The document discusses the history and classification of bacteria. It notes that Anton Van Leeuwenhoek first observed bacteria under a microscope in 1676 and they were later named "bacteria" by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg in 1838. The document then describes various morphological classifications of bacteria based on their shape, including cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), spiral, and others. It provides examples for different arrangements within each morphological group.
Nutrient media – A source of amino acids and nitrogen (e.g., beef, yeast extract). This is an undefined medium because the amino acid source contains a variety of compounds with the exact composition being unknown
Nutrient media – A source of amino acids and nitrogen (e.g., beef, yeast extract). This is an undefined medium because the amino acid source contains a variety of compounds with the exact composition being unknown
i have make this slide from different medical books... i hope this slide well be help you and will increased your knowledge.. Just pray for me and to my parents and also to my teachers ,,,. thank you......
Bachelor in Medical Laboratory Technology is a three and a half year undergraduate course which focuses on diagnosis, prevention and treatment of diseases with the help of medical lab technology or laboratory tests. This course offers help to the students who wish to pursue their career in the field related to laboratories such as management in laboratories, instrumentation in laboratories and advancement in laboratories. This course aims at giving thorough knowledge to the students theoretically as well as practically.
Bacteria are microbes with a cell structure simpler than that of many other organisms. Their control centre, containing the genetic information, is contained in a single loop of DNA. Some bacteria have an extra circle of genetic material called a plasmid rather than a nucleus. The plasmid often contains genes that give the bacterium some advantage over other bacteria. For example it may contain a gene that makes the bacterium resistant to a certain antibiotic.
Bacteria are classified into five groups according to their basic shapes: spherical (cocci), rod (bacilli), spiral (spirilla), comma (vibrios) or corkscrew (spirochaetes). They can exist as single cells, in pairs, chains or clusters.
i have make this slide from different medical books... i hope this slide well be help you and will increased your knowledge.. Just pray for me and to my parents and also to my teachers ,,,. thank you......
Bachelor in Medical Laboratory Technology is a three and a half year undergraduate course which focuses on diagnosis, prevention and treatment of diseases with the help of medical lab technology or laboratory tests. This course offers help to the students who wish to pursue their career in the field related to laboratories such as management in laboratories, instrumentation in laboratories and advancement in laboratories. This course aims at giving thorough knowledge to the students theoretically as well as practically.
Bacteria are microbes with a cell structure simpler than that of many other organisms. Their control centre, containing the genetic information, is contained in a single loop of DNA. Some bacteria have an extra circle of genetic material called a plasmid rather than a nucleus. The plasmid often contains genes that give the bacterium some advantage over other bacteria. For example it may contain a gene that makes the bacterium resistant to a certain antibiotic.
Bacteria are classified into five groups according to their basic shapes: spherical (cocci), rod (bacilli), spiral (spirilla), comma (vibrios) or corkscrew (spirochaetes). They can exist as single cells, in pairs, chains or clusters.
Ultrastructure and characterstic features of bacteria.Archana Shaw
Ultrastructure and characterstic features of bacteria: BACTERIA AS A MODEL ORGANISM
THIS WAS MY PRESENTATION TOPIC IN CLASS. THOUGHT OF SHARING IT AND HOPE IT HELPS.
Morphologically bacteria can resemble:
Cocci (Singular: coccus)
Bacilli (rods) (Singular: rod, bacillus)
Vibrios (Singular: vibrio)
Spirilla (Singular: spirillum)
Spirochaetes (Singular: spirochaete)
Morphology of Bacteria
These are round or oval bacteria measuring about 0.5–1.0 um in diameter. When multiplying, cocci may form pairs, chains, or irregular groups:
cocci in pairs are called diplococci, e.g. meningococci and gonococci.
cocci in chains are called streptococci, e.g. Streptococcus pyogenes.
cocci in irregular groups are called staphylococci, e.g. Staphylococcus aureus.
Gram reaction: Staphylococci and streptococci are Gram-positive, whereas diplococci can be Gram-positive or Gram
negative.
When multiplying, bacterial
rods do not usually remain attached to one another, but separate. Occasionally, however, they may:
form chains, e.g. Streptobacillus species.
form branching chains, e.g. lactobacilli.
mass together, e.g. Mycobacterium leprae.
remain attached at various angles resembling Chinese letters, e.g. Corynebacterium diphtheriae.
