An automobile is a motor vehicle used for transportation that runs on roads. Most have seating for 1-8 people and four wheels. Automobiles have various controls for driving, safety, and passenger comfort. Over time, additional features like backup cameras and entertainment systems have been added. Electric vehicles are becoming more commercially available. While automobiles provide transportation benefits, they also have societal costs like road maintenance and pollution. There are over 1 billion vehicles globally. Automobiles can be classified by purpose, size, fuel source, transmission, wheels, and side of driver seat placement. Key components include the frame, engine, transmission, controls, and accessories. Braking and four-wheel drive systems are important safety systems.
Mercedes benz service centre training reportPanchal Anand
Industrial training (Internship) Report.
Mercedes_benz Service centre.
Abstract: As a Mechanical Engineering Student I am very interested in automobile Engineering. I always keen to learn different mechanisms used in vehicles, I used to watch animated videos on YouTube about automobile mechanisms like Differential, Automatic transmission gearbox etc, but I never watched it in real. So, it was a great opportunity for me to do two weeks internship at Mercedes-benz Service centre, Ambli, Ahmedabad. The internship was concentrated on the car services. At the beginning of the internship I had several queries in my mind regarding the different technologies used in Mercedes-benz and what skills are needed in organization. During my internship several queries are cleared by doing some activities. The objective of this internship is to understand working of different mechanisms, to get knowledge of regular services and the major-minor problem that can be observed in day to day life. Apart from technical knowledge, I also learnt rules and safety instruction, Inventory management, Quality Control. I realize the responsibility of technicians working on the car. So, this internship was a great experience. I found out how much I am strong in automobile field. I gained new knowledge and skills and met many new people. Working together with people having different background and education was great experience. I also accompanied by other 2-3 students who were also on industrial training, so it was nice knowledge sharing. I achieved many of my learning goals. I got insight into the work of an organization. At last this internship has given me new insights and motivation to pursue a career in mechanical engineering.
The document is a PowerPoint presentation on automobile engineering given by Assistant Professor Mahesh Kumar. It covers topics such as the basic concepts of automobile engineering, classifications of automobiles, transmission systems including clutches, gear ratios, driveshafts and differentials, and other systems like steering, brakes and suspension. The presentation provides an overview of key terms and components in automobile engineering.
This document discusses and defines different car body styles including 4x4, city car, coupe, estate, hatchback, MPV, saloon, and sports car. It provides details on each style such as 4x4 having all-wheel drive for rough terrain, city cars being compact for urban use, coupes having two doors and two or four seats, estates having additional cargo space, and hatchbacks having rear doors that open upward. MPVs are designed for multiple purposes like passenger and cargo transport, saloons have separate bonnets and boots, and sports cars prioritize handling and speed over comfort.
1. A vehicle frame provides the main structure and supports all other vehicle components.
2. Frames can be classified as conventional, integral, or semi-integral depending on how the frame is constructed and integrated with the body.
3. Common frame types include ladder frames, backbone frames, X-frames, perimeter frames, platform frames, and unibody/unitized frames. Subframes are also used to isolate vibration.
What is a Chassis?
Different Types of Chassis
Ladder frame chassis
Tubular space frame chassis
Aluminum space frame
ULSAB Monocoque chassis
Back bone frame chassis
Introduction to Monocoque Design
What is Monocoque construction?
Where is this used?
Origin of Monocoque design
History of Monocoque Frame
Construction of conventional, semi integral & integral type vehiclesKowshigan S V
There are three main types of vehicle frame construction:
1. Conventional frame construction uses a separate ladder frame that supports all vehicle systems and attaches to a separate body, providing higher strength but more vibration. It is used in trucks, buses, and larger SUVs.
2. Integral frame construction has no separate frame, with all assembly units attached directly to the rigid body, making it cheaper and lighter. However, repairs can be more difficult.
3. Semi-integral frame construction uses a partial frame in the front attached to both the engine/gearbox and front suspension, allowing easier replacement of a damaged front section. This type is used in some European and American cars.
Mercedes benz service centre training reportPanchal Anand
Industrial training (Internship) Report.
Mercedes_benz Service centre.
Abstract: As a Mechanical Engineering Student I am very interested in automobile Engineering. I always keen to learn different mechanisms used in vehicles, I used to watch animated videos on YouTube about automobile mechanisms like Differential, Automatic transmission gearbox etc, but I never watched it in real. So, it was a great opportunity for me to do two weeks internship at Mercedes-benz Service centre, Ambli, Ahmedabad. The internship was concentrated on the car services. At the beginning of the internship I had several queries in my mind regarding the different technologies used in Mercedes-benz and what skills are needed in organization. During my internship several queries are cleared by doing some activities. The objective of this internship is to understand working of different mechanisms, to get knowledge of regular services and the major-minor problem that can be observed in day to day life. Apart from technical knowledge, I also learnt rules and safety instruction, Inventory management, Quality Control. I realize the responsibility of technicians working on the car. So, this internship was a great experience. I found out how much I am strong in automobile field. I gained new knowledge and skills and met many new people. Working together with people having different background and education was great experience. I also accompanied by other 2-3 students who were also on industrial training, so it was nice knowledge sharing. I achieved many of my learning goals. I got insight into the work of an organization. At last this internship has given me new insights and motivation to pursue a career in mechanical engineering.
The document is a PowerPoint presentation on automobile engineering given by Assistant Professor Mahesh Kumar. It covers topics such as the basic concepts of automobile engineering, classifications of automobiles, transmission systems including clutches, gear ratios, driveshafts and differentials, and other systems like steering, brakes and suspension. The presentation provides an overview of key terms and components in automobile engineering.
This document discusses and defines different car body styles including 4x4, city car, coupe, estate, hatchback, MPV, saloon, and sports car. It provides details on each style such as 4x4 having all-wheel drive for rough terrain, city cars being compact for urban use, coupes having two doors and two or four seats, estates having additional cargo space, and hatchbacks having rear doors that open upward. MPVs are designed for multiple purposes like passenger and cargo transport, saloons have separate bonnets and boots, and sports cars prioritize handling and speed over comfort.
1. A vehicle frame provides the main structure and supports all other vehicle components.
2. Frames can be classified as conventional, integral, or semi-integral depending on how the frame is constructed and integrated with the body.
