This document provides an overview of cell environment and cell junctions. It discusses how cells convert nutrients into usable energy through glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria. It also describes the body's fluid compartments, homeostasis of pH, electrolytes and body fluids. Disturbances in these systems like dehydration, edema and acid-base imbalances are explained. The document concludes by examining the interaction between the extracellular and intracellular environments through cell membranes, and different transport mechanisms like passive diffusion and active transport.
The document discusses fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance in the human body. It describes:
1) The distribution of body fluids between intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF), and the composition of each, including principal electrolytes.
2) Mechanisms of fluid movement such as diffusion, filtration, active transport, and osmosis.
3) Causes and types of fluid and electrolyte imbalances like dehydration, edema, and acid-base disturbances.
4) Systems that regulate acid-base balance including buffers, respiration, and the kidneys.
Major intra and extra cellular electrolyteskalyaniGopale1
This document discusses the major intracellular and extracellular electrolytes in the body. It begins by defining electrolytes as ions that dissociate in body fluids. The main electrolytes discussed are sodium, calcium, chloride, potassium, magnesium, sulfate, bicarbonate, and phosphate. For each electrolyte, the normal levels, locations, and functions in the body are described. Potential deficiencies or excesses of each electrolyte are also summarized, along with their symptoms and treatment.
The human body is mostly made up of water, ranging from 75% in infants to 50-60% in adults. Water is divided into intracellular and extracellular fluid compartments. The kidneys and endocrine system work to maintain water balance and regulate fluid levels. The kidneys filter waste from the bloodstream and reabsorb useful substances, while the hormones aldosterone, ADH, and ANP work in concert to regulate sodium and water retention or excretion in response to blood volume and pressure. This precise balance of fluids is essential for cellular function, temperature regulation, cushioning and lubrication throughout the body.
UNIT II: Major extra and intracellular electrolytesSONALI PAWAR
This document provides information on major electrolytes in the human body including sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, and magnesium. It discusses the functions and normal levels of each electrolyte, as well as conditions that can arise from electrolyte imbalances such as hypokalemia and hypernatremia. The document also explains how electrolytes are distributed between intracellular and extracellular fluid compartments and regulated to maintain homeostasis. Replacement therapies are mentioned for correcting electrolyte abnormalities.
This document discusses fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance in the human body. It covers the following key points:
1. Fluid and electrolyte balance is maintained through various physiological processes and is vital for normal cellular function. Any illness can threaten this balance.
2. The body contains two major fluid compartments - intracellular fluid within cells and extracellular fluid outside cells. Extracellular fluid is further divided into plasma, interstitial fluid, and other minor compartments.
3. Body fluids contain electrolytes like sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate ions which are essential for cellular function and transport of nutrients and waste. Maintaining the right balance of these ions is important for health
Sodium metabolism and its clinical applicationsrohini sane
A comprehensive presentation on Sodium Metabolism and its clinical significance for MBBS, BDS, B Pharm & Biotechnology students to facilitate self- study.
The document discusses body water and fluid balance. It states that total body water is distributed between muscle (50%), skin (20%), blood (10%), and other organs (20%). Body water serves essential functions like transporting nutrients, maintaining temperature and tissue form. Daily water intake and output is usually balanced at around 2300 ml. Factors like temperature, diet, and endocrine glands affect fluid balance. The body maintains either positive or negative fluid balance in different conditions. The document also describes the composition and functions of intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid, and transcellular fluid. Various indicators can be used to measure the volume of different body fluid compartments.
The document discusses fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance in the human body. It describes:
1) The distribution of body fluids between intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF), and the composition of each, including principal electrolytes.
2) Mechanisms of fluid movement such as diffusion, filtration, active transport, and osmosis.
3) Causes and types of fluid and electrolyte imbalances like dehydration, edema, and acid-base disturbances.
4) Systems that regulate acid-base balance including buffers, respiration, and the kidneys.
Major intra and extra cellular electrolyteskalyaniGopale1
This document discusses the major intracellular and extracellular electrolytes in the body. It begins by defining electrolytes as ions that dissociate in body fluids. The main electrolytes discussed are sodium, calcium, chloride, potassium, magnesium, sulfate, bicarbonate, and phosphate. For each electrolyte, the normal levels, locations, and functions in the body are described. Potential deficiencies or excesses of each electrolyte are also summarized, along with their symptoms and treatment.
The human body is mostly made up of water, ranging from 75% in infants to 50-60% in adults. Water is divided into intracellular and extracellular fluid compartments. The kidneys and endocrine system work to maintain water balance and regulate fluid levels. The kidneys filter waste from the bloodstream and reabsorb useful substances, while the hormones aldosterone, ADH, and ANP work in concert to regulate sodium and water retention or excretion in response to blood volume and pressure. This precise balance of fluids is essential for cellular function, temperature regulation, cushioning and lubrication throughout the body.
UNIT II: Major extra and intracellular electrolytesSONALI PAWAR
This document provides information on major electrolytes in the human body including sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, and magnesium. It discusses the functions and normal levels of each electrolyte, as well as conditions that can arise from electrolyte imbalances such as hypokalemia and hypernatremia. The document also explains how electrolytes are distributed between intracellular and extracellular fluid compartments and regulated to maintain homeostasis. Replacement therapies are mentioned for correcting electrolyte abnormalities.
This document discusses fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance in the human body. It covers the following key points:
1. Fluid and electrolyte balance is maintained through various physiological processes and is vital for normal cellular function. Any illness can threaten this balance.
2. The body contains two major fluid compartments - intracellular fluid within cells and extracellular fluid outside cells. Extracellular fluid is further divided into plasma, interstitial fluid, and other minor compartments.
3. Body fluids contain electrolytes like sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate ions which are essential for cellular function and transport of nutrients and waste. Maintaining the right balance of these ions is important for health
Sodium metabolism and its clinical applicationsrohini sane
A comprehensive presentation on Sodium Metabolism and its clinical significance for MBBS, BDS, B Pharm & Biotechnology students to facilitate self- study.
The document discusses body water and fluid balance. It states that total body water is distributed between muscle (50%), skin (20%), blood (10%), and other organs (20%). Body water serves essential functions like transporting nutrients, maintaining temperature and tissue form. Daily water intake and output is usually balanced at around 2300 ml. Factors like temperature, diet, and endocrine glands affect fluid balance. The body maintains either positive or negative fluid balance in different conditions. The document also describes the composition and functions of intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid, and transcellular fluid. Various indicators can be used to measure the volume of different body fluid compartments.
Body fluids are divided into intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid and transcellular fluid compartments. Extracellular fluid further divides into plasma and interstitial fluid. Homeostasis of body fluids is important for transport, metabolism, tissue shape and temperature regulation. Fluid balance is maintained by daily fluid intake and output. Disruptions can cause edema in extracellular spaces or potential spaces, risking health. Tight regulation of osmotic equilibrium between fluid compartments is needed.
Body Fluids and Electrolyte HomeostasisDavidIkwuka
This document discusses body fluids and electrolyte balance. It begins by outlining the major body fluid compartments - intracellular fluid, interstitial fluid, and plasma. The functions of body fluids are then described. Key points include body fluids acting as a medium for metabolic reactions and transporting nutrients and waste. The document outlines various indicators used to measure body fluid compartments and discusses homeostasis of body fluids and electrolytes. Major electrolytes like sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride are explained in depth, including their roles, concentrations in different fluid compartments, and regulatory mechanisms.
