifetime measured in years, most formed elements of the blood last only hours, days, or weeks, and must be replaced continually.
Negative feedback systems regulate the total number of RBCs and platelets in circulation, and their numbers normally remain steady.
The abundance of the different types of WBCs, however, varies in response to challenges by invading pathogens and other foreign antigens.
This document discusses metabolic acidosis, including its causes, signs and symptoms, diagnostic testing using anion gap, and treatments for specific types of metabolic acidosis such as diabetic ketoacidosis, lactic acidosis, and renal tubular acidosis. It provides details on evaluating the underlying cause, replacing losses, and using the ECLS approach of treating emergencies, the cause, and any specific problems or complications. Intravenous sodium bicarbonate is generally not recommended except in severe cases with pH below 7.1 and plasma bicarbonate below 8 mEq/L.
This document provides an overview of blood physiology, summarizing key topics such as:
- The functions of blood including respiration, nutrition, homeostasis, and defense.
- The components and composition of blood including plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
- Hematopoiesis, the process of blood cell production in the bone marrow.
- Erythropoiesis, the formation of red blood cells, and the role of factors like erythropoietin.
- Hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells, its structure and types.
Hypochloremia occurs when there is an increase in electrolyte loss from the intestinal tract due to conditions like intestinal obstruction, dilation, or torsion of the abomasums. Normally, the stomach secretes hydrochloric acid in exchange for sodium bicarbonate, and the hydrogen, chloride, and potassium ions are absorbed by the small intestine. However, when there is a failure of the abomasums to empty or an obstruction of the small intestine, large amounts of chloride, hydrogen, and potassium ions become trapped, leading to hypochloremia, hypokalemic alkalosis, and other clinical symptoms like anorexia, weight loss, and lethargy. The main causes of
Blood is a connective tissue composed of cells and plasma that circulates through the cardiovascular system. It has three main functions: transportation of oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste; protection through clotting and immune cells; and regulation of pH and temperature. Blood contains red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets suspended in plasma. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin and carry oxygen, while white blood cells protect against pathogens. Platelets help in clotting. Disorders like anemia, sickle-cell disease, and hemophilia affect the composition and functioning of blood.
Metabolic acidosis is a condition caused by a decrease in bicarbonate levels in the blood, resulting in an acidic pH. It can be divided into high anion gap metabolic acidosis, caused by an accumulation of organic acids in the blood, or normal anion gap metabolic acidosis, caused by loss of bicarbonate through diarrhea or kidney problems. The body has mechanisms to balance pH, such as moving hydrogen ions into cells or increasing respiration to exhale more carbon dioxide.
Metabolic acidosis is characterized by a decrease in serum pH caused by a decrease in bicarbonate or increase in hydrogen ions. It can be caused by increased acid production, decreased acid excretion, or alkali loss. The kidneys help eliminate daily acid load from metabolism by reclaiming bicarbonate and removing acids. Metabolic acidosis is categorized as normal or elevated anion gap based on the difference between measured cations and anions. Elevated anion gap acidosis involves unmeasured anions like in ketoacidosis, while normal anion gap involves chloride replacing depleted bicarbonate. Common causes of each type are represented by the mnemonics MUDPILES and USEDC
Glucocorticoids have metabolic effects such as increasing hepatic gluconeogenesis and reducing glucose utilization in cells. They play an important role in the body's adaptation to stress and have anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic effects. Long term use of glucocorticoids can have undesirable side effects including gastric ulcers, high blood pressure, and bone thinning. Aldosterone has a greater mineralocorticoid activity than cortisol and its effects include regulating sodium and potassium levels and blood pressure. Conditions like Cushing's syndrome and Addison's disease involve imbalances in cortisol and aldosterone levels in the body.
1) The document discusses fluid homeostasis and electrolytes, defining key terms like osmolality, osmolarity, and effective osmolality.
2) It describes the major fluid compartments in the body and how equilibrium between hydrostatic and oncotic forces regulate intravascular volume.
3) The normal daily requirements of fluids and electrolytes are outlined based on factors like body weight, surface area, and metabolic rate. Various intravenous fluid solutions are also discussed.