3. Common frame types include ladder frames, backbone frames, X-frames, perimeter frames, platform frames, and unibody/unitized frames. Subframes are also used to isolate vibration.
What is a Chassis?
Different Types of Chassis
Ladder frame chassis
Tubular space frame chassis
Aluminum space frame
ULSAB Monocoque chassis
Back bone frame chassis
Introduction to Monocoque Design
What is Monocoque construction?
Where is this used?
Origin of Monocoque design
History of Monocoque Frame
Construction of conventional, semi integral & integral type vehiclesKowshigan S V
There are three main types of vehicle frame construction:
1. Conventional frame construction uses a separate ladder frame that supports all vehicle systems and attaches to a separate body, providing higher strength but more vibration. It is used in trucks, buses, and larger SUVs.
2. Integral frame construction has no separate frame, with all assembly units attached directly to the rigid body, making it cheaper and lighter. However, repairs can be more difficult.
3. Semi-integral frame construction uses a partial frame in the front attached to both the engine/gearbox and front suspension, allowing easier replacement of a damaged front section. This type is used in some European and American cars.
The document discusses the key components of an automobile, including the basic structure, power unit, transmission system, auxiliaries, controls, and superstructure. It describes the frame, suspension system, axles, wheels, and tires that make up the basic structure. It then explains the different systems that transmit power from the engine to the wheels, including the transmission, drivetrain, clutch, gearbox, propeller shaft, and differential. Finally, it briefly touches on the different body styles of automobiles like sedans, hatchbacks, coupes, convertibles, and station wagons.
The document describes the different layouts of automobiles, including where the engine and drive wheels are located. It discusses the main types - front engine rear wheel drive, rear engine rear wheel drive, and front engine front wheel drive. For each type, it provides details on their characteristics such as noise isolation, drive train loss, weight distribution, and handling. The document aims to explain the different configurations and their respective advantages and limitations.
Vehicle Body Engineering Bus Body DetailsRajat Seth
This document discusses different types and classifications of bus bodies. It describes mini buses, town/city buses, suburban buses, and luxury coaches based on their passenger capacity and key features. The document also provides a table comparing passenger capacities for different bus types. Finally, it classifies buses based on body shape, such as classic, single deck, double deck, two level single decker, and articulated buses.
An automobile is a self propelled vehicle driven by an internal combustion engine or electric engine & is used for transportation of passengers & goods on ground”
Example- Buses, Cars, Trucks, Scooters, Motorcycles etc.
automobile workshop ppt Traning report by c rang rajan and sudhir kumarchakrawarti rang rajan
The document provides an overview of the key components and systems of an automobile. It begins with an introduction to Karlo Automobiles, an Indian vehicle repair workshop. It then defines an automobile and describes its main parts like the engine, transmission system including the clutch, gearbox, propeller shaft, differential, wheels, axle and chassis. The document further explains the body, suspension system, cooling system, steering system, braking system and lighting system of a car. Diagrams and pictures are included to illustrate the different components. The presentation aims to provide trainees an understanding of the various parts that make up a motor vehicle.
An automatic transmission uses a torque converter, gear train, and hydraulic system to shift gears automatically based on engine load and vehicle speed. The torque converter connects the engine to the transmission and transfers power through fluid. It multiplies torque for better acceleration. The gear train includes planetary gear sets that provide multiple gear ratios. Hydraulic pressure acts through the transmission fluid to engage clutches and bands, producing gear shifts without driver input as the vehicle speed increases.
The document discusses different types of automobile chassis structures. It describes ladder frames, which resemble two longitudinal rails linked by cross-members and provide rigidity but lower torsional strength compared to other designs. Tubular space frames use welded circular and square tubes arranged in three dimensions for strength from any direction but are more complex. Monocoque designs form a single welded structure that is efficient for mass production but heavier. Newer designs use aluminum, carbon fiber, and sandwich composites to achieve strength and lightweight rigidity.
Power assisted brakes use either hydraulic or vacuum pressure to reduce the amount of force needed to press the brake pedal. Hydraulic systems use pressure from the power steering pump or an air compressor, while vacuum systems use pressure from the intake manifold. Both types work by creating pressure on one side of a booster piston to multiply the force applied through the brake pedal to the master cylinder. When the pedal is pressed, it closes off the pressure source and applies hydraulic pressure to the brakes. Releasing the pedal vents the booster pressure and allows the pedal to return freely. Servo brakes provide additional braking power needed for heavier vehicles through mechanical, hydraulic, or vacuum assisted systems.
Indian railways mechanical vocational training report 1 haxxo24 i~ihaxxo24
Indian Railways was previously transporting passengers using coaches designed by ICF that had limitations in speed, corrosion resistance, ride comfort, and part wear. To address this, it began procuring LHB coaches from Alstom featuring superior passenger experience, safety, and maintenance needs. Key benefits of LHB coaches include higher capacity, lower weight, reduced corrosion, lower maintenance requirements, and improved aesthetics, comfort, and safety. They use advanced materials, designs, and manufacturing techniques.
Chassis is the main support structure of the vehicle which is also known as ‘Carrying Unit’. It bears all the stresses on the vehicle in both static and dynamic conditions.”
Training Report Maruti Suzuki (Imran Alam)IMRAN ALAM
The document provides an acknowledgement and preface for a project report on an automotive training completed at "Harisons Motor Panipat". It thanks the instructors and staff for their guidance and cooperation during the training period. The contents section outlines topics that will be covered in the report, including the history of Maruti Suzuki, vehicle specifications, engine systems, and other automotive parts and their functions.
The document discusses vehicle structure and internal combustion engines. It describes the key components of an IC engine including the cylinder, piston, connecting rod, crankshaft, and flywheel. It also discusses the different parts of petrol and diesel engines. The document then covers vehicle construction and chassis components like the frame, suspension, steering, drivetrain, and wheels. It explains different types of frames and materials used. The working principles of 4-stroke petrol and diesel engines are covered along with the valve timing diagrams. Variable valve timing systems are also summarized.
The document discusses various alternative fuels that can be used for automobiles instead of fossil fuels. It describes fuels such as methanol, ethanol, natural gas, hydrogen, biodiesel, and electricity. For each fuel, it provides details on their production, use in vehicles, and environmental and performance advantages over gasoline and diesel. The conclusion emphasizes that alternative fuels generally have lower emissions and reduce dependence on petroleum. Comparing the different options economically and environmentally is important for determining the best short and long-term alternatives. Overall alternative fuels can help address issues like air, soil, and water pollution as well as global warming.