The rods of the genera Bacillus and Clostridium are able to form resistant spores when conditions for vegetative growth are unfavorable. Many rods are motile having a single flagellum, or several flagella, at one or both ends or
surrounding the entire organism.
Gram reaction: Many rods are Gram-negative such as the large group of enterobacteria. Gram-positive rods include
Clostridium species, Corynebacterium species, Bacillus anthracis, and Listeria monocytogenes.
Note: Some coccobacilli, such as Yersinia species, show bipolar staining when stained with methylene blue or Giemsa.
These are small slightly curved rods measuring 3–4 um in length by 0.5 um in width. Most vibrios are motile with a single flagellum at one end. They show rapid darting motility, e.g. Vibrio cholerae.
Gram reaction: Vibrios are Gram-negative.
These are small, regularly coiled, rigid organisms measuring about 3–4 um in length. Each coil measures about 1 um. Spirilla are motile with groups of flagella at both ends. An example of a spirillum is Spirillum minus.
Gram reaction: Spirilla are Gram negative.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
3. 7/30/2020
Prof. Sohani Solanke, P. R. Pote Patil College
of Pharmacy, Amravati3
What are Bacteria?
“Bacteria are the unicellular
microorganisms which have cell walls
but lack most of the organelles and an
organized nucleus, that thrive in
diverse environments And can be
Beneficial or causing disease.”
6. 7/30/2020
Prof. Sohani Solanke, P. R. Pote Patil College
of Pharmacy, Amravati6
In 1676, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek first observed
bacteria through a microscope and called them
“animalcules.”
In 1838, the German Naturalist Christian Gottfried
Ehrenberg called them bacteria, from the Greek
baktḗria, meaning "little stick."
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Prof. Sohani Solanke, P. R. Pote Patil College
of Pharmacy, Amravati9
Cocci
•Greek Word ‘Kokko’ means Berries
•The bacteria that are oval or spherical in shape are included
called cocci bacteria.
•These may either remain single or attached to one another in
groups. They appear flattened when placed in groups.
•It is assumed that coccoid forms were derived from rod-
shaped organisms through evolutionary time.
10. 7/30/2020Prof. Sohani Solanke, P. R. Pote Patil College of Pharmacy,10
Diplococci:
•This arrangement results when two bacterial cells occur as a pair (joined
together).
•Some of the cells in this arrangement might remain spherical while some
might appear flattened, elongated, or bean-shaped.
•Examples: Streptococcus pneumonia, Moraxella catarrhalis, Enterococcus
spp, Neisseria gonorrhea.
Tetrad
•Tetrad bacteria are arranged in a group of four cells that remain attached and
grow in the attachment after cell division.
•This arrangement results when the cells divide into two planes.
•Examples: Aerococcus, Pediococcus, and Tetragenococcus.
Sarcina
•In this arrangement, the bacterial cells form a group of eight cells.
•This happens when the cells divide in a perpendicular plane.
•The common characteristic associated with these organisms is being strict
11. 7/30/2020
Prof. Sohani Solanke, P. R. Pote Patil College
of Pharmacy, Amravati11
Streptococci
•Here, the bacteria are arranged in long chains.
•These bacteria are present in family Streptococcaceae,
which is characterized by a lack of motility and Gram-
positive bacteria.
•Examples: Streptococcus pyogenes,
Streptococcus pneumonia, Streptococcus mutans.
Staphylococci
•This type includes bacteria that are arranged in grape-like
clusters.
•This results from cell division in both the planes and are
characterized by organisms which are immotile and Gram-
positive.
•Examples: Staphylococcus epidermidis,
Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Staphylococcus aureus,
12. 7/30/2020
Prof. Sohani Solanke, P. R. Pote Patil College
of Pharmacy, Amravati12
Bacilli (Rod-shaped)
•Greek Word ‘Bacilus’ means ‘Rod/Stick’
•These are rod-shaped cells that also like cocci, remain
either single or attached to other cells.