Chloride is the most abundant anion in extracellular fluid, neutralizing sodium's positive charge. Approximately 88% is in extracellular fluid and 12% intracellular. Chloride is absorbed in the small intestine through sodium-glucose cotransport and sodium-chloride cotransport, and follows sodium passively. It is important for gastric acid production, immune function through phagocytosis, and the chloride shift in red blood cells. Chloride is excreted through the GI tract, skin, and kidneys similarly to sodium. Deficiency can cause metabolic alkalosis while toxicity is rare with intake under 28g daily.
Acid base imbalance , acidosis and alkaosisAquiflal KM
Intravenous HCl or hemodialysis with a low-bicarbonate dialysate can be used to correct severe metabolic alkalosis when sodium or potassium chloride cannot be administered orally. Peritoneal dialysis using an isotonic sodium chloride solution as the dialysate can also correct metabolic alkalosis. Additionally, ammonium chloride can be administered to treat severe metabolic alkalosis related to chloride deficiency, as it is converted in the liver to ammonia and hydrochloric acid, releasing HCl to help correct the alkalosis.
This document outlines the objectives and content of a lecture on anemias and red blood cell dyscrasias. The objectives cover understanding bone marrow regulation, causes of increased and decreased red blood cell production, hemolytic anemias, iron studies, and laboratory tests to diagnose specific anemias. The content discusses red blood cell development, iron metabolism, erythropoietin regulation, hemoglobin structure and types, and classifications of anemias including causes of impaired production and increased destruction.
Body fluids, composition and functions of blood, hemopoeisis, formation of
hemoglobin, anemia, mechanisms of coagulation, blood grouping, Rh factors,
transfusion, its significance and disorders of blood, Reticulo endothelial system.
This document discusses acid-base balance and disorders. It provides normal ranges for blood pH, PCO2, HCO3, and other markers. It describes different types of acidosis and alkalosis, including respiratory and metabolic varieties. Compensatory mechanisms that regulate blood pH are explained. Causes, signs, and treatments of acid-base imbalances are summarized. Caution is advised in correcting severe acidosis with bicarbonate.
Water and electrolyte balance is clinically very important topic . It will be very useful for both UG and PG medical students. Efforts are made to explain basic concepts clearly.
Rbcs & its clinical implications by Dr. Amit T. Suryawanshi, Oral Surgeon, P...All Good Things
Hi. This is Dr. Amit T. Suryawanshi. Oral & Maxillofacial surgeon from Pune, India. I am here on slideshare.com to share some of my own presentations presented at various levels in the field of OMFS. Hope this would somehow be helpful to you making your presentations. All the best.
Major intra and extra cellular electrolytesTaj Khan
This document discusses major electrolytes in the body including sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, and bicarbonate. It covers their normal levels and roles in intracellular and extracellular fluid compartments. Disturbances to electrolyte balance like hyponatremia, hypernatremia, hypokalemia, hyperkalemia, hypocalcemia, and hypercalcemia are summarized including causes, signs, symptoms, and treatment approaches. The document provides an overview of electrolyte physiology and pathologies.
This document discusses the toxicity and treatment of aspirin, carbon monoxide, and theophylline. It provides details on the mechanisms of toxicity, common signs and symptoms, methods of diagnosis, and approaches to treatment. For aspirin and salicylates, sodium bicarbonate is used to increase excretion while activated charcoal and hemodialysis may also be used in severe cases. Carbon monoxide poisoning is treated with 100% oxygen to increase removal from hemoglobin. Theophylline toxicity is treated with activated charcoal and haemoperfusion.
This document discusses electrolyte concentrations in the three body fluid compartments - intracellular fluid, interstitial fluid, and plasma. It focuses on the major cations sodium, potassium, and calcium, their roles, regulation and what causes hyponatremia/hypernatremia, hypopotassemia/hyperpotassemia, and hypocalcemia/hypercalcemia. Treatment methods for electrolyte imbalances are also covered such as sodium replacement and ways to reduce intestinal calcium absorption.
- Fluid and electrolyte balance is essential for normal human functioning. The body maintains balance through regulating water intake and output and electrolyte levels.
