(1) The document discusses assessment competencies for teachers, including choosing appropriate assessment methods, administering and interpreting various assessments, using results for instructional decisions, developing valid grading procedures, and communicating results. (2) It also outlines several standards for teachers related to choosing, developing, interpreting and using assessment results for decision making, grading, and communicating. (3) The document discusses the concepts of assessment literacy and alternative forms of assessment like performance and portfolio assessments. It provides definitions and characteristics of these approaches.

1. Assessment Principles
Carlo Magno, PhD
Counseling and Educational Psychology
Department
De La Salle University, Manila

2. ASSESSMENT COMPETENCIES FOR
TEACHERS
• Constructed by the AFT, NCME, NEA:
• Teachers should be skilled in:
1.choosing assessment methods appropriate for
instructional decisions.
2.Administering, scoring, and interpreting the
results of both externally produced and teacher
produced assessment methods.
3.Using assessment results when making
decisions about individual students, planning
teaching, and developing curriculum and school
improvement.
American Federation of Teachers, National Council on Measurement and
Evaluation, and National Education Association in the United States of America.

3. ASSESSMENT COMPETENCIES FOR TEACHERS
4. Developing valid pupil grading
procedures that use pupil assessment.
5. Communicating assessment results to
students, parents, other lay audiences,
and other educators.
6. Recognizing unethical, illegal, and
otherwise inappropriate assessment
methods and uses of assessment
information.

4. Standards
• Standard 1: Choosing assessment
methods
– Selection of assessment method—basis
– Standard test--meaning of measurement error
– Using norms correctly

5. Standards
• Standard 2: Developing assessment
methods
– Teacher made assessment least
measurement error
– Determining validity
– Item construction--essay/performance

6. Standards
• Standard 3: Interpreting assessment
results
– Interpret teacher-made test score
– Interpret Grade Equivalency score
– Interpret percentile band scores

7. Standards
• Standard 4: Using assessment results in
decision making
– Standard test data most useful for classroom
– Basis for comparing schools' test scores
– Explaining discrepancy between classroom
and standard test scores

8. Standards
• Standard 5: Using assessment results in
grading
– Weighting test scores to give grades
– Reliability of tests for grading
– Recognize sound grading practice

9. Standards
• Standard 6: Communicating assessment
results
– Explain basis for grade
– Interpret stanine
– Using tests for resource allocation

10. Standards
• Standard 7: Recognizing unethical
assessment practices
– Display of grade—privacy
– Test as only criterion for grade
– Acceptable actions on standardized tests

11. SHIFTS IN ASSESSMENT
• Testing Alternative assessment
• Paper and pencil Performance assessment
• Multiple choice Supply
• Single correct answer Many correct answer
• Summative Formative
• Outcome only Process and Outcome
• Skill focused Task-based
• Isolated facts Application of knowledge
• Decontextualized task Contextualized task

12. Assessment Literacy
• According to Parterno (2001)
– “the possession of knowledge
about the basic principles of
sound assessment practice,
including terminology,
– the development and use of
assessment methodologies and
techniques,
– familiarity with standards of
quality in assessment...and
– familiarity with alternative to
traditional measurements of
learning”

13. Assessment Literacy
• North Central Regional
Educational
Laboratory:
– “the readiness of an
educator to design,
implement, and discuss
assessment strategies”

14. Assessment literate educators:
• Center for School Improvement and Policy
Studies, Boise State University
– recognize sound assessment, evaluation,
communication practices;
– they understand which assessment methods
to use to gather dependable information and
student achievement.
– communicate assessment results effectively,
whether using report card grades, test scores,
portfolios, or conferences.
– can use assessment to maximize student
motivation and learning by involving students
as full partners in assessment, record keeping,
and communication

15. Assessment literate educators:
– Assessment literates know the difference between
sound and unsound assessment.
– They are not intimidated by the sometimes
mysterious and always daunting technical world of
assessment
Stiggins (1995)

16. Assessment literate educators:
• Cont. Stiggins (1995)
• They enter the realm of
assessment knowing:
• what they are assessing,
• why they are doing it,
• how best to assess the
skill/knowledge of interest,
• how to generate good examples of
student performance,
• what can potentially go wrong with
the assessment,
• and how to prevent that from
happening

17. Assessment literate educators:
• Cont. Stiggins (1995):
– They are also aware of the potential
negative consequences of poor,
inaccurate assessment

18. Assessment Literacy
• (1) Assessment comes with a clear purpose
• (2) focusing on achievement targets
• (3) selecting proper assessment methods
• (4) sampling student achievement

19. ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF
ASSESSMENT
• Performance based assessment
• Authentic assessment
• Portfolio assessment

20. OBJECTIVES
• 1. Distinguish performance-
based assessment with the
traditional paper and pencil
tests.
• 2. Construct tasks that are
performance based.
• Design a rubric to assess a
performance based task

21. TERMS
• Authentic
assessment
• Direct assessment
• Alternative
assessment
• Performance testing
• Performance
assessment
• Changes are taking
place in assessment

22. METHOD
• Assessment should measure what is really
important in the curriculum.
• Assessment should look more like
instructional activities than like tests.
• Educational assessment should
approximate the learning tasks of interest,
so that, when students practice for the
assessment, some useful learning takes
place.

23. WHAT IS PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENT?
• Testing that requires a student to create an
answer or a product that demonstrates
his/her knowledge or skills (Rudner &
Boston, 1991).