This document discusses measuring the quality of car maintenance procedures and whether customers should follow manufacturer-recommended service schedules. It outlines common service procedures like checking and changing fluids and filters, inspecting components, and cleaning the vehicle. It also reviews literature on using the SERVQUAL model to measure service quality gaps and research showing engine reliability benefits from periodic oil changes. The conclusion is that following service schedules achieves high customer satisfaction, though continuous improvement is needed in maintenance processes.
An axle is a central shaft that supports rotating wheels. On vehicles, the axle can be fixed to the wheels and rotate with them, or fixed to the vehicle with the wheels rotating around it. Bearings are provided where the axle is mounted. The document discusses different types of rear axles like full floating, semi floating, and three quarter floating axles. It also discusses front axles, describing them as either dead or live axles. Finally, it lists four types of stub axles used to connect front wheels to front axles: Elliot, reversed Elliot, Lamoine, and reversed Lamoine.
Crash tests are conducted to evaluate vehicle safety and reduce injuries. Standard tests include frontal impacts at 35 mph into a barrier, side impacts from a moving barrier at 31 mph, and offset frontal crashes where only one side hits a barrier at 40 mph. Advanced crash test facilities use dummies equipped with sensors, barriers, and high speed cameras to analyze crash forces and the likelihood of injury. Vehicle structures are designed to manage crash energy through elements like crumple zones that absorb the force of impacts. Star ratings indicate a vehicle's expected level of occupant protection based on test results.
A seminar on automobiles with special reference to mechanical breaking systemRahul Dubey
The document is a presentation on automotive components with a special focus on mechanical braking systems. It discusses what an automobile is, provides an overview of the automobile industry and classifications of automobiles. It then describes the basic components of an automobile including the basic structure, power plant, transmission system, auxiliaries and controls. Finally, it focuses on the mechanical braking system, explaining drum brakes and disc brakes.
The document discusses the key components of an automobile, including the basic structure, power unit, transmission system, auxiliaries, controls, and superstructure. It describes the frame, suspension system, axles, wheels, and tires that make up the basic structure. It then explains the different systems that transmit power from the engine to the wheels, including the transmission, drivetrain, clutch, gearbox, propeller shaft, and differential. Finally, it briefly touches on the different body styles of automobiles like sedans, hatchbacks, coupes, convertibles, and station wagons.
The document describes the different layouts of automobiles, including where the engine and drive wheels are located. It discusses the main types - front engine rear wheel drive, rear engine rear wheel drive, and front engine front wheel drive. For each type, it provides details on their characteristics such as noise isolation, drive train loss, weight distribution, and handling. The document aims to explain the different configurations and their respective advantages and limitations.
Vehicle Body Engineering Bus Body DetailsRajat Seth
This document discusses different types and classifications of bus bodies. It describes mini buses, town/city buses, suburban buses, and luxury coaches based on their passenger capacity and key features. The document also provides a table comparing passenger capacities for different bus types. Finally, it classifies buses based on body shape, such as classic, single deck, double deck, two level single decker, and articulated buses.
An automobile is a self propelled vehicle driven by an internal combustion engine or electric engine & is used for transportation of passengers & goods on ground”
Example- Buses, Cars, Trucks, Scooters, Motorcycles etc.
automobile workshop ppt Traning report by c rang rajan and sudhir kumarchakrawarti rang rajan
The document provides an overview of the key components and systems of an automobile. It begins with an introduction to Karlo Automobiles, an Indian vehicle repair workshop. It then defines an automobile and describes its main parts like the engine, transmission system including the clutch, gearbox, propeller shaft, differential, wheels, axle and chassis. The document further explains the body, suspension system, cooling system, steering system, braking system and lighting system of a car. Diagrams and pictures are included to illustrate the different components. The presentation aims to provide trainees an understanding of the various parts that make up a motor vehicle.
An automatic transmission uses a torque converter, gear train, and hydraulic system to shift gears automatically based on engine load and vehicle speed. The torque converter connects the engine to the transmission and transfers power through fluid. It multiplies torque for better acceleration. The gear train includes planetary gear sets that provide multiple gear ratios. Hydraulic pressure acts through the transmission fluid to engage clutches and bands, producing gear shifts without driver input as the vehicle speed increases.
The document discusses different types of automobile chassis structures. It describes ladder frames, which resemble two longitudinal rails linked by cross-members and provide rigidity but lower torsional strength compared to other designs. Tubular space frames use welded circular and square tubes arranged in three dimensions for strength from any direction but are more complex. Monocoque designs form a single welded structure that is efficient for mass production but heavier. Newer designs use aluminum, carbon fiber, and sandwich composites to achieve strength and lightweight rigidity.
Power assisted brakes use either hydraulic or vacuum pressure to reduce the amount of force needed to press the brake pedal. Hydraulic systems use pressure from the power steering pump or an air compressor, while vacuum systems use pressure from the intake manifold. Both types work by creating pressure on one side of a booster piston to multiply the force applied through the brake pedal to the master cylinder. When the pedal is pressed, it closes off the pressure source and applies hydraulic pressure to the brakes. Releasing the pedal vents the booster pressure and allows the pedal to return freely. Servo brakes provide additional braking power needed for heavier vehicles through mechanical, hydraulic, or vacuum assisted systems.
Indian railways mechanical vocational training report 1 haxxo24 i~ihaxxo24
Indian Railways was previously transporting passengers using coaches designed by ICF that had limitations in speed, corrosion resistance, ride comfort, and part wear. To address this, it began procuring LHB coaches from Alstom featuring superior passenger experience, safety, and maintenance needs. Key benefits of LHB coaches include higher capacity, lower weight, reduced corrosion, lower maintenance requirements, and improved aesthetics, comfort, and safety. They use advanced materials, designs, and manufacturing techniques.
Chassis is the main support structure of the vehicle which is also known as ‘Carrying Unit’. It bears all the stresses on the vehicle in both static and dynamic conditions.”
Training Report Maruti Suzuki (Imran Alam)IMRAN ALAM
The document provides an acknowledgement and preface for a project report on an automotive training completed at "Harisons Motor Panipat". It thanks the instructors and staff for their guidance and cooperation during the training period. The contents section outlines topics that will be covered in the report, including the history of Maruti Suzuki, vehicle specifications, engine systems, and other automotive parts and their functions.