This document provides an overview of enzymes, water balance, electrolyte balance, acid-base balance, and macronutrient metabolism. It discusses how enzymes function as catalysts in biochemical reactions and how their activity is regulated. It describes the mechanisms that regulate water intake and output to maintain balance. It explains the roles and regulation of important electrolytes. It outlines the buffer systems and other mechanisms that maintain acid-base balance. It summarizes the catabolic and anabolic pathways for carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
The document summarizes the body's fluid compartments and regulation of fluid balance. It discusses the extracellular and intracellular fluid compartments, how fluid moves between compartments via osmosis, and factors that can disrupt fluid balance and cause edema. Specifically, it notes that the extracellular fluid compartment is divided into the interstitial fluid and plasma compartments, and lists causes of edema like increased capillary pressure, decreased plasma proteins, and increased capillary permeability.
This document summarizes the composition and distribution of body fluids in the human body. It discusses that the normal adult body is composed of 60% water, 7% minerals, 18% protein, and 15% fat. Total body water is distributed between intracellular fluid (ICF, 40% of body weight) and extracellular fluid (ECF, 20% of body weight). ECF is further divided into plasma (5% of body weight), interstitial fluid (15% of body weight), and transcellular fluid (1.5% of body weight). The document also describes the ionic composition of different body fluids and units used to measure solute concentration like moles, equivalents, and osmoles. It introduces
1. Mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone act on minerals like sodium and potassium, regulating their levels in the body.
2. Aldosterone is synthesized in and released from the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex, regulated by factors like angiotensin.
3. It increases sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion, maintaining fluid volume and blood pressure levels. Imbalances can cause issues like hypokalemia or hypertension.
Body fluids are liquids originating from inside the bodies of living humans. They include fluids that are excreted or secreted from the body. Human blood, body fluids, and other body tissues are widely recognised as vehicles for the transmission of human disease.
Metabolism of water and its clinical significancerohini sane
A comprehensive presentation on Metabolism of water and its clinical significance for MBBS, BDS, B Pharm & Biotechnology students to facilitate self- study.
water and electrolyte balance and imbalance.pdfDhoofOfficial
The Importance Of water and Electrolyte Balance and Imbalance Our health To Maintenance Minerals and Fluid Balance inside and Outside The Cells It is Main Role of Health balanced.
This topic Prepare Dr Ibrahim And Thank About Suggesting to Prepared And To choose Lecture Water and Electrolyte balance and Imbalance
This document discusses the mechanism of maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance in the body. It describes how total body water is distributed and the functions of water. It explains the factors that influence fluid and electrolyte balance like age, climate, diet, stress, medical treatments. It also discusses electrolytes, the mechanisms that control fluid and electrolyte movement like diffusion, osmosis, and the roles of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, adrenal gland, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract in regulating fluids and electrolytes.
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions that take place in the body. Metabolic reactions harvest energy from nutrients to support the body's growth, repair, and normal functioning. Cellular respiration is a four step process where glucose is oxidized to produce ATP. Glycolysis produces some ATP and reduces NAD. Pyruvate is then either reduced to lactate or oxidized to acetyl-CoA to enter the Krebs cycle. The electron transport chain uses oxygen to produce most of the cell's ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins are broken down and synthesized through various metabolic pathways to meet the body's energy needs.
Fluid and electrolyte balance is a dynamic process that is crucial for life.
Plays important role in homeostasis.
Imbalance may result from many factors, associates with illness
Water comprises 60% (40L) of the body weight of an average adult.
Water is the solvent of life. water is more important than any other single compound to life. lt is involved in several body functions.
pracentation ku saabsan electrolytes plancy oo aan kajeediyay Bosaso University Fucalt of Clinical Medicine Madada Antomy And Physiology
Kurtun Medical Clinic
The document discusses homeostasis and body fluid compartments. It explains that the body maintains homeostasis through various systems that work to keep the internal environment stable. The body contains two main fluid compartments - intracellular fluid within cells and extracellular fluid outside of cells, which includes plasma and interstitial fluid. Together these body fluids maintain fluid balance, with daily intake and output of water balanced to keep cells from shrinking or swelling.
Introduction to Body fluids 1st year MBBSrashidrmc
This document provides an introduction to body fluids by a professor. It begins with objectives to describe body fluid functions, compare fluid intake and output, explain water content of tissues, and differentiate fluid compartments and isotonic solutions. Key points covered include the functions of homeostasis, transport, and metabolism. Daily fluid intake and output are balanced at around 2-3 liters. Tissue water content varies from 10% in adipose tissue to 83% in kidney. Body fluids are divided into intracellular and extracellular compartments, with the extracellular comprising plasma and interstitial fluid. Cellular response depends on if the external fluid is isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic. Disorders relate to dehydration and overhydration in
Major intra and extra cellular electrolytesTaj Khan
This document discusses major electrolytes in the body including sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, and bicarbonate. It covers their normal levels and roles in intracellular and extracellular fluid compartments. Disturbances to electrolyte balance like hyponatremia, hypernatremia, hypokalemia, hyperkalemia, hypocalcemia, and hypercalcemia are summarized including causes, signs, symptoms, and treatment approaches. The document provides an overview of electrolyte physiology and pathologies.
Water and electrolyte balance is clinically very important topic . It will be very useful for both UG and PG medical students. Efforts are made to explain basic concepts clearly.
The document discusses water and electrolyte balance and imbalance in the human body. It covers the following key points:
- Water comprises 60-70% of total body weight and is essential for biochemical reactions, transport, temperature regulation and other functions. Electrolytes like sodium, potassium, chloride, and others are important for fluid balance and cell function.
- The kidneys play a major role in regulating water and electrolyte balance by excreting excess water or electrolytes. Biochemical factors like thirst, antidiuretic hormone, renin-angiotensin system, aldosterone, atrial natriuretic peptide, and kinins help maintain balance.
- Imbalances can
Nephrotoxicology - Toxic Responses of the Kidney Deepmalya Ghosh
Nephrotoxicity is toxicity in the kidneys. It is a poisonous effect of some substances, both toxic chemicals and medications, on kidney function. There are various forms, and some drugs may affect kidney function in more than one way. Nephrotoxins are substances displaying nephrotoxicity.
The document discusses disorders of water and electrolyte metabolism. It covers homeostasis of water and electrolytes, common electrolyte imbalances seen in disease, and key mechanisms that regulate fluid and electrolyte balance in the body, including thirst, antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone, and osmoreceptors.
The document discusses electrolyte imbalances in the human body. It begins by describing the distribution of body fluids between intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF). It then discusses the major electrolytes - sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride and bicarbonate - and how they are regulated. Specific electrolyte imbalances like hyponatremia, hypernatremia, hypokalemia, hyperkalemia, hypocalcemia, hypercalcemia and their causes and symptoms are then outlined. The document concludes by briefly mentioning fluid disturbances like hypochloremia and hyperchloremia.
Body fluids are divided into intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid and transcellular fluid compartments. Extracellular fluid further divides into plasma and interstitial fluid. Homeostasis of body fluids is important for transport, metabolism, tissue shape and temperature regulation. Fluid balance is maintained by daily fluid intake and output. Disruptions can cause edema in extracellular spaces or potential spaces, risking health. Tight regulation of osmotic equilibrium between fluid compartments is needed.