24. FEATURES OF PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENT
• Intended to assess what it is that students know
and can do with the emphasis on doing.
• Have a high degree of realism about them.
• Involve: (a) activities for which there is no correct
answer, (b) assessing groups rather than
individuals, (c) testing that would continue over
an extended period of time, (d) self-evaluation of
performances.
• Likely use open-ended tasks aimed at assessing
higher level cognitive skills.

25. PUSH ON PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENT
• Bring testing methods more in line with
instruction.
• Assessment should approximate closely
what it is students should know and be
able to do.

26. EMPHASIS OF PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENT
• Should assess higher level cognitive skills rather
than narrow and lower level discreet skills.
• Direct measures of skills of interest.

27. CHARACTERISTICS OF PERFORMANCE-
BASED ASSESSMENT
• Students perform, create, construct, produce, or do
something.
• Deep understanding and/or reasoning skills are
needed and assessed.
• Involves sustained work, often days and weeks.
• Calls on students to explain, justify, and defend.
• Performance is directly observable.
• Involves engaging in ideas of importance and
substance.
• Relies on trained assessor’s judgments for scoring
• Multiple criteria and standards are prespecified and
public
• There is no single correct answer.
• If authentic, the performance is grounded in real world
contexts and constraints.

28. VARIATION OF AUTHENTICITY
Relatively authentic Somewhat authentic Authentic
Indicate which
parts of a garden
design are
accurate
Design a garden Create a garden
Write a paper on
zoning
Write a proposal to
change fictitious
zoning laws
Write a proposal to
present to city
council to change
zoning laws
Explain what
would you teach to
students learning
basketball
Show how to
perform basketball
skills in practice
Play a basketball
game.

29. • Answer worksheet 2

30. CONSTRUCTING PERFORMANCE
BASED TASKS
1. Identify the performance task in which students
will be engaged
2. Develop descriptions of the task and the context
in which the performance is to be conducted.
3. Write the specific question, prompt, or problem
that the student will receive.
• Structure: Individual or group?
• Content: Specific or integrated?
• Complexity: Restricted or extended?

31. COMPLEXITY OF TASK
• Restricted-type task
– Narrowly defined and require brief responses
– Task is structured and specific
– Ex:
• Construct a bar graph from data provided
• Demonstrate a shorter conversation in French about what is on
a menu
• Read an article from the newspaper and answer questions
• Flip a coin ten times. Predict what the next ten flips of the coin
will be, and explain why.
• Listen to the evening news on television and explain if you
believe the stories are biased.
• Construct a circle, square, and triangle from provided materials
that have the same circumference.

32. • Extended-type task
– Complex, elaborate, and time-consuming.
– Often include collaborative work with small group of students.
– Requires the use of a variety of information
– Examples:
• Design a playhouse and estimate cost of materials and labor
• Plan a trip to another country: Include the budget and itinerary,
and justify why you want to visit certain places
• Conduct a historical reenactment (e. g. impeachment trial of
ERAP)
• Diagnose and repair a car problem
• Design an advertising campaign for a new or existing product

33. IDENTIFYING PERFORMANCE
TASK DESCRIPTION
• Prepare a task description
• Listing of specifications to ensure that essential if criteria are met
• Includes the ff.:
– Content and skill targets to be assessed
– Description of student activities
• Group or individual
• Help allowed
– Resources needed
– Teacher role
– Administrative process
– Scoring procedures

34. PERFORMANCE-BASED TASK
QUESTION PROMPT
• Task prompts and questions will be based
on the task descriptions.
• Clearly identifies the outcomes, outlines
what the students are encourage dot do,
explains criteria for judgment.

35. PROMPT:

36. PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
• What you look for in student responses to
evaluate their progress toward meeting the
learning target.
• Dimensions of traits in performance that are
used to illustrate understanding, reasoning,
and proficiency.
• Start with identifying the most important
dimensions of the performance
• What distinguishes an adequate to an
inadequate demonstration of the target?

37. EXAMPLE OF CRITERIA
• Learning target:
– Students will be able to write a persuasive paper to encourage
the reader to accept a specific course of action or point of view.
• Criteria:
– Appropriateness of language for the audience
– Plausibility and relevance of supporting arguments.
– Level of detail presented
– Evidence of creative, innovative thinking
– Clarity of expression
– Organization of ideas

38. • Watch video of Cody Green

39. RATING SCALES
• Indicate the degree to which a particular dimension is
present.
• Three kinds: Numerical, qualitative, combined
qualitative/quantitative

40. • Numerical Scale
– Numbers of a continuum to indicate different
level of proficiency in terms of frequency or
quality
Example:
No Understanding 1 2 3 4 5 Complete
understanding
No organization 1 2 3 4 5 Clear
organization
Emergent reader 1 2 3 4 5 Fluent reader

41. • Qualitative scale
– Uses verbal descriptions to indicate student performance.
– Provides a way to check the whether each dimension was
evidenced.
• Type A: Indicate different gradations of the dimension
• Type B: Checklist

42. • Example of Type A:
– Minimal, partial, complete
– Never, seldom, occasionally, frequently, always
– Consistent, sporadically, rarely
– None, some, complete
– Novice, intermediate, advance, superior
– Inadequate, needs improvement, good excellent
– Excellent, proficient, needs improvement
– Absent, developing, adequate, fully developed
– Limited, partial, thorough
– Emerging, developing, achieving
– Not there yet, shows growth, proficient
– Excellent, good, fair, poor