The document discusses vehicle structure and internal combustion engines. It describes the key components of an IC engine including the cylinder, piston, connecting rod, crankshaft, and flywheel. It also discusses the different parts of petrol and diesel engines. The document then covers vehicle construction and chassis components like the frame, suspension, steering, drivetrain, and wheels. It explains different types of frames and materials used. The working principles of 4-stroke petrol and diesel engines are covered along with the valve timing diagrams. Variable valve timing systems are also summarized.
The document discusses various alternative fuels that can be used for automobiles instead of fossil fuels. It describes fuels such as methanol, ethanol, natural gas, hydrogen, biodiesel, and electricity. For each fuel, it provides details on their production, use in vehicles, and environmental and performance advantages over gasoline and diesel. The conclusion emphasizes that alternative fuels generally have lower emissions and reduce dependence on petroleum. Comparing the different options economically and environmentally is important for determining the best short and long-term alternatives. Overall alternative fuels can help address issues like air, soil, and water pollution as well as global warming.
This document discusses measuring the quality of car maintenance procedures and whether customers should follow manufacturer-recommended service schedules. It outlines common service procedures like checking and changing fluids and filters, inspecting components, and cleaning the vehicle. It also reviews literature on using the SERVQUAL model to measure service quality gaps and research showing engine reliability benefits from periodic oil changes. The conclusion is that following service schedules achieves high customer satisfaction, though continuous improvement is needed in maintenance processes.
An axle is a central shaft that supports rotating wheels. On vehicles, the axle can be fixed to the wheels and rotate with them, or fixed to the vehicle with the wheels rotating around it. Bearings are provided where the axle is mounted. The document discusses different types of rear axles like full floating, semi floating, and three quarter floating axles. It also discusses front axles, describing them as either dead or live axles. Finally, it lists four types of stub axles used to connect front wheels to front axles: Elliot, reversed Elliot, Lamoine, and reversed Lamoine.
Crash tests are conducted to evaluate vehicle safety and reduce injuries. Standard tests include frontal impacts at 35 mph into a barrier, side impacts from a moving barrier at 31 mph, and offset frontal crashes where only one side hits a barrier at 40 mph. Advanced crash test facilities use dummies equipped with sensors, barriers, and high speed cameras to analyze crash forces and the likelihood of injury. Vehicle structures are designed to manage crash energy through elements like crumple zones that absorb the force of impacts. Star ratings indicate a vehicle's expected level of occupant protection based on test results.
A seminar on automobiles with special reference to mechanical breaking systemRahul Dubey
The document is a presentation on automotive components with a special focus on mechanical braking systems. It discusses what an automobile is, provides an overview of the automobile industry and classifications of automobiles. It then describes the basic components of an automobile including the basic structure, power plant, transmission system, auxiliaries and controls. Finally, it focuses on the mechanical braking system, explaining drum brakes and disc brakes.
Amit Kumbhar (Diploma In Mechanical Engg.)AMIT KUMBHAR
Mr. Amit Laxman Kumbhar is seeking a challenging career in mechanical engineering. He has a diploma in mechanical engineering and knowledge of CAD software like AutoCAD, CATIA, and Pro-E. He has certifications in design from Apollo Institute Pune and work experience as a technician apprentice at Tata Motors Pune for 1 year. He has skills in engineering drawing, modeling, detailing, management, communication, and presentation. He has knowledge of CAD software, PLM, and SAP systems and has completed CAD projects modeling a stub axle and radiator tank. He also completed academic projects on a line following robot and Darcy's friction factor apparatus and presented a seminar on advanced automobile
This document discusses automotive braking systems. It describes how braking systems work by converting kinetic energy to heat energy through friction between moving and non-moving surfaces at each wheel. The most common types of braking systems are disc and drum brakes. It then explains the basic components and functioning of drum brakes, disc brakes, and hydraulic braking systems. Key components discussed include the master cylinder, brake lines, calipers, wheel cylinders, rotors, and pads. Factors that can affect braking performance and types of brake linings are also outlined.
This document provides a summary of a candidate's experience and qualifications for a director/manager position. The candidate has over 26 years of experience in technical management, building efficient teams, and leading projects. Notable accomplishments include reducing accounting errors, implementing new systems to increase efficiencies, and negotiating contracts to reduce costs. The candidate's areas of expertise include business transformation, ERP systems, process reengineering, and project management. Recent employment history includes roles as an IT Site Manager and Application Manager on large implementation projects.
The document provides an introduction to automobile engineering. It defines automobile engineering and vehicles, classifying vehicles based on load, wheels, fuel used, body, and transmission. It describes the key components of an automobile, including the engine, frame and chassis, transmission system, braking system, steering system, front axle, and suspension system. It provides a diagram of a typical automobile chassis layout and explains the basic functions of the major automobile components.
Here are the steps to solve this problem:
* Traction force = 12.25 kN
* Speed = 120 km/h = 33.33 m/s
* Wheel radius = 0.2 m
* Circumference of wheel = 2πr = 2π * 0.2 = 1.257 m
* RPM of wheel = Speed/Circumference = 33.33/1.257 = 26,500 rpm
* Power required to overcome traction = Force * Speed = 12.25 * 33.33 = 408 kW
* Power lost in braking = 23% of 408 = 94 kW
* Power required at crankshaft = Power to overcome traction + Power lost in braking =
Regenerative braking works by converting the kinetic energy of a moving vehicle or object into electrical energy when slowing or stopping. This electrical energy can either be used immediately or stored for later use. Specifically, regenerative braking in a DC motor involves changing the thyristor connections so that the motor operates as a generator when rotating under inertia, returning the generated electrical energy back to the power source through diode rectification. This saves energy that would otherwise be wasted through conventional braking methods.
This document provides a design report for Team SRIJAN's Formula-style racing car. The key areas covered in the report include the chassis, which utilizes a spaceframe design made of AISI 1018 steel tubing. Outboard disc brakes are used on all four wheels. A Royal Enfield 500cc engine was selected due to its flat torque curve and torque output. Intake and exhaust systems were designed in RICARDO WAVE simulation software. Pushrod suspension with adjustable components and spherical bearings was chosen. Uprights, hubs, and other components were designed and analyzed using finite element analysis. An ergonomic cockpit meets driver safety standards. Electronics include a Race Dynamics ECU and Ar
A presentation by Adeline Dontenville, REDD expert at the European Forest Institute, at a workshop held in Paris from Thursday, 3 December to Friday, 4 December during the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21).