Body Fluids and Electrolyte HomeostasisDavidIkwuka
This document discusses body fluids and electrolyte balance. It begins by outlining the major body fluid compartments - intracellular fluid, interstitial fluid, and plasma. The functions of body fluids are then described. Key points include body fluids acting as a medium for metabolic reactions and transporting nutrients and waste. The document outlines various indicators used to measure body fluid compartments and discusses homeostasis of body fluids and electrolytes. Major electrolytes like sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride are explained in depth, including their roles, concentrations in different fluid compartments, and regulatory mechanisms.
This document provides an overview of enzymes, water balance, electrolyte balance, acid-base balance, and macronutrient metabolism. It discusses how enzymes function as catalysts in biochemical reactions and how their activity is regulated. It describes the mechanisms that regulate water intake and output to maintain balance. It explains the roles and regulation of important electrolytes. It outlines the buffer systems and other mechanisms that maintain acid-base balance. It summarizes the catabolic and anabolic pathways for carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
The document summarizes the body's fluid compartments and regulation of fluid balance. It discusses the extracellular and intracellular fluid compartments, how fluid moves between compartments via osmosis, and factors that can disrupt fluid balance and cause edema. Specifically, it notes that the extracellular fluid compartment is divided into the interstitial fluid and plasma compartments, and lists causes of edema like increased capillary pressure, decreased plasma proteins, and increased capillary permeability.
This document summarizes the composition and distribution of body fluids in the human body. It discusses that the normal adult body is composed of 60% water, 7% minerals, 18% protein, and 15% fat. Total body water is distributed between intracellular fluid (ICF, 40% of body weight) and extracellular fluid (ECF, 20% of body weight). ECF is further divided into plasma (5% of body weight), interstitial fluid (15% of body weight), and transcellular fluid (1.5% of body weight). The document also describes the ionic composition of different body fluids and units used to measure solute concentration like moles, equivalents, and osmoles. It introduces
1. Mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone act on minerals like sodium and potassium, regulating their levels in the body.
2. Aldosterone is synthesized in and released from the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex, regulated by factors like angiotensin.
3. It increases sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion, maintaining fluid volume and blood pressure levels. Imbalances can cause issues like hypokalemia or hypertension.
Body fluids are liquids originating from inside the bodies of living humans. They include fluids that are excreted or secreted from the body. Human blood, body fluids, and other body tissues are widely recognised as vehicles for the transmission of human disease.
Metabolism of water and its clinical significancerohini sane
A comprehensive presentation on Metabolism of water and its clinical significance for MBBS, BDS, B Pharm & Biotechnology students to facilitate self- study.
water and electrolyte balance and imbalance.pdfDhoofOfficial
The Importance Of water and Electrolyte Balance and Imbalance Our health To Maintenance Minerals and Fluid Balance inside and Outside The Cells It is Main Role of Health balanced.
This topic Prepare Dr Ibrahim And Thank About Suggesting to Prepared And To choose Lecture Water and Electrolyte balance and Imbalance
This document discusses the mechanism of maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance in the body. It describes how total body water is distributed and the functions of water. It explains the factors that influence fluid and electrolyte balance like age, climate, diet, stress, medical treatments. It also discusses electrolytes, the mechanisms that control fluid and electrolyte movement like diffusion, osmosis, and the roles of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, adrenal gland, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract in regulating fluids and electrolytes.
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions that take place in the body. Metabolic reactions harvest energy from nutrients to support the body's growth, repair, and normal functioning. Cellular respiration is a four step process where glucose is oxidized to produce ATP. Glycolysis produces some ATP and reduces NAD. Pyruvate is then either reduced to lactate or oxidized to acetyl-CoA to enter the Krebs cycle. The electron transport chain uses oxygen to produce most of the cell's ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins are broken down and synthesized through various metabolic pathways to meet the body's energy needs.
Fluid and electrolyte balance is a dynamic process that is crucial for life.
Plays important role in homeostasis.
Imbalance may result from many factors, associates with illness
Water comprises 60% (40L) of the body weight of an average adult.
Water is the solvent of life. water is more important than any other single compound to life. lt is involved in several body functions.
pracentation ku saabsan electrolytes plancy oo aan kajeediyay Bosaso University Fucalt of Clinical Medicine Madada Antomy And Physiology
Kurtun Medical Clinic
The document discusses homeostasis and body fluid compartments. It explains that the body maintains homeostasis through various systems that work to keep the internal environment stable. The body contains two main fluid compartments - intracellular fluid within cells and extracellular fluid outside of cells, which includes plasma and interstitial fluid. Together these body fluids maintain fluid balance, with daily intake and output of water balanced to keep cells from shrinking or swelling.
Introduction to Body fluids 1st year MBBSrashidrmc
This document provides an introduction to body fluids by a professor. It begins with objectives to describe body fluid functions, compare fluid intake and output, explain water content of tissues, and differentiate fluid compartments and isotonic solutions. Key points covered include the functions of homeostasis, transport, and metabolism. Daily fluid intake and output are balanced at around 2-3 liters. Tissue water content varies from 10% in adipose tissue to 83% in kidney. Body fluids are divided into intracellular and extracellular compartments, with the extracellular comprising plasma and interstitial fluid. Cellular response depends on if the external fluid is isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic. Disorders relate to dehydration and overhydration in
Major intra and extra cellular electrolytesTaj Khan
This document discusses major electrolytes in the body including sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, and bicarbonate. It covers their normal levels and roles in intracellular and extracellular fluid compartments. Disturbances to electrolyte balance like hyponatremia, hypernatremia, hypokalemia, hyperkalemia, hypocalcemia, and hypercalcemia are summarized including causes, signs, symptoms, and treatment approaches. The document provides an overview of electrolyte physiology and pathologies.
Water and electrolyte balance is clinically very important topic . It will be very useful for both UG and PG medical students. Efforts are made to explain basic concepts clearly.
The document discusses water and electrolyte balance and imbalance in the human body. It covers the following key points:
- Water comprises 60-70% of total body weight and is essential for biochemical reactions, transport, temperature regulation and other functions. Electrolytes like sodium, potassium, chloride, and others are important for fluid balance and cell function.
- The kidneys play a major role in regulating water and electrolyte balance by excreting excess water or electrolytes. Biochemical factors like thirst, antidiuretic hormone, renin-angiotensin system, aldosterone, atrial natriuretic peptide, and kinins help maintain balance.
- Imbalances can
Nephrotoxicology - Toxic Responses of the Kidney Deepmalya Ghosh
Nephrotoxicity is toxicity in the kidneys. It is a poisonous effect of some substances, both toxic chemicals and medications, on kidney function. There are various forms, and some drugs may affect kidney function in more than one way. Nephrotoxins are substances displaying nephrotoxicity.
The document discusses disorders of water and electrolyte metabolism. It covers homeostasis of water and electrolytes, common electrolyte imbalances seen in disease, and key mechanisms that regulate fluid and electrolyte balance in the body, including thirst, antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone, and osmoreceptors.
The document discusses electrolyte imbalances in the human body. It begins by describing the distribution of body fluids between intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF). It then discusses the major electrolytes - sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride and bicarbonate - and how they are regulated. Specific electrolyte imbalances like hyponatremia, hypernatremia, hypokalemia, hyperkalemia, hypocalcemia, hypercalcemia and their causes and symptoms are then outlined. The document concludes by briefly mentioning fluid disturbances like hypochloremia and hyperchloremia.
This document provides an overview of major electrolytes in intra and extracellular fluids, including calcium, sodium, potassium, chloride, and discusses electrolyte balance, replacement therapies, and factors that can alter pH. It describes the normal concentrations and roles of these electrolytes, as well as conditions that can cause imbalances like hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia, hyponatremia, hypernatremia, hypokalemia, and hyperkalemia. Regulatory mechanisms aim to maintain homeostasis of pH, ion concentrations, osmotic pressure, and fluid volume in different body compartments.