- Sodium is a key electrolyte that helps regulate blood volume, pressure, and pH. Both too little (hyponatremia) and too much (hypernatremia) sodium can cause issues. Other important electrolytes include potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate.
- Imbalances can occur from excessive intake/loss, medical conditions, or medications. Symptoms depend on the electrolyte and severity of imbalance. Treatment focuses on identifying and addressing the underlying cause while correcting electrolyte levels. Careful fluid management is often important.
Although some lymphocytes have a lifetime measured in years, most formed elements of the blood last only hours, days, or weeks, and must be replaced continually.
Negative feedback systems regulate the total number of RBCs and platelets in circulation, and their numbers normally remain steady.
The abundance of the different types of WBCs, however, varies in response to challenges by invading pathogens and other foreign antigens.
This document discusses metabolic acidosis, including its causes, signs and symptoms, diagnostic testing using anion gap, and treatments for specific types of metabolic acidosis such as diabetic ketoacidosis, lactic acidosis, and renal tubular acidosis. It provides details on evaluating the underlying cause, replacing losses, and using the ECLS approach of treating emergencies, the cause, and any specific problems or complications. Intravenous sodium bicarbonate is generally not recommended except in severe cases with pH below 7.1 and plasma bicarbonate below 8 mEq/L.
This document provides an overview of blood physiology, summarizing key topics such as:
- The functions of blood including respiration, nutrition, homeostasis, and defense.
- The components and composition of blood including plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
- Hematopoiesis, the process of blood cell production in the bone marrow.
- Erythropoiesis, the formation of red blood cells, and the role of factors like erythropoietin.
- Hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells, its structure and types.
Hypochloremia occurs when there is an increase in electrolyte loss from the intestinal tract due to conditions like intestinal obstruction, dilation, or torsion of the abomasums. Normally, the stomach secretes hydrochloric acid in exchange for sodium bicarbonate, and the hydrogen, chloride, and potassium ions are absorbed by the small intestine. However, when there is a failure of the abomasums to empty or an obstruction of the small intestine, large amounts of chloride, hydrogen, and potassium ions become trapped, leading to hypochloremia, hypokalemic alkalosis, and other clinical symptoms like anorexia, weight loss, and lethargy. The main causes of
Blood is a connective tissue composed of cells and plasma that circulates through the cardiovascular system. It has three main functions: transportation of oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste; protection through clotting and immune cells; and regulation of pH and temperature. Blood contains red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets suspended in plasma. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin and carry oxygen, while white blood cells protect against pathogens. Platelets help in clotting. Disorders like anemia, sickle-cell disease, and hemophilia affect the composition and functioning of blood.
Metabolic acidosis is a condition caused by a decrease in bicarbonate levels in the blood, resulting in an acidic pH. It can be divided into high anion gap metabolic acidosis, caused by an accumulation of organic acids in the blood, or normal anion gap metabolic acidosis, caused by loss of bicarbonate through diarrhea or kidney problems. The body has mechanisms to balance pH, such as moving hydrogen ions into cells or increasing respiration to exhale more carbon dioxide.
Metabolic acidosis is characterized by a decrease in serum pH caused by a decrease in bicarbonate or increase in hydrogen ions. It can be caused by increased acid production, decreased acid excretion, or alkali loss. The kidneys help eliminate daily acid load from metabolism by reclaiming bicarbonate and removing acids. Metabolic acidosis is categorized as normal or elevated anion gap based on the difference between measured cations and anions. Elevated anion gap acidosis involves unmeasured anions like in ketoacidosis, while normal anion gap involves chloride replacing depleted bicarbonate. Common causes of each type are represented by the mnemonics MUDPILES and USEDC
Glucocorticoids have metabolic effects such as increasing hepatic gluconeogenesis and reducing glucose utilization in cells. They play an important role in the body's adaptation to stress and have anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic effects. Long term use of glucocorticoids can have undesirable side effects including gastric ulcers, high blood pressure, and bone thinning. Aldosterone has a greater mineralocorticoid activity than cortisol and its effects include regulating sodium and potassium levels and blood pressure. Conditions like Cushing's syndrome and Addison's disease involve imbalances in cortisol and aldosterone levels in the body.