The event organised by the International Institute for Environment and Development aimed to share the findings of its research to inform a wider debate on how REDD+ is contributing to addressing the drivers of land use and land use change.
The presentation focused on the private sector in REDD+, and a case study from Mai Ndombe was used to illustrate engaging logging concessions in REDD+.
More details: http://www.iied.org/redd-paris-what-could-be-it-for-people-forests
Can the private sector help close the REDD+ finance gap?IIED
A presentation by Robert O'Sullivan, of Winrock International, at a workshop held in Paris from Thursday, 3 December to Friday, 4 December during the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21).
The event organised by the International Institute for Environment and Development aimed to share the findings of its research to inform a wider debate on how REDD+ is contributing to addressing the drivers of land use and land use change.
The presentation focused on the potential for the private sector to close the REDD+ financing gap.
More details: http://www.iied.org/redd-paris-what-could-be-it-for-people-forests
This document introduces automobiles and their components. It categorizes automobiles based on their purpose, load capacity, fuel used, and drive type. The basic components of automobiles discussed include the power plant, transmission system, auxiliaries, controls, and superstructure. Automobile body constructions can be framed, frameless, or unitized. Modern automobiles include various safety features like airbags, ABS, and rearview cameras.
Drivers of deforestation and forest degradation, gender and REDD+: a case of ...IIED
A presentation by Rahul Karki, Naya S Paudel and Dil B Khatri at a workshop held in Paris from Thursday, 3 December to Friday, 4 December during the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21).
The event organised by the International Institute for Environment and Development aimed to share the findings of its research to inform a wider debate on how REDD+ is contributing to addressing the drivers of land use and land use change.
More details: http://www.iied.org/redd-paris-what-could-be-it-for-people-forests
The document is a seminar report on hovercrafts that includes:
- An acknowledgement section thanking those who provided guidance and support.
- An abstract that introduces hovercrafts as air cushion vehicles that can travel over land, water and ice using a self-generated air cushion, and notes their use for transporting people and equipment.
- An introduction that defines hovercrafts as vehicles that drive like cars but fly like planes by hovering over surfaces on a cushion of air.
The document summarizes a presentation on hydraulic braking systems. It discusses key components like the master cylinder, wheel cylinder, brake shoes, brake drum, and brake fluid. It then lists advantages like equal braking on all wheels, increased braking force and flexibility. Potential issues are also mentioned, such as system failure from fluid leakage or air in the tubings. The presentation was given by Rajat W Sangrame, Pratik D Urkude and Neha H Paulzagde, guided by Alokkumar Yadav Sir at Govt Polytechnic, Sakoli.
This document summarizes the components and operation of a hydraulic braking system, including an anti-lock braking system (ABS). It describes the main components of a hydraulic brake system such as the master cylinder, brake lines, wheel cylinder, and how they work together. It then provides details on additional components like the wheel disc, caliper, and the manufacturing processes for the master cylinder. Finally, it explains how ABS uses wheel speed sensors and computer control to prevent wheel lockup during hard braking, allowing the driver to steer while braking heavily.
Reducing emissions through improvement of biomass energy supply chain in Sofa...IIED
A presentation by Hamid Taybo, director of ADEL discussed Sustainable Biomass Energy, at a workshop held in Paris from Thursday, 3 December to Friday, 4 December during the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21).
The event organised by the International Institute for Environment and Development aimed to share the findings of its research to inform a wider debate on how REDD+ is contributing to addressing the drivers of land use and land use change.
The presentation focused on tackling the supply and demand.
More details: http://www.iied.org/redd-paris-what-could-be-it-for-people-forests
Grounding electrical systems properly protects people and equipment from faults, lightning strikes, and static discharge by providing a path to dissipate stray energy safely into the earth. Different grounding methods like single stakes, ground rods, plates, and meshes can be used depending on the site conditions and equipment. Proper testing of soil resistivity and ground resistance is important to select the suitable grounding type and ensure effectiveness of the system.
The document provides information on the anatomy and systems of an automobile. It describes the basic components and layout of rear-wheel drive, four-wheel drive, and front-wheel drive vehicles. It also outlines the major systems in an automobile including the power train system (engine, fuel, intake, exhaust, cooling), running system (suspension, steering, braking), and comfort system. Additionally, it provides details on the engine itself including classifications, components, parameters, and supporting systems like fuel, intake, and exhaust.
This document provides information about the automobile engineering subject code EME-702 at AKGEC, Gzb. It includes:
- The evaluation scheme for the subject which includes exams, class tests, and total credits.
- An index that outlines the topics covered in each unit.
- An overview of unit 1 which defines automobiles and provides a classification of automobiles based on various criteria such as purpose, capacity, fuel source, transmission type, number of wheels, and side of drive. It also describes integrated frame and body construction.
1. The document provides information on the basic parts and functioning of an automobile, including the engine, chassis, body, and other structural components. It describes the engine components like the cylinder, piston, crankshaft, and others.
2. It also discusses the different types of chassis used in automobiles like the ladder chassis, tubular chassis, and monocoque chassis. The functions of the chassis include supporting the vehicle body and providing mounting locations for other parts.
3. Additionally, it summarizes the purpose and components of the internal combustion engine, which generates power through the combustion of fuel and provides it to the transmission system to power the wheels.
Classification of Automobile and chassis in AutomobileSwapnilDahake2
The document discusses different types of automobile chassis and classifications of vehicles. It describes various chassis types including ladder, backbone, monocoque, and exoskeleton chassis. Vehicles are classified based on purpose, load capacity, fuel used, number of wheels, transmission, and suspension system. Common chassis include car, bus, motorcycle, and four or six wheel configurations. The chassis forms the framework that supports automotive components and gives shape and strength to the vehicle.
M.tech 1st sem automobile that useful for developmentBinayaBhusanPanda
This document provides an overview of an automobile engineering course. The course objectives are to understand the basic structure, construction, and systems of an automobile including the suspension, transmission, braking, steering, and electrical systems. The document outlines 5 units that make up the course which cover topics like vehicle structure, suspension systems, clutches, gearboxes, differentials, axles, brakes, steering, and electrical systems. The course aims to provide students with both theoretical and applied knowledge of automobile design and development to help identify and solve problems in automobile maintenance.