The document discusses fluid and electrolyte balance and imbalance. It defines body fluids and electrolytes, and explains that fluid and electrolyte balance is the equilibrium state between these in the body, while imbalance is a change in this equilibrium. It covers the composition and functions of body fluids, fluid volume disturbances like hypovolaemia and hypervolaemia, and electrolyte imbalances focusing on sodium imbalance. Key concepts around regulation of fluids, osmosis, and the roles of organs like the kidney are explained. Causes, signs, and management of various fluid and electrolyte disorders are outlined.
The mechanism by which the constancy of the internal environment is maintained and ensured is called Homeostasis.
The normal composition of internal environment consists of the following components
WATER –
Water is the principal and essential constituent of the body.
The total body water in a normal adult male comprises 50-70% (average 60%) of the body weight and about 10% less in a normal adult female (average 50%).
Thus, the body of a normal male weighing 65 kg contains approximately 40 litres of water.
The total body water (assuming average of 60%) is distributed into 2 main compartments of body fluids separated from each other by membranes freely permeable to water.
i) Intracellular fluid compartment This comprises about
33% of the body weight, the bulk of which is contained in the muscles.
ii) Extracellular fluid compartment This constitutes the
remaining 27% of body weight containing water. Included in this are the following 4 subdivisions of extracellular fluid (ECF):
a) Interstitial fluid including lymph fluid constitutes the major proportion of ECF (12% of body weight).
b) Intravascular fluid or blood plasma comprises about 5% of the body weight. Plasma content is about 3 litres of fluid out of 5 litres of total blood volume.
c) Mesenchymal tissues such as dense connective tissue, cartilage and bone contain body water that comprises about 9% of the body weight.
d) Transcellular fluid constitutes 1% of body weight. This is the fluid contained in the secretions of secretory cells of the body e.g. skin, salivary glands, mucous membranes of alimentary and respiratory tracts, pancreas, liver and biliary tract, kidneys, gonads, thyroid, lacrimal gland and CSF.
2. ELECTROLYTES
The concentration of cations (positively charged) and anions (negatively charged) is different in intracellular and extracellular fluids:
. In the intracellular fluid, the main cations are potassium and magnesium and the main anions are phosphates and proteins. It has low concentration of sodium and chloride.
. In the extracellular fluid, the predominant cation is sodium and the principal anions are chloride and bicarbonate. Besides these, a small proportion of non-diffusible nutrients and metabolites such as glucose and urea are present in the ECF.
HYPONATRAEMIA
A. Gain of Relatively More Water Than Loss of Sodium
i. Excessive use of diuretics
ii. Hypotonic irrigating fluid administration
iii. Excessive IV infusion of 5% dextrose
iv. Psychogenic polydipsia
v. Large volume of beer consumption
vi. Addison’s disease
B. Loss of Relatively More Salt Than Water
i. Excessive use of diuretics
ii. Renal failure (ARF, CRF)
iii. Replacement of water without simultaneous salt replacement in conditions causing combined salt and water deficiency
Positive feedback:
Increases the original stimulus to push the variable farther
e.g. in blood clotting and during the birth of a baby
• Homeostatic mechanisms are designed to reestablish homeostasis when there is an imbal
Basic Intravenous Therapy 3: Fluids And Electrolytes, Balance and Imbalance, ...Ronald Magbitang
Lecture Presentation in Basic Intravenous Therapy Seminar, discussion on Body Fluids and Electrolytes, Normal Values and the Imbalances, the symptomatology and treatment and precautions, and, finally the different types of commonly available, utilized IVF in clinics
This document discusses fluid and electrolyte imbalances. It begins by outlining the objectives of discussing body fluid distribution, fluid volume deficits and excesses, and various electrolyte disorders. It then defines the components of body fluid, including intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid, and transcellular fluid. Various mechanisms that regulate fluid distribution and balance are explained, including osmosis, diffusion, and active transport processes. Common causes of fluid volume shifts between compartments are also outlined.
The document discusses homeostasis of body fluids. It describes how the body maintains fluid balance through balancing fluid intake and output. Key body fluid compartments include intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid such as interstitial fluid and plasma. Homeostasis relies on mechanisms like osmosis, diffusion and active transport of fluids between compartments. The kidneys play an important role in regulating fluid balance and electrolyte levels through urine output. Imbalances can lead to conditions like edema, with dehydration classified as isotonic, hypertonic or hypotonic based on electrolyte disturbances.
Here are the key points about saliva composition:
- Major inorganic ions include Na+, K+, HCO3-, Ca++, Mg++, Cl-
- Ion concentrations vary depending on stimulation and flow rate
- Major organic constituents synthesized by salivary glands include amylase, lipase, mucins, lysozyme
Saliva contains ions and enzymes that play important roles in digestion and protection of oral cavity. The specific ions and proteins vary dynamically based on salivary flow.
The document discusses principles of acid-base balance in veterinary practice. It covers topics like water balance, electrolytes, acid-base balance, renal functions, fluid compartments, fluid therapy, dehydration assessment and treatment, electrolyte imbalances, and commercially available fluids. Key points include the importance of water and electrolytes for life, roles of kidneys and blood in acid-base balance maintenance, classification and assessment of dehydration severity, and fluid therapy considerations like cause, degree of dehydration, and patient condition.
(1) The human body is 50-75% water which is regulated to maintain a constant volume. Water intake and output must be equal to maintain homeostasis. (2) The kidneys, lungs, skin and digestive system are involved in water regulation through urine production, evaporation, perspiration and feces. Disruptions can cause dehydration or water overload. (3) Electrolytes like sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium are also tightly regulated by hormones and organ systems to maintain normal blood levels and cellular function. Imbalances can impact nerve and muscle function.
The document discusses fluid and chemical balance in the human body. It covers various topics such as body fluid compartments, electrolytes, fluid transport mechanisms, fluid imbalances, and intravenous fluid administration. Body fluid consists of water, electrolytes, and blood cells and makes up 45-75% of body weight. Fluid is located in two main compartments: intracellular and extracellular fluid. Common fluid imbalances include hypovolemia, hypervolemia, and third spacing.
1. The kidneys reabsorb large amounts of water and solutes per day through the renal tubules, including 179 L of water, 1 kg of NaCl, and various other substances.
2. Substances are divided into three groups for reabsorption - actively reabsorbed, reabsorbed in small amounts, and non-reabsorbed. Na+, Cl-, water and other important substances are actively reabsorbed.
3. Reabsorption is regulated by hormones like aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone to control water and electrolyte balance in the body.
This document provides an overview of fluid and electrolyte balance in the human body. It discusses water intake and output, the distribution and regulation of body water, and hormonal control of fluid balance. Electrolyte composition, distribution, and regulation are described. Common electrolyte imbalances like hyponatremia, hypernatremia, hypokalemia, and their symptoms and treatments are summarized. The document emphasizes the importance of fluid and electrolyte homeostasis for normal physiological functioning.
Major extra and intra-cellular electrolytesNIDHI GUPTA
Presentation describes about the Major extra- and intra-cellular electrolytes of human body and their physiological roles. In next part, it discuss the Electrolytes used in replacement therapy, ORS and Physiological acid-base balance.
Nsg care with Fluid & Electrolyte imbalance.pptxAbhishek Joshi
Helpful for first year GNM and B.Sc. Nurses students.