•Bacilli bacteria are among the first bacteria to have arisen,
and this shape is said to be not as advantageous as other
shapes. This has been assumed upon the observation of the
behavior of filamentous E. coli cells which, though motile
and chemotactic, move slowly and cannot tumble to change
direction.
13. 7/30/2020
Prof. Sohani Solanke, P. R. Pote Patil College
of Pharmacy, Amravati13
Bacillus
•Bacilli are the bacteria which are rod-shaped and are present as single cells.
•These bacteria can form endospores and are facultative anaerobes.
•Examples: Salmonella enterica subsp, Bacillus cereus, and Salmonella choleraesuis.
Diplobacilli
•As in Diplococci, Diplobacilli also exists in pairs.
•After cell division, the two cells do not divide and grow in an attached arrangement.
•Examples: Coxiella burnetii, Klebsiella rhinoscleromatis, Moraxella bovis.
Streptobacilli
•In this group, bacteria are arranged in chains.
•This results from cell division in a single chain.
•Examples: Streptobacillus moniliformis, Streptobacillus Levaditi, Streptobacillus felis,
Streptobacillus hongkongensis.
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Prof. Sohani Solanke, P. R. Pote Patil College
of Pharmacy, Amravati14
Spiral
•This group includes bacteria that are either helical-shaped or
curved (comma-shaped).
•The bacteria can range from slightly curved to corkscrew-like
spiral.
1. Vibrio:
•These are the slightly curved bacteria resembling a comma
shape.
•Examples: Vibrio mytili, Vibrio anguillarum,
Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio cholera.
15. 7/30/2020
Prof. Sohani Solanke, P. R. Pote Patil College
of Pharmacy, Amravati15
2. Spirochetes:
•Spirochetes are spiral bacteria having a helical shape.
•These are flexible and have an axial filament which helps in motility.
These filaments are essential distinguishing character between
spirochetes and other bacteria.
•These filaments run throughout the length of the bacteria and thus,
help in twisting the motion of the bacteria.
•Examples: Leptospiraspecies (Leptospira interrogans), Treponema
pallidum, Borrelia recurrentis.
3. Spirilla (Helical-shaped/Corkscrew form):
•These bacteria are similar in structure with spirochetes but are more
rigid.
•They, too, have a flagellum but lack the endoflagella like in
spirochetes.
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Prof. Sohani Solanke, P. R. Pote Patil College
of Pharmacy, Amravati16
Coccobacilli Pallisades
Exceptions:
Example: Corynebacterium
diphtheria
Examples: Chlamydia trachomatis,
Haemophilus influenza, Gardnerella
vaginalis.
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Prof. Sohani Solanke, P. R. Pote Patil College
of Pharmacy, Amravati18
Appendaged Bacteria
The bacteria that produce a unique structure like pillus or fimbriae are
called appendaged bacteria.
These bacteria are more virulent than other bacteria that do not form
these appendages.
Example: Neisseria gonorrheae, the agent of Gonorrhea.
Box-shaped/ Rectangular Bacteria
Box-shaped bacteria are rectangular in shape and resemble a box.
Example: Haloarcula marismortui.
19. 7/30/2020
Prof. Sohani Solanke, P. R. Pote Patil College
of Pharmacy, Amravati19
Club-shaped Rod Bacteria
These bacteria are thinner on one side than the other.
One of the classic examples of this group is Corynebacterium.
Filamentous Bacteria
These are bacteria that are long, thin, and filament-shaped.
They, sometimes, divide to form branches resembling strands of hair or
spaghetti called mycelium.
Example: Actinomycetes.
Triangular-shaped Bacteria
This group includes bacteria that are triangular in shape.
Example: Haloarcula.
20. 7/30/2020
Prof. Sohani Solanke, P. R. Pote Patil College
of Pharmacy, Amravati20
Pleomorphic Bacteria
The bacteria that do not have a specified shape are included in this
group.
They can change their shape, but in pure culture, they appear to have a
definite form.
Examples: Mycoplasma pneumoniae, M. genitalium.
Stalked Bacteria
These are the bacteria that possess a stalk on one end of the cell.
Examples: Caulobacter crescentus.
Star-shaped Bacteria
The bacteria that look like stars or are star-shaped are included in this
group.
Examples: Stella humosa.