This document provides an overview of automobile engineering as taught in a university course. It discusses various topics that will be covered in the unit on vehicle structure and engines, including types of automobiles, vehicle construction and layouts, chassis components and functions, different types of frames, and classifications of automobiles. It also provides brief histories of the early developments of automobiles and defines key terms like chassis, subframe, and different car body styles.
This document discusses the classification and layout of automobiles. It categorizes vehicles based on factors such as load, number of wheels, fuel used, body style, transmission, drive, suspension system, engine position, and chassis type. Common passenger vehicle layouts include front-engine/front-wheel drive, front-engine/rear-wheel drive, and all-wheel drive. Components like the engine, drivetrain, and suspension are described along with their functions and materials. Methods of forced induction like turbocharging and supercharging are also introduced.
This document provides an overview of automobile engineering concepts. It discusses vehicle types, components, layouts, and performance. Some key points include:
- Types of automobiles include cars, trucks, buses, motorcycles based on factors like load, wheels, fuel used, and transmission.
- Vehicle components include the engine, chassis, frame, body, and suspension. Layouts depend on engine location like front, rear, or all-wheel drive.
- Engine performance is influenced by factors like taxable power, torque curves, and resistances like rolling, wind, and gradient resistance that determine the power needed.
- Vehicle bodies are designed for passenger or commercial use based on requirements like weight, space
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1. It defines key terms related to vehicle body design such as chassis, body, suspension system, and power train.
2. It describes the basic requirements for automobile body design including strength, stiffness, providing adequate space, minimizing air drag, and protecting occupants from weather, corrosion, and accidents.
3. It discusses important considerations for vehicle body design like visibility, terminology, and methods to improve space requirements. Diagrams are included to illustrate factors that influence visibility and space.
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Recycled Concrete Aggregate in Construction Part II
Automobile
1. Introduction
An automobile is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of
the automotive industry. Most definitions of the term specify that automobiles are designed to run
primarily on roads, to have seating for one to eight people, to typically have four wheels with tyres,
and to be constructed principally for the transport of people rather than goods. Automobiles are
equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a
variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles,
making them progressively more complex. Examples include rear reversing cameras, air
conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Vehicles using alternative fuels such
as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some
countries. Electric vehicles, which were invented early in the history, began to become commercially
available in 2008.
The costs to society of automobile use include:
1. Maintaining roads,
2. Land use,
3. Road congestion,
4. Air pollution,
5. Public health,
6. Health care, and
7. Disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life.
Road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide.
The benefits may include on-demand transportation, mobility, independence, and convenience. The
societal benefits may include: economic benefits, such as job and wealth creation from automobile
production, sales and maintenance, transportation provision, society well-being derived from leisure
and travel opportunities, and revenue generation from the tax opportunities. The ability for humans
to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies. It was
estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500
million of 1986.
What is Automobile?
A self-propelled passenger vehicle that usually has four wheels and an internal combustion engine,
used for land transport is known as automobile. An automobile (or automotive) is a vehicle that is
capable of propelling itself. Since seventeenth century, several attempts have been made to design
and construct a practically operative automobile. Today, automobiles play an unimaginable role in
the social, economic and industrial growth of any country. After the introduction of internal
combustion engines, the Automobile industry has seen a tremendous growth.
2. Classification of automobile:
Automobiles can be classified into several types based on several criteria. A brief classification of
automobiles is listed below:
Based on purpose:
1. Passenger vehicles – These automobiles carry passengers – e.g.: Buses, Passenger trains, cars
2. Goods vehicles – These vehicles are used for transportation of goods from one place to another.
e.g.: Goods lorry, goods carrier
Based on capacity:
1. Heavy Motor Vehicle (HMV) – Large and bulky motor vehicles – e.g.: Large trucks, buses
2. Light Motor Vehicle (LMV) – Small motor vehicles – e.g.: Cars, Jeeps
3. Medium Vehicle – Relatively medium sized vehicles – e.g.: Small trucks, mini buses
Based on fuel source:
1. Petrol engine vehicles – Automobiles powered by petrol engine – e.g.: scooters, cars, mopeds,
motorcycles
2. Diesel engine vehicles – Automotives powered by diesel engine – e.g.: Trucks, Buses
3. Gas vehicles – Vehicles that use gas turbine as power source – e.g.: Turbine powered cars
4. Solar vehicles – Vehicles significantly powered by solar power – e.g.: Solar powered cars
5. Hydrogen vehicles – Vehicles that have hydrogen as a power source – e.g.: Honda FCX Clarity
6. Electric vehicles – Automobiles that use electricity as a power source – e.g.: Electric cars, electric
buses
7. Steam Engine Vehicles – Automotives powered by steam engine – e.g.: Steamboat, steam
locomotive, steam wagon
8. Hybrid Vehicles – Vehicles that use two or more distinct power sources – e.g.: Hybrid buses,
hybrid cars like Toyota Prius, Honda Insight
9. Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) – Automobile that uses both Internal Combustion Engine and
Electric Power Source to propel itself – e.g.: Jaguar C-X75
Based on type of transmission:
1. Automatic transmission vehicles – Automobiles that are capable of changing gear ratios
automatically as they move – e.g.: Automatic Transmission Cars
3. 2. Conventional transmission vehicles – Automotives whose gear ratios have to be changed
manually
3. Semi-automatic transmissionvehicles – Vehicles that facilitate manual gear changing with clutch
pedal
Based on number of wheels:
1. Two wheeler – Automobiles having two wheels – e.g.: Scooters, motorcycles
2. Three wheeler – Automotive having three wheels – e.g.: Tricycles, Auto rickshaws, Tempos
3. Four wheeler – Vehicle having four wheels – e.g.: Car, Jeep
4. Six wheeler – Automobile having six wheels used for heavy transportation – e.g.: Large trucks,
large buses
Based on the side of drive:
1. Left hand drive automobile – Vehicle in which steering wheel is fitted on the left hand side – e.g.:
Automobiles found in USA, Russia
2. Right hand drive automobile - Vehicle in which steering wheel is fitted on the right hand side –
e.g.: Automobiles found in India, Australia
Components of an Automobile:
The main units of an automobile are:
1. The basic structure
2. The power plant
3. The transmissionsystem
4. The auxiliaries
5. The controls
6. The superstructure
4. The Basic Structure
This is the unit on which are to be built the remainder of the units required to turn it into a power
operated vehicle. It consists of the frame, the suspension system, axles, wheels and tyres.