1) The document discusses fluid homeostasis and electrolytes, defining key terms like osmolality, osmolarity, and effective osmolality.
2) It describes the major fluid compartments in the body and how equilibrium between hydrostatic and oncotic forces regulate intravascular volume.
3) The normal daily requirements of fluids and electrolytes are outlined based on factors like body weight, surface area, and metabolic rate. Various intravenous fluid solutions are also discussed.
Chloride is the most abundant anion in extracellular fluid, neutralizing sodium's positive charge. Approximately 88% is in extracellular fluid and 12% intracellular. Chloride is absorbed in the small intestine through sodium-glucose cotransport and sodium-chloride cotransport, and follows sodium passively. It is important for gastric acid production, immune function through phagocytosis, and the chloride shift in red blood cells. Chloride is excreted through the GI tract, skin, and kidneys similarly to sodium. Deficiency can cause metabolic alkalosis while toxicity is rare with intake under 28g daily.
Acid base imbalance , acidosis and alkaosisAquiflal KM
Intravenous HCl or hemodialysis with a low-bicarbonate dialysate can be used to correct severe metabolic alkalosis when sodium or potassium chloride cannot be administered orally. Peritoneal dialysis using an isotonic sodium chloride solution as the dialysate can also correct metabolic alkalosis. Additionally, ammonium chloride can be administered to treat severe metabolic alkalosis related to chloride deficiency, as it is converted in the liver to ammonia and hydrochloric acid, releasing HCl to help correct the alkalosis.
This document outlines the objectives and content of a lecture on anemias and red blood cell dyscrasias. The objectives cover understanding bone marrow regulation, causes of increased and decreased red blood cell production, hemolytic anemias, iron studies, and laboratory tests to diagnose specific anemias. The content discusses red blood cell development, iron metabolism, erythropoietin regulation, hemoglobin structure and types, and classifications of anemias including causes of impaired production and increased destruction.
Body fluids, composition and functions of blood, hemopoeisis, formation of
hemoglobin, anemia, mechanisms of coagulation, blood grouping, Rh factors,
transfusion, its significance and disorders of blood, Reticulo endothelial system.
This document discusses acid-base balance and disorders. It provides normal ranges for blood pH, PCO2, HCO3, and other markers. It describes different types of acidosis and alkalosis, including respiratory and metabolic varieties. Compensatory mechanisms that regulate blood pH are explained. Causes, signs, and treatments of acid-base imbalances are summarized. Caution is advised in correcting severe acidosis with bicarbonate.
Water and electrolyte balance is clinically very important topic . It will be very useful for both UG and PG medical students. Efforts are made to explain basic concepts clearly.
Rbcs & its clinical implications by Dr. Amit T. Suryawanshi, Oral Surgeon, P...All Good Things
Hi. This is Dr. Amit T. Suryawanshi. Oral & Maxillofacial surgeon from Pune, India. I am here on slideshare.com to share some of my own presentations presented at various levels in the field of OMFS. Hope this would somehow be helpful to you making your presentations. All the best.
Major intra and extra cellular electrolytesTaj Khan
This document discusses major electrolytes in the body including sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, and bicarbonate. It covers their normal levels and roles in intracellular and extracellular fluid compartments. Disturbances to electrolyte balance like hyponatremia, hypernatremia, hypokalemia, hyperkalemia, hypocalcemia, and hypercalcemia are summarized including causes, signs, symptoms, and treatment approaches. The document provides an overview of electrolyte physiology and pathologies.
This document discusses the toxicity and treatment of aspirin, carbon monoxide, and theophylline. It provides details on the mechanisms of toxicity, common signs and symptoms, methods of diagnosis, and approaches to treatment. For aspirin and salicylates, sodium bicarbonate is used to increase excretion while activated charcoal and hemodialysis may also be used in severe cases. Carbon monoxide poisoning is treated with 100% oxygen to increase removal from hemoglobin. Theophylline toxicity is treated with activated charcoal and haemoperfusion.
This document discusses electrolyte concentrations in the three body fluid compartments - intracellular fluid, interstitial fluid, and plasma. It focuses on the major cations sodium, potassium, and calcium, their roles, regulation and what causes hyponatremia/hypernatremia, hypopotassemia/hyperpotassemia, and hypocalcemia/hypercalcemia. Treatment methods for electrolyte imbalances are also covered such as sodium replacement and ways to reduce intestinal calcium absorption.