43. • Example of Type A: Checklist

44. • Holistic scale
– The category of the scale contains several criteria,
yielding a single score that gives an overall impression
or rating
Example
level 4: Sophisticated understanding of text indicated with
constructed meaning
level 3: Solid understanding of text indicated with some
constructed meaning
level 2: Partial understanding of text indicated with
tenuous constructed meaning
level 1: superficial understanding of text with little or no
constructed meaning

45. EXAMPLE HOLISTIC SCALE

46. • Analytic Scale
– One in which each criterion receives a separate score.
Example
Criteria Outstanding
5 4
Competent
3
Marginal
2 1
Creative ideas
Logical
organization
Relevance of detail
Variety in words
and sentences
Vivid images

47. RUBRICS
• When scoring criteria are combined with
a rating scale, a complete scoring
guideline is produced or rubric.
• A scoring guide that uses criteria to
differentiate between levels of student
proficiency.

48. EXAMPLE OF A RUBRIC

49. GUIDELINES IN CREATING A
RUBRIC
1. Be sure the criteria focus on important aspects of the
performance
2. Match the type of rating with the purpose of the
assessment
3. The descriptions of the criteria should be directly
observable
4. The criteria should be written so that students, parents,
and others understand them.
5. The characteristics and traits used in the scale should
be clearly and specifically defined.
6. Take appropriate steps to minimize scoring frame

50. PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT:
EXPLORATION
• Have you ever done a
portfolio?
• Tell me about this experience.
Did you enjoy it?
• What elements did you include
in your portfolio?
• Are the materials placed in the
portfolio required?

51. What are Portfolios?
• Purposeful, systematic process of collecting and
evaluating student products to document progress
toward the attainment of learning targets or show
evidence that a learning target has been achieved.
• Includes student participation in the selection and
student self-reflection.
• “A collection of artifacts accompanied by a
reflective narrative that not only helps the learner
to understand and extend learning, but invites the
reader of the portfolio to gain insight about
learning and the learner (Porter & Cleland, 1995)

52. Characteristics of Portfolio
assessment
• Clearly defined purpose and learning targets
• Systematic and organized collection of student
products
• Preestablished guidelines for what will be included
• Student selection of some works that will be
included
• Student self-reflection and self-evaluation
• Progress documented with specific products
and/or evaluations
• Portfolio conferences between students and
teachers

53. A portfolio is:
• Purposeful
• Systematic and well-organized
• Prestablished guidelines are set-up
• Students are engaged in the selection of
some materials
• Clear and well-specified scoring criteria

54. Purpose of Portfolio
• Showcase portfolio: Selection of best
works. Student chooses work, profile are
accomplishments and individual profile
emerges.
• Documentation portfolio: Like a
scrapbook of information and examples.
Inlcudes observations, tests, checklists,
and rating scales.
• Evaluation portfolio: More standardized.
Assess student learning with self-

55. Advantages of portfolio
• Students are actively involved in self-evaluation and self-
reflection
• Involves collaborative assessment
• Ongoing process where students demonstrate performance,
evaluate , revise , and produce quality work.
• Focus on self-improvement rather than comparison with
others
• Students become more engaged in learning because both
instruction and assessment shift from teacher controlled to
mix of internal and external control.
• Products help teachers diagnose learning difficulties
• clarify reasons for evaluation
• Flexible

56. Disadvatntages
• Scoring difficulties may lead to low
reliability
• Teacher training needed
• Time-consuming to develop criteria, score
and meet students
• Students may not make good selections
of which of which material to include
• Sampling of student products may lead to
weak generalization

57. Steps in Planning and
Implementing Portfolio Assessment
1. Determine the the purpose
2. Identify physical structure
3. Determine sources of content
4. Determine sources of content
5. Determine student reflective guidelines and scoring criteria
6. Review with students
7. Portfolio content supplied by teacher and/or student
8. Student self-evaluation of contents
9. Teacher evaluation of content and student self-evaluation
10. Student-teacher conference
11. Portfolios returned to students for school

58. Purpose
• Based on specific learning targets
• Ideal for assessing product, skill, and reasoning
targets
Uses:
• Showcase portfolio-to illustrate what students are
capable of doing
• Evaluation of portfolio-standardization of what to
include
• For parents-what will make sense to parents
“Provide specific attention to purpose and corresponding
implications when implementing a portfolio.”

59. Physical structure
• What will it look like?
• How large will the portfolios be?
• Where are they stored so that students
can easily access them?
• Will it be in folders or scrap books?
• How will the works be arranged in the
portfolio?
• What materials are needed to separate
the works in the portfolio?

60. Sources of content
• Work samples
• Student and teacher evaluations
Guidelines:
• Select categories that will allow you to
meet the pupose of the portfolio.
• Show improvement in the portfolio
• Provide feedback on the students on the
procedures they are putting together
• Provide indicator system

61. Self-reflective guidelines and
scoring
• Establish guidelines for student self-
reflection and the scoring criteria
• Scoring guidelines are explained to the
students before they begin instruction

62. Implementing portfolio
assessment
• Review with students: Explain to students what is
involved in doing a portfolio.
• Begin with learning targets
• Show examples
• Give opportunities to ask questions
• Provide just enough structure so that they can get
started without telling them exactly what to do.
• Selection of content will depend on the age and
previos experience of students
• Students and teachers decide together what to
include with nonrestrictive guidelines

63. Some organization
• Include table of contents
• Brief description of activities
• Date produced
• Date submitted
• Date evaluated

64. Student self-evaluations
• Reflective and self-evaluation activities need to be
taught.
• Some guide questions for students:
– Can you tell me what you did?
– What did you like best abut this sample of your writing?
– What will you do next?
• Self-reflective questions:
– What did you learn from writing this piece?
– What would you have done differently if you had more
time?
– What are your greatest strengths and weaknesses in this
sample?
– What would you do differently if you did this over?