FRAME
There are two distinct forms of construction in common use:
1. The conventional pressed steel frame to which all the mechanical units are attached and on
which the body is superimposed.
2. Integrated Frame and Body
The integrated frame and body type of construction also referred to as unitized construction,
combines the frame and body into a single, one-piece structure. This is done by welding the
5. components together, by forming or casting the entire structure as one piece, or by a combination
of these techniques. Simply by welding a body to a conventional frame, however, does not constitute
an integral frame and body construction. In a truly integrated structure, the entire frame-body unit
is treated as a load-carrying member that reacts to all Integrated-type bodies for wheeled vehicles
are fabricated by welding preformed metal panels together. The panels are preformed in various
load-bearing shapes that are located and oriented so as to result in a uniformly stressed structure.
Some portions of the integrated structure resemble frame like components, while others resemble
body like panels. This is not surprising, because the structure must perform the functions of both of
these elements. An integrated frame and body type construction allows and increases in the amount
of noise transmitted into the passenger compartment of the vehicle. However, this disadvantage is
negated by the following advantages:
1. Substantial weight reduction, which is possible when using a well-designed unitized body,
2. Lower cargo floor and vehicle height,
3. Protection from mud and water required for driveline components on amphibious vehicles.
4. Reduction in the amount of vibration present in the vehicle structure.
For larger trucks, the frames are simple, rugged, and of channel iron construction. The side rails are
parallel to each other at standardized widths to permit the mounting of stock transmissions, transfer
cases, rear axles, and other similar components. Trucks that are to be used as prime movers have an
additional reinforcement of the side rails and rear cross members to compensate for the added
towing stresses
Frame Maintenance
Frames require little, if any, maintenance. However, if the frame is bent enough to cause
misalignment of the vehicle or cause faulty steering, the vehicle should be taken off of the road.
Drilling the frame and fish plating can temporarily repair small cracks in the frame side rails. Care
should be exercised when performing this task, as the frame can be weakened. The frame of the
vehicle should not be welded by gas or arc welding unless specified by the manufacturer. The heat
removes temper from the metal, and, if cooled too quickly, causes the metal to crystallize. Minor
bends can be removed by the use of hydraulic jacks, bars and clamps.
Four wheel drive:
There are almost as many different types of four-wheel-drive systems as there are four-wheel drive
vehicles. It seems that every manufacturer has several different schemes for providing power to all of
the wheels. The terminology used as follows:
1. Four-wheel drive - Usually, when carmakers say that a car has four-wheel drive, they are
referring to a part-time system. These systems are meant only for use in low-traction
conditions, such as off-road or on snow or ice.
2. All-wheel drive - These systems are sometimes called full-time four-wheel drive. All-wheel
drive systems are designed to function on all types of surfaces, both on- and off-road, and
most of them cannot be switched off. Part-time and full-time four-wheel-drive systems can
be evaluated using the same criteria. The best system will send exactly the right amount of
torque to each wheel, which is the maximum torque that won't cause that tire to slip.
Braking System
6. The safe and reliable use of a road vehicle necessitates the continual adjustment of its speed and
distance in response to change in traffic conditions. This requirement is met in part by the braking
system, the design of which plays a key role in ensuring a particular vehicle is suitable for a given
application. This is achieved through the design of a system that makes as efficient use as possible of
the finite amount of traction available between the tyre and the road over the entire range of
operating conditions that are likely to be encountered by the vehicle during normal operation.
The Functions and Conditions of use of a Brake System
In order to understand the behaviour of a braking system it is useful to define three separate
functions that must be fulfilled at all times:
(a) The braking system must decelerate a vehicle in a controlled and repeatable fashion and when
appropriate cause the vehicle to stop.
(b) The braking system should permit the vehicle to maintain a constant speed when travelling
downhill.
(c) The braking system must hold the vehicle stationary when on a flat or on a gradient.
Consideration of the diverse conditions under which the brakes must operate leads to a better
appreciation of their role. These include, but are not limited to, the following:
_ slippery wet and dry roads.
_ rough or smooth road;
_ split friction surfaces;
_ straight line braking or when braking on a curve;
_ wet or dry brakes;
_ new or worn linings;
_ laden or unladen vehicle;
_ vehicle pulling a trailer or caravan;
_ frequent or infrequent applications of short or lengthy duration;
_ high or low rates of deceleration;
_ skilled or unskilled drivers.
Clearly the brakes, together with the steering components and tyres, represent the most important
accident avoidance systems present on a motor vehicle which must reliably operate under various
conditions. The effectiveness of any braking system is, however, limited by the amount of traction
available at the tyre–road interface.
7. The primary functions of a brake system, listed above, must be fulfilled at all times. In the event of a
system failure, the same functions must also be performed albeit with a reduced efficiency.
Consequently, the braking system of a typical passenger car comprises a service brake for normal
braking, a secondary/emergency brake used in the event of a service brake failure and a parking
brake. Current practice permits service brake components to be used in the secondary/parking brake
systems.
Irrespective of the detail design considerations all brake systems divide into the following
subsystems:
(1) Energy source
This includes all those components which generate, store or release energy required by the braking
system. In standard passenger cars muscular pedal effort, applied by the driver, in combination with
a vacuum boost system comprise the energy source. In the event of a boost failure, the driver can
still apply the brakes by muscular effort alone. Alternative sources of energy include power braking
systems, surge brakes, drop weight brakes, electric and spring brakes.
(2) Modulation system
This embraces those elements of the brake system which are used to control the level of braking
effort applied to each brake. Included in this system are the driver, pressure limiting/modulating
values and, if fitted, anti-lock braking systems (ABSs).
(3) Transmissionsystem
The components through which energy travels to the wheel brakes comprise the transmission
system. Brake lines (rigid tubes) and brake hoses (flexible tubes) are used in hydraulic and air brake
systems. Mechanical brakes make use of rods, levers, cams and cables to transmit energy. The
parking brake of a car quite often makes use of a mechanical transmission system.