Calcium homeostasis involves balancing calcium levels in the blood and bones. Vitamin D facilitates intestinal calcium absorption and plays a key role in bone remodeling by regulating osteoclasts and osteoblasts. The parathyroid gland, kidney, and calcitonin also help maintain appropriate calcium levels. An inadequate calcium or vitamin D intake, high meat consumption, excess caffeine or cola intake can cause calcium depletion and weaken bones over time, leading to conditions like rickets in children or osteoporosis and osteomalacia in adults.
Fluid balance involves the metabolism of sodium, potassium, chloride, and water. Sodium is the primary cation of extracellular fluid and helps maintain fluid balance and blood pressure. Potassium is mainly located inside cells and is necessary for cell and muscle function. Chloride is the main anion in extracellular fluid and helps maintain acid-base balance. Water forms the majority of body weight and is regulated to match intake and output through mechanisms like antidiuretic hormone. The kidneys play a key role in maintaining balance of these electrolytes and fluid levels in the body. Imbalances can cause issues like hyponatremia and hyperkalemia.
Fluid balance in the body is regulated through the metabolism of sodium, potassium, chloride, and water. Sodium and chloride are primarily found outside cells in extracellular fluid while potassium is mainly inside cells. The kidneys help maintain balance by regulating electrolyte and water levels. Imbalances can occur if too much or too little of an electrolyte is consumed or excreted, potentially causing issues like abnormal heart rhythms or muscle weakness. The body has mechanisms, like hormones, to help keep fluid levels in homeostasis.
(1) The human body is 50-75% water which is regulated to maintain a constant volume. Water intake and output must be equal to maintain homeostasis. (2) The kidneys, lungs, skin and digestive system are involved in water regulation through urine production, evaporation, perspiration and feces. Disruptions can cause dehydration or water overload. (3) Electrolytes like sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium are also tightly regulated by hormones and organ systems to maintain normal blood levels and cellular function. Imbalances can impact nerve and muscle function.
Interpretation and correction of given electrolyte abnormalityAnkita Francis
This document discusses electrolyte abnormalities and their interpretation and correction. It covers fluid volume disturbances like hypovolemia and hypervolemia. It then discusses various electrolyte imbalances including sodium, potassium, calcium deficiencies and excesses. For each imbalance, it describes the causes, clinical manifestations, and management. It also covers acid-base imbalances like respiratory acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis and metabolic alkalosis.
An electrolyte balance occurs when the quantities of electrolytes gained by the body equals the amounts lost. The document discusses various electrolytes including sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium. It outlines the regulation and imbalance of electrolytes, describing conditions like hypernatremia, hyponatremia, hypokalemia, and hyperkalemia. Symptoms, causes, and normal ranges are provided for different electrolyte imbalances.
Deposition of calcium salts in tissues other than osteoid or enamel is called pathologic or heterotopic calcification
Two distinct types of pathologic
calcification are recognised:
Dystrophic calcifi cation is characterised by deposition of calcium salts in dead or degenerated tissues with normal calcium metabolism and normal serum calcium level.
Metastatic calcifi cation, on the other hand, occurs in apparently normal tissues and is associated with deranged
calcium metabolism and hypercalcaemia.
Etiopathogenesis
The two types of pathologic calcifi cation result from distinctly different etiologies and mechanisms.
DYSTROPHIC CALCIFICATION
As apparent from definition, dystrophic
calcification may occur due to 2 types of causes:
Calcification in dead tissue.
Calcification of degenerated tissue.
Calcification in dead tissue
Caseous necrosis in tuberculosis is the most common site for dystrophic calcification. Living bacilli may be present even in calcified tuberculous lesions, lymph nodes, lungs, etc
2. Liquefaction necrosis in chronic abscesses may get calcified.
3. Fat necrosis following acute pancreatitis or traumatic fat necrosis in the breast results in deposition of calcium soaps.
4. Gamna-Gandy bodies in chronic venous congestion (CVC) of the spleen is characterised by calcific deposits admixed with haemosiderin on fi brous tissue.