65. Peer evaluations
• Analysis and constructive, supportive
criticism of strategies, styles, and other
concrete aspects of the product.
• Can include comments or a review by
parents
Teacher evaluations:
• Checklist of content
• Portfolio structure evaluation: selection of
samples, thoroughness, appearance, self-
reflection, and organization.

71. Student-teacher conferences
• Conference is conducted with students before
returning the portfolio
• Scheduled throughout the school year; some have it
monthly
• Clarify purposes and procedure with students, answer
questions and establish trust
• Give guidelines to prepare for each conference
• Allow the students to do most of the talking
• Have students compare your reflections with theirs
• Weaknesses and areas for improvement need to be
communicated –show them what is possible for
progress

72. Student-teacher conferences
• At the end of the conference there is an
action plan for the future
• Limit the conference to no more than 10
minutes
• Students are encouraged to take notes
• Focus on one or two major areas of each
conference-helps to have a thoughtful
discussion

73. Advance Organizer
1 The Test Blueprint
Outline of the Test Development Process
Table of Specifications
2 Designing Selected-Response Items
Binary-choice items
Instructions in Writing Binary Type of Items
Multiple-choice items
Guidelines in Writing Multiple-choice Items
Matching items
Guidelines in Writing Multiple-choice Items
3 Designing Constructed-Response Items
Short-answer items
Guidelines in Writing Short Answer Items
Essay items
4 Designing Interpretive Exercise
Guidelines in Writing Intepretive Exercise
Examples of Interpretive Exercise
73

74. Objectives
• 1. Explain the theories and concepts that
rationalize the practice of assessment.
• 2. Make a table of specifications of the test
items.
• 3. Design pen-and-paper tests that are aligned
to the learning intents.
• 4. Justify the advantages and disadvantages of
any pen-and-paper test.
• 5. Evaluate the test items according to the
guidelines presented.
74

75. 75
Outline of Test Development Process
• 1. Specify the ultimate goals of the education process
• 2. Derive from these the goals of the portion of the
system under study
• 3. Specify these goals in terms of expected student
behavior. If relevant, specify the acceptance level of
successful learning.
• 4. Determine the relative emphasis or importance of
various objectives, their content, and their behaviors.
• 5. Select or develop situations that will elicit the
desired behavior in the appropriate context or
environment, assuming the student has learned it.
• 6. Assemble a sample of such situations that together
represent accurately the emphasis on content and
behavior previously determined.

76. 76
Outline of Test Development Process
• 7. Provide for the recording of responses in a form
that will facilitate scoring but will not so distort the
nature of the behavior elicited that it is no longer a true
sample or index of the behavior desired.
• 8. Establish scoring criteria and guides to provide
objective and unbiased judgment.
• 9. Try out the instrument in preliminary form.
• 10. Revise the sample of situations on the basis of
tryout information.
• 11. Analyze reliability, validity, and score distribution in
accordance with the projected use of scores.
• 12. Develop test norms and a manual, and reproduce
and distribute the test.

77. 77
Test Length
• The test must be of sufficient length to yield
reliable scores
• The longer the test, the more the reliable the
results
• The test should be valid if it is reliable
• For the grade school, one must consider the
stamina and attention span of the pupils
• The test should be long enough to be
adequately reliable and short enough to be
administered

78. 78
Test Instruction
• It is the function of the test instructions to
furnish the learning experiences needed in
order to enable each examinee to
understand clearly what he is being asked
to do?
• Instructions may be oral, a combination of
written and oral instruction is probably
desirable, except with very young children.
• Clear concise and specific.

79. 79
Test layout
• The arrangement of the test items influences the speed
and accuracy of the examinee
• Utilize the space available while retaining readability.
• Items of the same type should be grouped together
• Arrange test items from easiest to most difficult as a
means of reducing test anxiety.
• The test should be ordered first by type then by content
• Each item should be completed in the column and page
in which it is started.
• If the reference material is needed, it should occur on the
same page as the item
• If you are using numbers to identify items it is better to
use letters for the options

80. 80
Scoring the test
• Use separate answer sheets
• Punched key
• Overlay key
• Strip key
Plight of the student
• The teacher should discuss with the class the
content areas and levels of the cognitive domain
to be examined
• The discussion should utilize a vocabulary and a
level of complexity appropriate to the
development level of the student
• Types of test
• Examples of test type

81. Table of Specifications
Content Outline No. of items
1. Table of specifications 10
2. Test and Item characteristics 20
3. Test layout 5
4. Test instructions 5
5. Reproducing the test 5
6. Test length 5
7. Scoring the test 5
TOTAL 55 81
One Grid TOS