Keep Reading and i will keep uploading...i want to enhance the nursing profession and provide an ideal nursing care to one and every students of India. Thanks
The document discusses fluid and electrolyte balance in the human body. It begins by explaining that approximately 60% of the average adult's weight consists of fluid located in two compartments - intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid. It then defines key concepts like osmosis, diffusion, filtration, and the sodium-potassium pump which help regulate fluid levels. The document closes by reviewing the major routes of fluid gain and loss in the body, primarily through drinking, eating, urine output, and sweating.
This document provides an overview of body fluids and electrolyte balance. It begins with the objectives of describing body fluid compartments and distribution, water and electrolyte balance mechanisms, and relating fluid disorders to clinical aspects. Key points include that total body water is 60% of body weight, with two-thirds being intracellular fluid and one-third extracellular fluid including plasma and interstitial fluid. Electrolytes such as sodium, potassium, and chloride are also discussed. Mechanisms for regulating fluid and electrolyte balance like the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and antidiuretic hormone are covered. Conditions involving fluid imbalance like dehydration and overhydration are explained.
Similar to 1.cell environment & junctions Dr. Manisha (20)
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
Physiology and chemistry of skin and pigmentation, hairs, scalp, lips and nail, Cleansing cream, Lotions, Face powders, Face packs, Lipsticks, Bath products, soaps and baby product,
Preparation and standardization of the following : Tonic, Bleaches, Dentifrices and Mouth washes & Tooth Pastes, Cosmetics for Nails.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
2. CELL ENVIRONMENT & CELL JUNCTIONS
DEPARTMENT OF PERIODONTOLOGY
AND ORAL IMPLANTOLOGY
GUIDED BY- DR.VINITI GOEL
PRESENTED BY- DR.MANISHA
DEOL
MDS 1YEAR
3. CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
HOW CELL TURNS NUTERIENTS INTO USABLE
ENERGY ?
WHAT SPECIFIC PATHWAYS DO CELLS USE ?
BODY FLUIDS
DERANGEMENTS OF BODY FLUID
HOMEOSTASIS
DISTURBANCES OF ELECTROLYTE
INTERACTION OF EXTRACELLULAR
ENVIRONMENT WITH ITERCELLULAR
ENVIRONMENT
CELL JUNCTIONS
CONCLUSION
REFRENCES
4. INTRODUCTION
PLASMA MEMBRANE
constitutes the boundary
between a living cell and its non-
living environment , materials
present outside the plasma
membrane play an important role
in the life of a cell.
The ability of tissue cell to stick to
one another is critical for many
physiological and pathological
processes.
5. HOW CELL TURNS NUTRIENTS INTO USABLE ENERGY?
CELL do not use the energy from oxidative
reactions as soon as it is released. They
convert it into small, energy -rich molecules
such as ATP &NADH(nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide).Enzymes(workhorse
proteins)used this chemical energy to
catalayze , or accelerate the reactions .
7. WHAT SPECIFIC PATHWAYS DO CELLS USE?
IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS, THREE MAJOR PATHWAYS ARE USED
TO TRANSFER ENERGY INTO MORE READILY USABLE FORM-
ATP
ATP, is the most abundant energy carrier molecule in the cells.
8. FIRST PROCESS IN THE EUKARYOTIC ENERGY PATHWAY
GLYCOLYSIS means Sugar splitting.
It occurs in cytoplasm.
In this ,single molecule of glucose (6-c) is splitting into two
molecules of pyruvate (3-c).
Glycolysis is actually a series of 10 chemical reactions that
require the input of 2 ATP MOLECULES.
This input is used to generate 4 new ATP MOLECULES and
NADH IS also produced.
In aerobic condition by glycolysis , cell produce pyruvate(32
ATP) or in anaerobic condition lactate (2 ATP).
Fermentation(DOES NOT REQIURE ENERGY) is also a ancient ,
major producing pathway that occurs in almost all cells .
9.
10.
11. SECOND PROCESS IN THE EUKARYOTIC ENERGY
PATHWAY
CITRIC ACID CYCLE or KREBS CYCLE or TRICARBOXYLIC ACID
CYCLE(TCA cycle).
When the oxygen is available , the pyruvates produced by glycolysis
become the input for the next portion of the eukaryotic energy pathway.
During this stage ,each pyruvate molecule in the cytoplasm enters the
mitochondrion , where it is converted in to ACETYL CO-A.
ACETYL CO-A is a two –carbon energy carrier ,and the third –carbon
combines with oxygen and it is released as carbon dioxide.
At the same time , an NADH carrier is generated.
Acetyl CO-A then enters a pathway called CITRIC ACID CYCLE.
IT is a 8 step chemical reaction, generates 3 more NADH molecules and 2
other carriers (FADH2 and GTP).
2-C ACETYL CO –A + 2-COXALOACETATE =6-C TRICARBOXYLIC ACID.
Total 24 ATP molecules are produced by this cycle.
12. THIRD PROCESS IN THE EUKARYOTIC ENERGY
PATHWAY
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN , catalyzed by several protein complexes
located in the mitochondrional inner membrane. This process called
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION.
IT TRANSFERS ELECTRON from NADH AND FADH2. through the
membrane protein complexes , ultimately to oxygen ,where they
combines to form water.
As the electron , travel through the protein complexes in the chain , a
gradient of hydrogen ions , or protons , forms across the mitochondrial
membrane.
CELL used the energy of this proton gradient to create 3 additional ATP
molecules for every electron that travels along the chain.
Together this processes occur in the mitochondria called
RESPIRATION , a term used for processes that couple the uptake of
oxygen and production of Carbon dioxide.
13. BODY FLUIDS
Body is made up of solids and fluids. Fluid part is more than two third
of the whole body. Water forms most of the fluid part of the body.
Total water in body is about 40L
It is distributed into two major components:-
Intracellular fluid (ICF) :-22L in volume and is 55% of total body water.
Extracellular fluid (ECF) :-18L in volume and is 45%of total body
water.
15. ECF is divided into 5
subunits:
Interstitial fluid and lymph (20%)
Intravascular fluid / Plasma
(7.5%)
Mesenchymal fluid / Fluid in
dense connective tissues like
cartilage (7.5%)
Fluid in bones (7.5%)
Transcellular fluid (2.5%) that
includes:
a) Cerebrospinal fluid
b) Intraocular fluid
c) Digestive juices
d) Synovial fluids in joints
e) Fluid in urinary tract
d) Serous fluid- intrapleural
fluid,
pericardial fluid and peritoneal
fluid.
16. ECF contains large
quantity of sodium, chloride,
bicarbonate, glucose,
fatty acids and oxygen
ICF contains large quantity
Potassium, Phosphate ,
magnesium,
Small amount of sodium,chloride,
pH of ECF = 7.4 and
pH ICF = 7.0
17. Dehydration
State of deprivation of water. Corresponding loss of
electrolytes’
Pathogenesis : decrease of body water decrease blood
volume withdrawal of fluid from interstitial
compartment with hyperosmolality . shifting of
intercellular water to extracellular compartment resulting in
cellular dehydration.
Causes
Deficient water intake. e.g. dysphagia, starvation.
Excessive loss of water. e.g. diabeties insipidus,
pyrexia
18. Applied physiology
Dehydration
Dehydration is defined as the excessive loss of water from the body.
Daily water requirement is 1litre and for active individual 2-3 liters
Mild dehydration: fluid loss is about 5%of total body fluids
Moderate dehydration: fluid loss is about 10% of total body fluids
Severe dehydration: fluid loss is more than 15% of total body fluids.