5. Infarcts may sometimes undergo dystrophic calcifi cation.
6. Th rombi, especially in the veins, may produce phleboliths.
7. Haematomas in the vicinity of bones may undergo dystrophic calcification.
8. Dead parasites like in hydatid cyst, Schistosoma eggs, and cysticercosis are some of the examples showing dystrophic calcifi cation.
9. Microcalcifi cation in breast cancer detected by mammography.
10. Congenital toxoplasmosis involving the central nervous system visualised by calcifi cation in the infant brain.
Calcification in degenerated tissues
1. Dense old scars may undergo hyaline degeneration and subsequent calcifi cation.
2. Atheromas in the aorta and coronaries frequently undergo calcifi cation.
3. Mönckeberg’s sclerosis shows calcifi cation in the degenerated tunica media of muscular arteries in elderly people .
4. Stroma of tumours such as uterine fi broids, breast cancer, thyroid adenoma, goitre etc show calcification.
5. Goitre of the thyroid may show presence of calcifi cation in areas of degeneration.
6. Some tumours show characteristic spherules of calcification called psammoma bodies or calco spherites such as in meningioma, papillary serous cystadeno carcinoma of the ovary and papillary carci noma of the thyroid.
7. Cysts which have been present for a long time may show calcification of their walls e.g. epidermal and pilar cysts.
8. Calcinosiscutis is a condition of unknown cause in which there are irregular nodular deposits of calcium salts in the skin and subcutaneous tissue.
9. Senile degenerative changes may be accompanied by dystrophic calcification such as in costal cartilages
This document discusses various diseases and abnormalities that can occur related to enzymes, hormones, vitamins, minerals, and body fluids. It provides examples of conditions that can arise from deficiencies or imbalances of these substances, such as lactose intolerance from a lack of lactase enzyme, diabetes from issues with insulin production/resistance, and scurvy from vitamin C deficiency. The document also describes the composition and functions of various body fluids including blood, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, sweat, and feces.
Calcium metabolism refers to the movement and regulation of calcium ions in the body. Calcium is primarily stored in bones and is important for bone development, muscle contraction, blood clotting, and enzyme activation. The body tightly regulates blood calcium levels through three main hormones - parathyroid hormone, calcitriol (the active form of vitamin D), and calcitonin. Parathyroid hormone and calcitriol work to increase blood calcium by mobilizing calcium from bones and increasing intestinal absorption, while calcitonin acts to decrease blood calcium by inhibiting bone resorption. A number of factors can influence calcium balance and levels in the body.
This document summarizes key aspects of electrolytes in the human body. It discusses the different body fluid compartments and their electrolyte concentrations. The major physiological ions (sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, chloride, magnesium) are described along with their functions, normal ranges, and causes of imbalances. Electrolyte replacement therapies and oral rehydration salts are also outlined. Additionally, the document covers acid-base balance and the major buffer systems that help maintain pH homeostasis in the body.
The document discusses fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance in the human body. It describes:
1) The distribution of body fluids between intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF), and the composition of each, including principal electrolytes.
2) Mechanisms of fluid movement such as diffusion, filtration, active transport, and osmosis.
3) Causes and types of fluid and electrolyte imbalances like dehydration, edema, and acid-base disturbances.
4) Systems that regulate acid-base balance including buffers, respiration, and the kidneys.
1. Dr. Joseph Sesay will lecture on calcium metabolism, hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia, and metabolic bone disease.
2. Calcium metabolism refers to regulating calcium ion concentration in extracellular fluid and is tightly controlled to stabilize voltage-gated ion channels. Parathyroid hormone and vitamin D are the main hormones involved.
3. Hypercalcemia occurs when calcium levels are too high and can cause issues like kidney stones and nerve/muscle problems. Hypocalcemia is when calcium levels are too low and causes issues like muscle spasms.
Metabolic acidosis occurs when the body produces excessive acid or the kidneys cannot remove enough acid from the blood. It is classified based on whether the anion gap is normal or high. Common causes include ketoacidosis, lactic acidosis, renal failure, and toxins. Symptoms may include weakness, nausea, and dehydration. Treatment focuses on treating the underlying cause, fluid replacement, and correcting electrolyte and pH imbalances through bicarbonate therapy or dialysis. Those at risk include those with kidney disease, diabetes, obesity, or a diet high in fat and low in carbohydrates.