82. Table of Specifications
Two Grid TOS
82
Weight
(Time
Frame)
Content
Outline
Knowledge
30%
Comprehension
40%
Application
30%
No. of items
by content
area
35% 1. Table of specifications 1 4 4 9
30% 2. Test and Item characteristics 2 3 3 8
10% 3. Test layout 1 1 0 2
5% 4. Test instructions 0 1 0 1
5% 5. Reproducing the test 1 0 0 1
5% 6. Test length 1 0 1 2
10% 7. Scoring the test 2 1 0 3
8 10 8 26
The number of items in a cell is computed using the formula:
itemsofnumbertotalXskillcognitiveofpercentage
timeTotal
timeGiven
Xitems =

83. 83
Classification of test Items
• Selected Response
– Binary Choices
– Multiple Choice
– Matching Type
• Constructed Response “Supply Test”
– Short Form answers - identification
– Completion – fill in the blanks, cloz test
– Essay
• Performance Type
– Paper and pencil type
– Identification type
– Simulation

84. 84
Item Writing Commandments
• Thou shall not produce opaque directions to students
regarding how to respond to your instructions (opaque
directions)
• Thou shall not employ ambiguous statements in your
assessment item (ambiguous statements)
• Thou shall not unintentionally provide students with
clues regarding appropriate response (unintended
clues)
• Thou shall not employ complex syntax in your
assessment item (complex syntax)
• Thou shall not use vocabulary that is more advanced
than required (Difficult vocabulary)

85. 85
SHORT ANSWER ITEMS
• 1. Word the item so that the answer is both brief
and definite.
• 2. Do not take statements directly from books to
use as a basis for short answer items.
• 3. A direct question is generally more
acceptable than an incomplete statement.
• 4. The answer to be expressed in numerical
units indicate the type of answer wanted.
• 5. Blanks for answers should be equal in length.
• 6. Do not use to many blanks.

86. 86
Writing supply items
1. Require short, definite, clear-cut, and explicit answers
FAULTY: Earnest Hemingway wrote______
IMPROVED: The Old Man and the Sea was written by
_______.
Who wrote The Old man and the Sea?
2. Avoid multimutilated statements
FAULTY: _____ pointed out in ____ the freedom of thought
in America was seriously hampered by ___, ____, & __.
IMPROVED: That freedom of thought in America was
seriously hampered by social pressures toward
conformity was pointed out in 1830 by ______.

87. 87
Writing supply items
3. If several equal answers equal credit should be given to
each one.
4. Specify and announce in advance whether scoring will
take spelling into account.
5. In testing for comprehension of terms and knowledge
of definition, it is often better to supply the term and
require a definition than to provide a definition and
require the term.
FAULTY: What is the general measurement term
describing the consistency with which items in a test
measure the same thing?
IMPROVED: Define “internal consistency reliability.”

88. 88
Writing supply items
6. It is generally recommended that in completion items
the blanks come at the end of the statement.
FAULTY: A (an) ________ is the index obtained by dividing
a mental age score by chronological age and
multiplying by 100.
IMPROVED: The index obtained by dividing a mental age
score by chronological age and multiplying by 100 is
called a (an) ________
7. Minimize the use of textbook expressions and
stereotyped language.
FAULTY: The power to declare war is vested in ______
IMPROVED: Which national legislative body has the
authority to declare war?

89. 89
Writing supply items
8. Specify the terms in which the response is to be given.
FAULTY: Where does the Security Council of the United Nations
hold its meeting?
IMPROVED: In what city of the United States does the Security
Council of the United Nations hold its meeting?
FAULTY: If a circle has 4-inch diameter, its area is_____
IMPROVED: A circle has 4-inch diameter. Its area in square
inches correct to two decimal places, is _____
9. In general, direct questions are preferable to incomplete
declarative sentences.
FAULTY: Gold was discovered in California in the year ___
IMPROVED: In what year was gold discovered in California?

90. 90
Writing supply items
10. Avoid extraneous clues to the correct answer
FAULTY: A fraction whose denominator is greater than its
numerator is a _____
IMPROVED: Fractions whose denominator are greater
than their numerators are called _____

91. 91
ALTERNATIVE RESPONSE ITEM
• 1. Avoid broad general statements if they are to be
judged true or false.
• 2. Avoid trivial statements.
• 3. Avoid the use of negative statements.
• 4. Avoid long complex sentences.
• 5. Avoid including two ideas in one statement unless
cause and effect relationship are being measured.
• 6. If the opinion is being used, attribute it to some
source unless the ability to identify opinion is being
specifically measured.
• 7. True statements and false statements should be
equal in length.
• 8. The number of true and false statements should be
approximately equal.

92. 92
Writing TRUE-FALSE Items
1. Avoid the use of “specific determiners”
FAULTY: No picture-no sound in a television set may
indicate a bad 5U4G.
IMPROVED: A bad 5U4G tube in a television set will result
in no picture sound.
2. Base true-false items upon statements that are
absolutely true or false, without qualifications or
exceptions.
FAULTY: World War II was fought in Europe and the Far
East.
IMPROVED: The primary combat locations in terms of
military personnel during World War II were Europe
and the Far East.

93. 93
Writing TRUE-FALSE Items
3. Avoid negative stated items when possible and
eliminate all double negatives.
FAULTY: It is not frequently observed that copper turns
green as a result of oxidation.
IMPROVED: Copper will turn green upon oxidizing.
4. Use quantitative and precise rather than qualitative
language where possible.
FAULTY: Many people voted for Gloria Arroyo in the 2003
Presidential election.
IMPROVED: Gloria Arroyo received more than 60 percent
of the popular votes cast in the Presidential election of
2003.