Causes are:- severe diarrhea and vomiting, excess urinary output ,
insufficient intake of water, excess sweating, use of laxatives or
diuretics.
19. Water intoxication or Overhydration
Condition characterized by great increase in water content
of the body.
Also known as hyperhydration , water excess or water
poisoning.
When kidney have a restricted ability to dilute the urine.
when large amounts of pure water is given. It results in
expansion of extracellular fluid compartment or sodium in
your blood to drop too low (hyponatreima) with reduced
osmolality and intracellular edema.
Derangements in body fluids
20. Causes :
a)Heart failure in which heart cannot pump blood properly.
b) Renal disorders.
c) Hypersecretion of anti diuretic hormone (vasopressin).
d) IV or oral administration of unduly large amount of medication
and fluids. eg drugs containing estrogen , hormone
replacement therepy , NSAID’S
e) Infants is first month of life as kidney is underdeveloped.
f) An adult whose liver and heart working normally can develop
overhydration rarely if person consumes 8L water everyday
regularly
g) Children having swimming practice.
21. Edema
Abnormal or excessive collection of fluid in the interstitial tissue
space and serous cavities.
Edema may be of different types:
1. Localized- Inflammatory , lymphatics , toxic ,
2. allergy.
3. Generalized- renal , cardiac , nutritional.
4. Special- Pulmonary , cerebral.
Edema fluid can be : Transudate or Exudate.
22.
23. DISTUBANCES IN ELECTROLYTES
The pH of arterial plasma is normally 7.40 +0.5 or -0.5 and venous
plasma is slightly lower.
Decrease in pH below normal is acidosis.
Increase in pH above normal is alkalosis.
It depends on :
1.concentration of bicarbonate ion.
2.pCO2 that determines concentration of bicarbonate.
24. METABOLIC ACIDOSIS:
Fall in pH because of fall of bicarbonate ions and increased
H+ ions . E.g. lactic acidosis , chronic renal failure.
This occurs when strong acids are added to blood. E.g. If
large amount of acid is ingested. E.g. , in Aspirin overdose
acids in blood are quickly increased lowering the available
buffers.
METABOLIC ALKALOSIS:
Rise in pH due to rise in HCO3-
level of plasma and loss of H+
ions .
E.g. Severe and prolonged vomiting, Cushing’s syndrome .
25.
26. RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS:
Fall in blood pH due to raised Pco2 as a consequence to under
ventilation of lungs. E.g. Air obstruction in bronchitis, asthma.
Rise in blood pH due to lowered Pco2 as a
consequence to hyperventilation of lungs. E.g.
Hysterical over breathing, working at high
temperature, at high altitudes.
RESPIRATORY ALKALOSIS
27.
28. Homeostasis
Homeo = same ; Stasis = standing.
‘Homeostasis’ refers to maintenance of constant internal environment of
the body.
In 19th century great biologist Claude Bernard said that multicellular organism
including man live in a perfectly organized and controlled internal
environment, which he called as ‘milieu interieur’.
The term homeostasis was coined by Harvard Professor,
Walter B Cannon in 1930.
29. Role of various system of the body in
homeostasis
The ph of the ECF has to be maintained at the critical value of 7.4.
Tissue cannot survive if this is altered. Decrease in ph is known as
acidosis, or increase in ph is known as alkalosis. Respiratory system, blood
and kidney help in regulation of ph.
Ideal body temperature is 37.5 degree Celsius. Alteration in this temperature
alters metabolic activity of cell.
Skin, respiratory system, digestive system, excretory system, skeletal
muscle and nervous system maintains the body temperature.
30. Nutrients are essential for variety of cells and
growth of tissue. Nutrients must be digested,
absorbed into blood and supplied to cells.
Digestive and circulatory system play a major role
in supply.
Adequate amount of oxygen should be supplied to
cell as well as carbon dioxide and other waste
products should also be removed. Respiratory
system is involved in supply of oxygen and removal
of carbon dioxide while kidneys and excretory
31. Hormones are essential for the metabolism of
nutrients and other substance necessary for the
cell. Endocrine system help to maintain the
synthesis and release of appropriate amount of
hormones.
Water and electrolyte balance should be
maintained. Otherwise it will lead to dehydration,
water toxicity and alteration in osmolality of body
fluids. Kidney, skin ,salivary glands and GIT takes
care of this.
32. NORMAL WATER BALANCE
Average water intake is 2800 ml / day.
Water is eliminated from the body via kidney in the form of urine (1500
ml/day), via skin (800ml/ day), via lungs (400ml/day), via faces
(100ml/day).
33. NORMAL ELECTROLYTE BALANCE
A number of acids such as carbonic, phosphoric,
sulfuric, lactic, hydrochloride, ketoacids are formed
during normal metabolic activity.
Regulation of Acid Base Balance occurs with the
help of a Buffer System.
Buffers are weak acids and strong bases which limit
change in H+ ion concentration by taking up H+
when pH rises.
They form first line of defense in regulating pH.
34. Interaction between extracellular and intracellular
environment:
Cell membrane allows water & nonpolar molecules
to permeate by simple diffusion cell membranes ,
however also have to allow passage of various polar
molecule such as ions, sugars, amino acids,
nucleotides and many cell metabolites.
Membrane proteins are responsible for this
transferring of solute across cell membrane known
as membrane transport proteins.
35. There are two major classes of proteins.
-Carrier proteins
-Channel proteins
The lipid bilayer cell membrane of cell is not
miscible with either the extracellular fluid or the
intracellular fluid.
Therefore, it constitutes a barrier against movement
of water molecules and water-soluble substances
between the extracellular and intracellular fluid
compartments.
37. Cell membrane transport: exchange mechanism
PASSIVE PROCESSES
-Simple Diffusion
-Facilitated Diffusion: Osmosis (require carrier protein)
ACTIVE PROCESSES
-Active transport (require carrier protein and energy)
-Vesicular or bulk transport
1. Exocytosis
2.Endocytosis ( Phagocytosis &
Pinocytosis)
38. Passive transport:
Transport along the concentration gradient or electrical gradient or
both electrochemical gradient is called passive transport it is also
known as diffusion or downhill transport.
It does not need energy.
It is of two types:
- Simple Diffusion
-Facilitated Diffusion
39.
40. SIMPLE DIFFUSION
Kinetic movement of molecules or ions occurs through
intermolecular spaces without any interaction with carrier
proteins in the membrane.
Diffusion rate is related to temperature, pressure, state of
matter, concentration gradient, and surface area of membrane.
Rate of diffusion is determined by amount of substances
available, the velocity of kinetic motion, number and sizes of
opening in cell membrane through which molecule or ions can
move.
41. Simple diffusion can occur through cell membrane by two pathways:
1. Through interstices of lipid bilayer if the diffusing substance is lipid
soluble.
2. Through watery channels that penetrate all the way through some of
the large transport protein.
42. FACILITATED DIFFUSION
Facilitated diffusion is the net movement of molecules from a high
concentration to a low concentration with the aid of channel or carrier
proteins.
Carrier proteins aids passage of the molecules or ions through the
membrane by binding chemically with them and shuttling through the
membrane.
E.g. Ions (Na+, K+, Cl-), Sugars (Glucose), Amino Acids, Small water
soluble molecules, and water
43. OSMOSIS
Osmosis is the net diffusion of water across a selectively permeable
membrane from a region of high water concentration to one that has a
lower water concentration.