DKA is a life-threatening complication of diabetes caused by low insulin levels and high counterregulatory hormones. It is characterized by hyperglycemia, ketosis, and metabolic acidosis. Symptoms include thirst, frequent urination, nausea, vomiting, and altered mental status. Treatment involves insulin, intravenous fluids, electrolyte replacement, and treating any precipitating infections or stressors to stabilize the patient and resolve the acidosis. Careful monitoring of glucose, electrolytes, and acid-base status is required. Complications can include cerebral edema, thrombosis, arrhythmias, and pancreatitis if not properly managed.
1.cell environment & junctions Dr. ManishaManishaDeol1
This document provides an overview of cell environment and cell junctions. It discusses how cells convert nutrients into usable energy through glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria. It also describes the body's fluid compartments, homeostasis of pH, electrolytes and body fluids. Disturbances in these systems like dehydration, edema and acid-base imbalances are explained. The document concludes by examining the interaction between the extracellular and intracellular environments through cell membranes, and different transport mechanisms like passive diffusion and active transport.
This document discusses fluid and electrolyte imbalance. It begins by explaining the importance of fluid and electrolyte balance for human health and function. It then describes the distribution and movement of body fluids between intracellular and extracellular compartments. Key electrolytes such as sodium, potassium, and calcium are defined. Causes, signs, and treatments of fluid volume excess and deficit as well as electrolyte imbalances like hyponatremia and hypernatremia are summarized.
This document discusses potassium disorders and their causes, signs, and treatments. It covers the following key points:
- Potassium levels in the body are regulated by distribution between intracellular and extracellular spaces. Hypokalemia is defined as a potassium level below 3.5 mEq/L while hyperkalemia is above 5.5 mEq/L.
- Causes of hypokalemia include decreased intake, increased losses, and intracellular shifts. Causes of hyperkalemia include increased intake, transcellular shifts, and decreased excretion.
- Symptoms of hypokalemia include muscle weakness and ECG changes like flattened T waves. Hyperkalemia symptoms relate to cardiac toxicity and can
Electrolyte replenishers are used to restore electrolyte balance and fluid volume in the body. There are three main compartments of body fluid - intracellular, interstitial, and plasma. Electrolytes like sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and phosphates help control water balance between compartments and generate nerve and muscle signals. Imbalances can cause issues like hyponatremia or hyperkalemia. Buffers like bicarbonate help regulate pH. Combination electrolyte solutions are used to treat severe deficits from diarrhea, vomiting, or blood loss. Oral rehydration salts also aid rehydration from diarrhea through balanced sugar and salt concentrations.
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3. CALCIFICATION
Extracellular accumulation or deposition of calcium is also
known as calcification.
Calcification of soft tissue (arteries, cartilage, etc) can be caused
by Vitamin K deficiency or by poor calcium absorption due to a
high calcium/vitamin D ratio.
There are mostly two types of calcification:
1. Dystrophic calcification
2. Metastatic calcification
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4. Dystrophic calcification
Dystrophic calcification refers to the deposition of calcium
salts in dead or dying tissues.
Dystrophic calcification occurs in the presence of normal
levels of serum calcium (around 10 mg/100 ml).
It is mostly seen in the necrotic area and produce
atheromas.
It also affect the heart or artery valve by producing stenosis.
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5. Metastatic calcification
The deposition of calcium salts in normal tissues is known
as metastatic calcification.
Metastatic calcification can occur widely throughout the
body but principally affects the interstitial tissues of the
vasculature, kidneys, lungs, and gastric mucosa.
The usual causes of the hypercalnemia include:
1. Hyperparathyroidism, either primary or secondary,
2. Vitamin-D intoxication,
3. Deficiency of magnesium and
4. Hypercalnemia of malignancy.
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6. ACID BASE IMBALANCE
Metabolic process of cell produce CO2 and metabolic acid.