94. 94
Writing TRUE-FALSE Items
5. Avoid stereotypic and textbook statements.
FAULTY: From time to time efforts have been made to explode the
notion that there may be a cause-and-effect relationship between
arboreal life and primate anatomy.
IMPROVED: There is a known relationship between primate anatomy
and arboreal life.
6. Avoid making the true items consistently longer than the false
items.
7. Avoid the use of unfamiliar or esoteric language.
FAULTY: According to some peripatetic politicos, the raison d’etre for
capital punishment is retribution.
IMPROVED: According to some politicians, justification for the
existence of capital punishment can be traced to the Biblical
statement, “An eye for an eye.”

95. 95
Writing TRUE-FALSE Items
8. Avoid complex sentences with many dependent
clauses.
FAULTY: Jane Austen, an American novelist born in 1790,
was a prolific writer and is best known for her novel
Pride and Prejudice, which was published in 1820.
IMPROVED: Jane Austen is best known for her novel Pride
and prejudice.
9. It is suggested that the crucial elements of an item be
placed at the end of the statement.
FAULTY: Oxygen reduction occurs more readily because
carbon monoxide combines with hemoglobin faster
than oxygen does.
IMPROVED: Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs because
carbon monoxide dissolves delicate lung tissue.

96. 96
Writing Matching Type Test
1. Matching Exercises should be complete on a single
page.
2. Use response categories that are related but mutually
exclusive.
3. Keep the number of stimuli relatively small (10-15),
and let the number of possible responses exceed the
number of stimuli by two or three.
4. The direction should clearly specify the basis for
matching stimuli and responses.
5. Keep the statements in the response column short and
list them in some logical order

97. 97
FAULTY: Match List A with List B. You will be given one
point for each correct match.
List A List B
a. cotton gin a. Eli Whitney
b. reaper b. Alexander Graham Bell
c. wheel c. David Brinkley
d. TU54G tube d. Louisa May Alcott
e. steamboat e. None of these
• Directions failed to specify the basis for matching
• List are enumerated identically
• Responses not listed logically
• Lacks homogeneity
• Equal number of elements
• Use of “None of the above”

98. 98
IMPROVED: Famous inventions are listed in the left-hand
column and inventors in the right-hand column below.
Place the letter corresponding to the inventor in the
space next to the invention for which he is famous. Each
match is worth 1 point, and “None of these” may be the
correct answer. Inventors may be used more than once.
Inventions Inventors
__ 1. steamboat a. Alexander Graham-Bell
__ 2. cotton skin b. Robert Fulton
__ 3. sewing machine c. Elias Howe
__ 4. reaper d. Cyrus McCormick
e. Eli Whitney
f. None of these

99. 99
Writing Multiple Choice
1. It is recommended that the stem be a direct question.
2. The stem should pose a clear, define, explicit, and
singular problem.
FAULTY: Salvador Dali is
a. a famous Indian.
b. important in international law.
c. known for his surrealistic art.
d. the author of many avant-garde plays.
IMPROVED: With which one of the fine arts is Salvador
Dali associated?
a. surrealistic painting
b. avant-garde theatre
c. polytonal symphonic music
d. impressionistic poetry

100. 100
Writing Multiple Choice
3. Include in the stem any words that might otherwise be
repeated in each response.
FAULTY: Milk can be pasteurized at home by
a. heating it to a temperature of 130o
b. Heating it to a temperature of 145o
c. Heating it to a temperature of 160o
d. Heating it to a temperature of 175o
IMPROVED: The minimum temperature that can be used
to pasteurize milk at home is:
a. 130o
b. 145o
c. 160o
d. 175o

101. 101
Writing Multiple Choice
4. Items should be stated simply and understandably, excluding all
nonfunctional words from stem and alternatives.
FAULTY: Although the experimental research, particularly that by
Hansmocker must be considered equivocal and assumptions
viewed as too restrictive, most testing experts would recommend as
the easiest method of significantly improving paper-and-pencil
achievement test reliability to
a. increase the size of the group being tested.
b. increase the differential weighting of items.
c. increase the objective of scoring.
d. increase the number of items.
e. increase the amount of testing time.
IMPROVED: Assume a 10-item, 10-minute paper-and-pencil multiple
choice achievement test has a reliability of .40. The easiest way of
increasing the reliability to .80 would be to increased
a. group size
b. scoring objectivity
c. differential item scoring weights
d. the number of items
e. testing time

102. 102
Writing Multiple Choice
5. Avoid interrelated items
6. Avoid negatively stated items
FAULTY: None of the following cities is a state capital
except
a. Bangor
b. Los Angeles
c. Denver
d. New Haven
IMPROVED: Which of the following cities is a state capital?
a. Bangor
b. Los Angeles
c. Denver
d. New Haven

103. 103
Writing Multiple Choice
7. Avoid making the correct alternative systematically different from
other options
8. If possible the alternatives should be presented in some logical,
numerical, or systematic order.
9. Response alternatives should be mutually exclusive.
FAULTY: Who wrote Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire?
a. J. K. Rowling
b. Manny Paquiao
c. Lea Salonga
d. Mark Twain
IMPROVED: Who wrote Penrod?
a. J. K. Rowling
b. J. R. R. Tolkien
c. V. Hugo
d. L. Carrol