(Guyton A.C, Hall J.E-
The Book of Medical
Physiology. 11th edition)
44. TONICITY
Tonicity refers to the total solute concentration of the solution outside
the cell. There are three types of tonicity:
1. ISOTONIC: no net movement of water.
2. HYPOTONIC: cell gain water and swell.
3. HYPERTONIC: cell loose water and shrink.
45. Active transport:
Movement of substances against the chemical or electrical or both
(electrochemical) gradient is called active transport.
Also kas uphill transport.
It requires energy which is obtained by the breakdown of high
energy compounds ATP.
46. Active transport is divided into two types according to the source
of the energy used for transport:
1. Primary active transport: Energy is derived directly from
breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) or of some other
high-energy phosphate compound.
2. Secondary active transport: Energy is derived secondarily from
energy that has been stored in the form of ionic concentration
differences between the two sides of a cell membrane, created
originally by primary active transport.
47. In both instances, transport depends on carrier proteins that
penetrate through the cell membrane, as is true for facilitated
diffusion.
However, in active transport, the carrier protein functions
differently from the carrier in facilitated diffusion because it is
capable of imparting energy to the transported substance to
move it against the electrochemical gradient.
48. Vesicular or bulk transport
Large particles and other substances can be moved between
the external environment, the plasma membrane, and the
interior of the cell via:
a) Exocytosis
b)Endocytosis
-Phagocytosis
-Pinocytosis
49. Exocytosis
It is the process by which a
vesicle moves from the
cytoplasm to the plasma
membrane where it discharges
its contents to the extracellular
space. There are two general
pathways of exocytosis:
1. Constitutive pathway
2. Regulated secretory pathway
50. Constitutive pathway: continuous process where proteins are
secreted immediately after their synthesis, as seen in the
secretion of immunoglobulins by plasma cells and of
tropocollagen by fibroblasts.
Regulated secretory pathway: proteins are concentrated and
transiently stored before they are excreted out of the cell, as
seen in the release of zymogens granules by chief cells of the
gastric mucosa and by acinar cells of the pancreas.
51. Endocytosis:
Movement of large molecules
into the cell by engulfing them in
vesicles, using ATP energy is
known as endocytosis.
It can be of two types:
1. Phagocytosis
2. Pinocytosis
52. PINOCYTOSIS PHAGOCYTOSIS
1.It is the bulk intake of fluid material by a
cell.
1. It is the intake of solid material from
outside to inside of cell.
2.Vesicles are small 100-200 nm in diameter. 2. Vesicles formed are large, 1-2μm in
diameter.
3.Membrane possesses receptor pits for
receiving the materials.
3. Receptor pits are absent.
4.Digestion or breakdown of absorbed food
may or may not occur. Accordingly a food
vacuole may or may not formed.
4. A digestive or food vacuole is formed
from a phagosome.
5.Lysosomes play no role in utilization of
absorbed materials if digestion is not
involved.
5. Lysosomes are essential because solid
substance taken in by phagocytosis
require digestion.
6. There is no exocytosis 6. The undigested parts of the solid
materials are thrown out by exocytosis .
53. (Guyton A.C, Hall J.E- The Book of Medical Physiology. 11th edition)
54.
55. CELL JUNCTIONS
When cell come into contact with one another, sometimes
with the extracellular matrix specialized junctions may form
at specific sites on contacting cell membrane.
Cell junction is also known as intercellular bridge.
These are abundant in epithelial tissues.
56. SPECIALIZED JUNCTION MAY BE
CLASSIFIED INTO SEVERAL DIFFERENT
CATEGORIES:
OCCLUDING (TIGHT) JUNCTIONS/ZONULA
OCCLUDENS
ADHESIVE JUNCTIONS
1. Cell-to-cell
Zonula adherens
Macula adherens
(Desmosomes)
2. CELL-TO-MATRIX
Focal adhesions
Hemidesmosomes
COMMUNICATING (GAP) JUNCTIONS
57.
58. Occluding junctions/ Tight junctions/ Zonula
Occludens
● Opposing cell membrane are held in close contact by the
presence of transmembrane adhesive proteins arranged in
anastomosing strands that encircle the cell.
● Intercellular space is obliterated at the tight junctions.
● Transmembrane adhesive proteins are:
-Occludin
-Members of Claudine
family
-
59.
60. Several cytoplasmic proteins associated with intercellular portion of
transmembrane proteins like:
-cell polarity related proteins
-vesicular transport related proteins
-kinases
-transcription factors
-tumour suppressor protein
Some cytoplasmic protein of tight junction bind to actin filaments.
61. BARRIER FUNCTION: Tight junctions controls the passage of
materials through the intercellular spaces (from interstitium to
the lumen of the gland).
MAINTAINENCE OF CELL POLARITY: Fencing function maintain two major
domains of the cell membrane by keeping proteins in apical
region.
-Apical surface
-Basolateral surface
62. FENCING FUNCTION: Tight junction prevents lateral movement of proteins
and lipids in cell membranes thus, act as a fence . Due to this it is
sometimes referred as impermeable junction.
Tightness of junction is specifically related to claudin and is
correlated with number of strands of transmembrane proteins.
BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER: These are present in brain capillaries and forms
the blood brain barrier, which prevent the entry of many substances
into brain and allows only lipid soluble substances like drugs and
steroid hormone to enter into brain.
63. ● Tightness of junction is specifically related to claudin and
is correlated with number of strands of transmembrane
proteins.
● Tight junction joining salivary glands secretory cells have
only 2 or 3 Junctional strands and are relatively permeable
to water , whereas those joining salivary gland striated duct
cells may have 6 to 9 strands and are relatively
impermeable to water. The permeability of tight junctions in
some tissue may be regulated by certain neurotransmitter
and hormones.
64. Current model of tight junctions:
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF CELL
3rd edition
ALBERT BRAY LEWIS RAFF ROBERTS WATSON
● It is postulated that the
sealing
strands that hold
adjacent plasma
membranes together are
formed by
Continuous strands of
transmembrane
Junctional proteins,
which make
contact across the
intercellular
space and create a seal.
65. Leaky tight junctions:
In some situations occlusion of the gaps between the adjoining cells may be
incomplete and the junction may allow slow diffusion of molecules across it.
These are referred to as leaky tight junctions.
66. Applied physiology: disease caused if protein encoding
for tight junctions are mutated.
Hereditary deafness
Ichthyosis (genetic disorder –dry, scaly, thickened skin)
Sclerosing cholengitis (inflammation of bile duct causing obstruction)
Hereditary hypomagnesemia
Synovial sarcoma (soft tissue cancer)
67. ADHESIVE JUNCTIONS
● These junctions hold the cells
together or anchor cells to
extracellular matrix.
● Intercellular space is maintained
at ~ 25nm-30 nm
● Important in cellular signalling.
68. ● Their cytoplasmic components may interact with the
cytoskeleton, triggering changes in cell shape or motility or
with certain tumor suppressor molecule or may act as
nuclear transcription factors or co activators.
● Sometimes loss of cell-cell or cell-matrix contact may lead
to apoptosis . Whereas in other cases loss of contact may
lead to loss of polarity & differentiation or unregulated cell
proliferation.
69. They are of 2 types of adhering junctions:
a. Cell to cell:
-Zonula Adherens
-Macula Adherens (Desmosomes)
b. Cell to matrix: Hemi-Desmosomes
70. Zonula adherens
Cell–to–cell adherens junction in epithelial sheets often forms a
continuous adhesion belts k/as zonula adherens around each of the interacting cells
in the sheets located near the apex just below the tight junctions.