(4) Foundation brakes
These assemblies generate the forces that oppose the motion of the vehicle and in doing so convert
the kinetic energy associated with the longitudinal motion of the vehicle into heat.
Principle
Brakes are required to stop the vehicle within the smallest possible distance and this is done by
converting the kinetic energy of the vehicle into the heat energy which is dissipated into the
atmosphere.
Brakes are employed to stop or slow down the speed of a vehicle. When brake is applied to wheel,
braking force is created. This force opposes the speed of wheel or rotation of force.
Braking requirement:
1) The vehicle must stop in smallest distance.
2) It must act suddenly in emergency.
3) It must have strong braking force.
4) It must neither slip nor skid the vehicle and lead to less heat production.
5) It must operate on least effort.
Types of brakes: Breaks are divided into seven types as per there uses, functionality, locations etc.
1) On the basis of purpose saved.
a) Main brake.
b) Parking brake.
2) On the basis of location.
a) Wheel mounted.
b) Transmission mounted.
3) On the basis of drivers ergonomics.
a) Foot brake.
b) Hand brake.
8. 4) On the basis of actuating.
a) Mechanical brake.
b) Hydraulic brake.
c) Air brake.
d) Electric brake.
5) On the basis of construction.
a) Drum brake.
b) Disc brake.
6) On the basis of application of brake efforts.
a) Manual brake.
b) Power brake.
c) Power assisted.
7) On the basis of action of brake shoes.
a) Internal expanding brake.
b) External contracting brake.
Brake Drum:
Construction of Brake Drum:
The brake drum is mounted on the axle hub and the whole assembly is held in the wheel. The brake
shoes are handled on the back plate by means of pin expander which is fitted in between shoes. The
friction material is pasted or biretta on brake shoes. Due to friction action, brake is applied.
Following parts are used in break drum:
1) Brake drum.
2) Back plate.
3) Brake shoe.
9. 4) Brake lining.
5) Expander.
6) Anchor.
7) Returning spring.
8) Adjuster.
Disc brake:
Construction of disc break:
1) Caliper or cylinder casing.
2) Rooter disc.
3) Piston.
4) Friction pad.
5) Pad supporting plate.
6) Bleeder plug.
Mechanical Brakes
• Mechanical brakes are invariably based on the frictional resistance principles
• In mechanical brakes artificial resistances created using frictional contact between the moving
member and a stationary member, to retard or stop the motion of the moving member.
Basic mechanism of braking
An element dA of the stationary member is shown with the braked body moving past at velocity v.
When the brake is actuated contact is established between the stationary and moving member and a
normal pressure is developed in the contact region. The elemental normal force dN is equal to the
product of contact pressure p and area of contact dA. As one member is stationary and the other is
in relative motion, a frictional force dF is developed between the members. The magnitude of the
frictional force is equal to the co-efficient of friction times the normal force
Mathematically,
dFf =µ.dN=µ.p.dA
dN=p.dA.
10. The moment of the frictional force relative to the point of motion contributes to the retardation of
motion and braking.
Design and Analysis
To design, select or analyze the performance of these devices knowledge on the following are
required.
• The braking torque
• The actuating force needed
• The energy loss and temperature rise
Torque induced is related to the actuating force, the geometry of the member and other contact
conditions. Most mechanical brakes that work on the frictional contact basis are classified based on
the geometry. There are two major classes of brakes, namely drum brakes and disc brakes. Drum
brakes basically consists of a rotating body called drum whose motion is braked together with a shoe
mounted on a lever which can swing freely about a fixed hinge H. A lining is attached to the shoe
and contacts the braked body. The actuation force P applied to the shoe gives rise to a normal
contact pressure distributed over the contact area between the lining and the braked body. A
corresponding friction force is developed between the stationary shoe and the rotating body which
manifest as retarding torque about the axis of the braked body.
Brakes Classification:
Drum Brakes are classified based on the shoe geometry.
Shoes are classified as being either short or long. A short shoe is one whose lining dimension in the
direction of motion is so small that contact pressure variation is negligible, i.e. the pressure is
uniform everywhere. When the area of contact becomes larger, the contact may no longer be with a
uniform pressure, in which case the shoe is termed as long shoe. The shoes are either rigid or
pivoted, pivoted shoes are also some times known as hinged shoes. The shoe is termed rigid because
the shoes with attached linings are rigidly connected to the pivoted posts. In a hinged shoe brake -
the shoes are not rigidly fixed but hinged or pivoted to the posts. The hinged shoe is connected to
the actuating post by the hinge, G, which introduces another degree of freedom Preliminary Analysis
The figure shows a brake shoe mounted on a lever, hinged at O, having an actuating force Fa,
applied at the end of the lever. On the application of an actuating force, a normal force Fn is created
when the shoe contacts the rotating drum. And a frictional force Ff of magnitude f.Fn, f being the
coefficient of friction, develops between the shoe and the drum. Moment of this frictional force
about the drum center constitutes the braking torque.
Short Shoe Analysis
11. For a short shoe we assume that the pressure is uniformly distributed over the contact area.
Consequently the equivalent normal force Fn = p .A, where p is the contact pressure and A is the
surface area of the shoe. Consequently the friction force Ff = f.Fn where f is the co-efficient of
friction between the shoe lining material and the drum material. The torque on the brake drum is
then, T = f Fn. r = f.p.A.r A quasi static analysis is used to determine the other parameters of
braking.
Substituting for Fn and solving for the actuating force, we get,
Fa = Fn(b+-fc)/a
Leading and trailing shoe
• For a given direction of rotation the shoe in which self energization is present is known as the
leading shoe
• When the direction of rotation is changed, the moment of frictional force now will be opposing the
actuation force and hence greater magnitude of force is needed to create the same contact pressure.
The shoe on which this is prevailing is known as a trailing shoe Self Locking At certain critical value
of f.c the term (b-fc) becomes zero. i.e no actuation force need to be applied for braking. This is the
condition for self-locking. Self-locking will not occur unless it is specifically desired.
Fading of Brakes
With prolonged application of brakes, their effectiveness decreases. This is called fading of brakes.
This happens on account of reversible changes in the friction properties of the brake linings on
account of high temperatures produced due to prolonged application. However, because such
property changes are reversible, usual effectiveness of the brake is restored when they cool off.