104. 104
Writing Multiple Choice
10. Make all responses plausible and attractive to the less
knowledgeable and skillful student.
FAULTY: Which of the following statements makes clear the meaning
of the word “electron”?
a. An electronic tool
b. Neutral particles
c. Negative particles
d. A voting machine
e. The nuclei of atoms
IMPROVED: Which of the following phrases is a description of an
“electron”?
a. Neutral particle
b. Negative particle
c. Neutralized proton
d. Radiated particle
e. Atom nucleus

105. 105
Writing Multiple Choice
11. The response alternative “None of the above” should be used with
caution, if at all.
FAULTY: What is the area of a right triangle whose sides adjacent to
the right angle are 4 inches long respectively?
a. 7
b. 12
c. 25
d. None of the above
IMPROVED: What is the area of a right triangle whose sides adjacent
to the right angle are 4 inches and 3 inches respectively?
a. 6 sq. inches
b. 7 sq. inches
c. 12 sq. inches
d. 25 sq. inches
e. None of the above

106. 106
Writing Multiple Choice
12. Make options grammatically parallel to each other and consistent
with the stem.
FAULTY: As compared with the American factory worker in the early
part of the 19th
century, the American factory worker at the close of
the century
a. was working long hours
b. received greater social security benefits
c. was to receive lower money wages
d. was less likely to belong to a labor union.
e. became less likely to have personal contact with employers
IMPROVED: As compared with the American factory worker in the
early part of the century, the American factory worker at the close of
the century
a. worked longer hours.
b. had more social security.
c. received lower money wages.
d. was less likely to belong to a labor union
e. had less personal contact with his employer

107. 107
Writing Multiple Choice
13. Avoid such irrelevant cues as “common elements” and “pat verbal
associations.”
FAULTY: The “standard error of estimate’ refer to
a. the objectivity of scoring.
b. the percentage of reduced error variance.
c. an absolute amount of possible error.
d. the amount of error in estimating criterion scores.
IMPROVED: The “standard error of estimate” is most directly related to
which of the following test characteristic?
a. Objectivity
b. Reliability
c. Validity
d. Usability
e. Specificity

108. 108
Writing Multiple Choice
14. In testing for understanding of a term or concept, it is generally
preferable to present the term in the stem and alternative definitions
in the options.
FAULTY: What name is given to the group of complex organic
compounds that occur in small quantities in natural foods that are
essential to normal nutrition?
a. Calorie
b. Minerals
c. Nutrients
d. Vitamins
IMPROVED: Which of the following statements is the best description
of a vitamin?
15. Use objective items – items’ whose correct answers are agreed by
experts

109. 109
Factual Knowledge
• The Monroe Doctrine was announced about 10 years after the
a. Revolutionary War
b. War of 1812
c. Civil War
d. Spanish-American War
Conceptual Knowledge
2. Which of the following statements of the relationship between
market price and normal price is true?
a. Over a short period of time, market price varies directly with
changes in normal price.
b. Over a long period of time, market price tends to equal normal
price.
c. Market price is usually lower than normal price.
d. Over a long period of time, market price determines normal
price.

110. 110
Translation from symbolic form to another form, or vice
versa
3. Which of the graphs below best represent the supply
situation where a monopolist maintains a uniform price
regardless of the amounts which people buy?
A B C D
S
Price
Quantity
S
Price
Quantity
S
SPrice
Quantity
S S
Price
Quantity
S

111. 111
Application
In the following items (4-8) you are to judge the effects of a particular
policy on the distribution of income. In each case assume that
there are no other changes in policy that would counteract the
effect of the policy described in the item. Mark the item:
A. If the policy described would tend to reduce the existing degree of
inequality in the distribution of income,
B. If the policy described would tend to increase the existing degree
of inequality in the distribution of income, or
C. If the policy described would have no effect, or an indeterminate
effect, on the distribution of income.
__ 4. Increasingly progressive income taxes.
__ 5. Confiscation of rent on unimproved
__ 6. Introduction of a national sales tax
__ 7. Increasing the personal exemptions from income taxes
__ 8. Distributing a subsidy to sharecroppers on southern farms

112. 112
Analysis
9. An assumption basic to Lindsay’s preference for
voluntary associations rather than government order… is
a belief
a. that government is not organized to make the best use
of experts
b. that freedom of speech, freedom of meeting, freedom
of association, and possible only under a system of
voluntary associations.
c. in the value of experiment and initiative as a means of
attaining an ever improving society
d. in the benefits of competition

113. 113
Judgments in terms of external criteria
For items 14-16, assume that in doing research for a paper about the
English language you find a statement by Otto Jespersen that
contradicts one point of view in a language you have always
accepted. Indicate which of the statements would be significant in
determining the value of Jespersen’s statement. For the purpose
of these items, you may assume that these statements are
accurate. Mark each item using the following key.
A. Significant positively – that is, might lead you to trust his
statement and to revise your own opinion.
B. Significant negatively – that is, night lead you to distrust his
statement
C. Has no significance
__ 14. Mr. Jesperson was professor of English at Copenhagen
University
__ 15. The statement in question was taken from the very first article
that Jespersen published
__ 16. Mr. Jespersen’s books are frequently referred to in other works
that you consult.