The adhesion belt in adjacent epithelial cells are directly opposed and
the interacting plasma membrane are held together by membrane linker
protein that are members of calcium dependent cell-cell adhesion
molecule called cadherins.
71. Cytoplasmic adapters of cadherins : E cadherins, alpha and beta catenins
Cytoskeletal components: Actin filaments
Other: Nectin – it establishes initial adhesion site for e-cadherins
and other protiens.
Sites: Adherens junctions are present in the intercalated disks in
heart between the branches of cardiac muscles. During the
contraction and relaxation of heart, cardiac muscle fiber are held
together by means of this junction. Adherens junction in skin
helps to withstand mechanical stress.
72. Diagram showing molecular structure of adhering
junction.
Cadherins are
Membrane linker proteins.
Cytoplasmic adapters are Catenins
alpha and beta. They interact with
Cytoplasmic domain of cadherin.
Cytoskeletal component are
Actin filaments.
Nectin is initial adhesion site
E-cadherins & other proteins.
P120 catenin stabilize the junction.
Affadin links nectin to actin filament.
Alpha actinin & ponsin links affadin and
Vinculin.
Ten Cate’s
73. Macula adherens /desmosomes
Desmosomes is a cell-cell junction , where intermediate
filament connect two adjacent cells to form continuous network
through out the tissue.
Also called macula adherens.
These are button like points of intercellular contact that rivets
cell together.
Intermediate filaments are attached with thickened patches.
Some of these filaments are parallel to membrane others are
arranged in radiating fashion.
74. The transmembrane protein present mainly belong to cadherin
family of calcium dependent cell-cell adhesion molecule.
The cadherins are desmoglein and desmocollin. The interaction of
these transmembrane protiens with those of the adjacent cells
results in dense line in middle of intercellular space at the
desmosome.
Catenins are desmoplakin, plakoglobin, plakophilin. These form
electrodense plaque on cytoplasmic side of desmosome. These
plaque serve as attachment site for cytoskeletal component which
are intermidiate filaments.
75. Desmosome in gingival epithelium
Cohesion between merkel cells and between stratum spinosum of
keratinized gingival epithelium is provided by desmosomes.
A desmosome may be considered to be 2 hemidesmosomes facing one
another, separated by a zone containing electron dense granulated
material (GM).
76. Thus a desmosome comprises the following
structural components:
1. The outer leaflets (OL) of the cell membrane of two
adjoining cells.
2. The thick inner leaflets (IL) of the cell membranes.
3. The attachment plaques (AP) which represent granular
and fibrillar material in the cytoplasm.
The presence of a large number of desmosomes indicates
that the epithelial cells are solid.
78. This is the diagram from the stratum
basale to the stratum granulosum.
Both the no of tonofilaments (f) in the
cytoplasm & no of desmosomes (D)
increases.
No of organelles such as mitochondria
(M), lamellae of RER (E) , golgi
complexes (G) decreases in
keratinocytes on their way from basal cell
layer to surface.
In stratum granulosum, electron dense
keratohyline bodies & clusters of
glycogen containing granule start to occur
79. Applied physiology:
The importance of desmosomes in holding cells together is
demonstrated by form of potentially fatal disease, pemphigus. In
which individual make antibodies against one of their own
desmosomal cadherin protiens these antibodies binds to and
disrupts desmosomes between skin epithelial cells causing
severe blistering as a result of leakage of body fluids into
loosened epithelium.
80. Hemidesmosomes (cell-matrix junction)
They are the variant of the spot like adhering junctions, has
the structure of only half a desmosome.
This type of junction bonds epithelial cells to their underlying
basement membrane and is well developed under the basal
layer of the epidermis.
Protiens involved are mainly integrins.
81. Interface between basal cells of gingival
epithelium and basal lamina or basement
membrane facing connective tissue
BC: basal cell
LL: lamina lucida
LD: lamina densa
HD: hemidesmosome
AF: anchoring fibres
CT: cytoplasmic
tonofilaments
(Clinical Periodontology and Implant Dentistry by Jan Lindhe , 5th edititon)
82. Interface between junctional epithelium and tooth
E: enamel
1: space between JE & E,
continuation LD in the
basement membrane of
the connective tissue side.
2: continuation of LL
LL: lamina lucida
LD: lamina densa
AF: anchoring fibres
(Clinical Periodontology and Implant Dentistry by Jan Lindhe , 5th edititon)
83. Epithelial rests are surrounded by a distinct basal lamina,
and are interconnected by hemidesmosomes and contain
tonofilaments
(Clinical Periodontology and Implant Dentistry by Jan Lindhe , 5th edititon)
84. Applied physiology:
Like desmosomes some , the adapter proteins , bullous
pemphigoid antigen 230 (BP230) & plectin , form a dens plaque on the
cytoplasmic surface of hemidesmosomes which functions as
the attachment site for intermediate filaments.
85. Communicating /Gap junction
Gap junctions are plaque like regions of cell membrane where
intercellular space narrows to 2 nm to 3 nm & transmembrane protiens
of connexin family forms aqueous channels between the cytoplasm of
adjacent cells.
Permeability properties of a gap junction depends on the distribution of
specific proteins in specific tissues.
(Ten cate’s)
86. 6 connexin molecule forms a connexon which has a central channel of
2 nm in diameter.
Connexon in one cell gets paired with the connexon of adjacent cell to
create a patent channel.
Small molecule like ions and signalling molecules can move readily
from one cell to another & allows coordinated response to the stimulus
by the cells that are interconnected.
87. These channels in the gap junction enable ions and small
molecules including amino acids, sugars, nucleotides, and
steroids to pass directly from one cell to another without the
need for such constituents to enter the intercellular space.
Gap junctions are important where rapid communication
between adjacent cells is required as in smooth and cardiac
muscles.
In smooth muscles: gap junction is called a nexus.
Ten cate’s
88. In cardiac muscles: gap junction forms a part of intercalated
disc.
Diameter of the channel is controlled by the calcium level , if
clalcium level increases the diameter decreases and if calcium
level decreases diameter increases.
Diameter also depends upon pH , electrical potential , hormones
and neurotransmitters.
89. Gap junction diagram &electron micrographs
Single connexon consists of 6
connexin molecule.
Central channel Is
aopproximately 2nm in diameter.
90. Applied physiology:
Mutations in genes coding for connexins may cause:
Deafness
Keratoderma (thickening of skin on palms and soles)
Cataract
Peripheral neuropathy
Heterotaxia (abnormal arrangements of right and left symmetry of body
organs or parts).
91.
92.
93. Conclusion:
Cells in tissues are linked to one another and to the
extracellular matrix at specialized contact sites called cell
junctions. Thus , becoming chemically and electrically
coupled.
As long as normal conditions are maintained in the internal
environment , cell of the body continuous to live and function
properly.
Each cell contributes in homeostasis & each cell benefits from
homeostasis in turn . This reciprocal interplay provides
continuous automaticity to the body . If it is disturbed then all
cells suffer.
94. References
Alberts B, Bray D, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Watson J.D- Molecular
Biology of The Cell, 3rd edition.
Guyton A.C, Hall J.E- The Book of Medical Physiology, 11th edition.
Kim E.Barrett, Susan M.Barmun, Scott Boitano, Hedwnn L.Brook’s
GANONG’S REVIEW OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY, 23rd edition
K.SEMBULINGAM Essential Of Medical Physiology
Molecular and Cell biology of the Gingiva, PERIODONTOLOGY 2000,
VOL 24, PG 28-55
Essentials of cell biology ,book by alexander johnson , dennis bray,
julian lewis and peter walter