CO2 combine with the water molecules (H2O) to form
bicarbonate (H2CO3). Metabolic product excreted via
kidney and lungs.
Kidney excreted metabolic acid and lungs excreted CO2.
This factor maintain the blood pH between 7.3 to 7.4.
Serum concentration of bicarbonate and partial pressure of
CO2 that determines the concentration of carbonic acid
play a main role in maintaining the blood pH.
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7. Alteration in the blood bicarbonate levels
produce either metabolic acidosis or alkalosis.
Alteration in pCO2 produce respiratory acidosis
or alkalosis.
7
8. 1. Metabolic acidosis
In the blood increase the amount of H+ ions and decrease
the bicarbonate HCO3- ions level due to metabolic process
decrease the pH of blood. This occurs in the following
conditions:
I. Production of large amount of lactic acid due to vigorous
exercise, shock like condition
II. Uncontrolled diabetes mellitus
III. Starvation
IV. Chronic renal failure
V. Therapeutics administration of ammonium chloride or
acetazolamide.
High level of H+ ions in metabolic acidosis stimulate the
respiratory centre and it increase the rate of breathing with
deep respiration. Bicarbonate level in the plasma get fall.
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9. 2. Metabolic alkalosis
Increase the level of bicarbonate HCO3- ions and decrease
the amount of H+ ions in the blood rise the pH of blood and
it is known as metabolic alkalosis.
This occurs in the following conditions:
i. Sever and prolonged vomiting
ii. Administration of alkaline salts like sodium bicarbonate.
iii. Hypokalemia such as cushing’s syndromes, increase
secretion of aldosterone
Clinically, metabolic alkalosis is characterized by
depression of respiration, depressed function with uraemia
and increase bicarbonate excretion in the urine. Bicarbonate
level in the blood get increased.
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10. 3. Respiratory acidosis
Rise in the pCO2 level in the lungs decrease the blood pH
and it is known as respiratory acidosis.
This occurs in the following conditions:
I. Air obstruction as occur in chronic bronchitis, asthma like
condition
II. Restricted thoracic movement in pregnancy, ascites like
conditions
III. Impaired neuromuscular functions like poliomyelitis (an
viral infection that affect CNS and cause temorary or
permanent paralysis), polyneuritis
If there is sever retention of CO2 patent may develop
confusion, drowsiness and coma. The arterial pCO2 level
get rise.
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11. 4. Respiratory alkalosis
Decrease in the pCO2 level in the lungs (Excess removal of
CO2) rise the blood pH and it is known as respiratory
alkalosis.
This occurs in the following conditions:
I. Hysterical over breathing
II. Working at high temperature
III. At high altitude
IV. Meningitis, encephalitis
V. Salicylate intoxication
Peripheral vasoconstriction, consequent pallor,
lightheadedness and tetany like characteristics are the
identical mark for the respiratory alkalosis. The arterial
pCO2 level get decreased.
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12. ELECTROLYTES
An electrolyte is a substance that conducts electricity when
dissolved in water. They are essential for a number of body
functions.
The main electrolytes in the human body are sodium,
potassium, calcium, bicarbonate, magnesium, chloride,
phosphate etc..
Intracellular compartment has higher concentration of
potassium, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions in the
blood. While extracellular fluid has higher concentration of
sodium chloride, bicarbonate etc. Balance between these
electrolytes inside the body is essential for maintaining the
good health.
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13. 1. Calcium
Calcium is a vital mineral that your body uses to stabilize
blood pressure and control skeletal muscle contraction. It’s
also used to build strong bones and teeth.
2. Chloride
Chloride is necessary for maintaining the proper balance of
bodily fluids.
3. Magnesium
Magnesium is a critical mineral that regulates many
important functions, such as muscle contraction, heart
rhythm, nerve function.
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14. 4. Potassium
Potassium is particularly important for regulating heart
function. It also helps maintain healthy nerves and muscles.
5. Sodium
Sodium is needed in the body to maintain fluid balance and
is critical for normal body function. It also helps to regulate
nerve function and muscle contraction.
6. Phosphate
The kidneys, bones, and intestines work to balance
phosphate levels in the body. Phosphate is necessary for a
wide variety of functions and interacts closely with
calcium.
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