114. 114
Essay Questions
• 1. Ask questions or set tasks that will require the
examinee to demonstrate a command of essential
knowledge.
• 2. Ask questions that are determinate, in the sense that
experts could agree that one answer is better than
another.
• 3. Define the examinee’s task as completely and
specifically as possible without interfering with
measurements of the achievement intended.
• 4. In general, give preference to more specific questions
that can be more answered briefly.
• 5. Avoid giving the examinee a choice among optional
questions unless special circumstances make such
option necessary.
• 6. Test the questions by writing an ideal answer

115. 115
Types of Essays:
• General – extensiveness of responses
• Restrictive Response – reliable scoring
Learning outcomes measured by Essay:
• Explain cause-effect relationship
• Describe applications of principles
• Present relevant arguments
• Formulate tangible hypothesis
• Formulate valid conclusions
• State necessary assumptions
• Describe the limitations of data
• Explain methods and procedures
• Produce, organize, and express ideas
• Integrate learnings in different areas
• Create original forms
• Evaluate the worth of ideas

116. 116
Understanding:
A. Comparison of two phenomena on a single designated basis:
Compare the writers of the English Renaissance to those of the
nineteenth century with respect to their ability tot describe nature
B. Comparison of two phenomena in general
Compare the French and Russian Revolutions
C. Explanation of the use or exact meaning of a phrase or statement
The book of John begins “In the beginning was the word…” From
what philosophical system does this statement derive?
D. Summary of a text or some portion of it
State the central theme of the Communist Manifesto
E. Statement of an artist’s purpose in the selection or organization of
material
Why did Hemingway describe in detail the episode in which
Gordon, lying wounded, engage the oncoming enemy?
What was Beethoven’s purpose in deviating from the orthodox
form of a symphony in Symphony No. 6?

117. 117
Application:
A. Causes or effects
Why may too frequent reliance on penicillin for the treatment of
minor ailments eventually result in its diminished effectiveness
against major invasion of body tissues by infectious bacteria?
B. Analysis
Why was Hamlet torn by conflicting desires?
C. Statement of relationship
It is said that intelligence correlates with school achievement at
about .65. Explain this relationship
D. Illustrations or examples of principles
Name three examples of uses of the lever in typical American
homes
E. Application of rules or principles
Would you weigh more or less on the moon? On the sun?
Explain.
F. Reorganization of facts
Some writers have said that the American Revolution was not
merely a political revolution against England but also a social
revolution, within the colonies, of the poor against the wealthy.
Using the same evidence what other conclusion is possible?

118. 118
Judgment:
A. Decision for or against
Should members of the Communist Party be allowed to teach in
American colleges? Why or why not?
B. Discussion
Discuss the likelihood that four-year private liberal arts colleges
will gradually be replaced by junior colleges and state universities.
C. Criticism of the adequacy, correctness, or relevance of a
statement
The discovery of penicillin has often been called an accident.
Comment on the adequacy of this explanation.
D. Formulation of new questions
What should one find out in order to explain why some students of
high intelligence fail in school?

119. Designing Interpretive Exercise
• Guidelines in Writing Interpretive Exercise
• 1. Select an introductory that is in harmony with the
objectives of the course.
– Amount of emphasis of various interpretive skills is a factor.
– Do not overload test takers with interpretive items in a particular
area.
– Selection of introductory should be guided by general emphasis
to be given to the measurement of complex achievement.
• 2. Select introductory material that is appropriate to the
curricular experience and reading ability of the
examinees.
119

120. Guidelines in Writing
Interpretive Exercise
• 3. Select introductory material that is new to pupils.
• 4. Select introductory material that is brief but
meaningful.
• 5. Revise introductory material for clarity, conciseness,
and greater interpretive value.
• 6. Construct test items that require analysis and
interpretation of introductory material.
• 7. Make the number of items roughly proportional to the
length of the introductory material.
• 8. Observe all suggestions for constructing objective
test items.
120

121. • Ability to Recognize the Relevance of
Information
121

122. • Ability to Recognize Warranted and
Unwarranted Generalizations
122

123. • Ability to Recognize Inferences
123

124. • Ability to Interpret Experimental Findings
124

125. • Ability to Apply Principles
125

126. • Ability to Recognize Assumptions
126

127. Reading comprehension
• Bem (1975) has argued that androgynous people
are “better off” than their sex-typed counterparts
because they are not constrained by rigid sex-
role concepts and are freer to respond to a wider
variety of situations. Seeking to test this
hypothesis, Bem exposed masculine, feminine,
and androgynous men and women to situations
that called for independence (a masculine
attribute) or nurturance (a feminine attribute). The
test for masculine independence assessed the
subject’s willingness to resist social pressure by
refusing to agree with peers who gave bogus
judgments when rating cartoons for funniness (for
example, several peers might say that a very
funny cartoon was hilarious). Nurturance or
feminine expressiveness, was measured by
observing the behavior of the subject when left
alone for ten minutes with a 5-month old baby.
The result confirmed Bem’s hypothesis. Both the
masculine sex-typed and the androgynous
subjects were more independent (less
conforming) on the ‘independence” test than
feminine sex-typed individuals. Furthermore, both
the feminine and the androgynous subjects were
more “nurturant” than the masculine sex-typed
individuals when interacting with the baby. Thus,
the androgynous subjects were quite flexible,
they performed as masculine subjects did on the
“feminine” task.
127
35. What is the independent variable in the
study?
a.Situations calling for independence and
nurturance
b.Situation to make the sex type react
c.Situations to make the androgynous be
flexible
d.Situations like sex type, androgynous and
sex role concepts
36. What are the levels of the IV?
a.masculine attribute and feminine attribute
b.rating cartoons and taking care of a baby
c.independence and nurturance
d.flexibility and rigidity

128. Interpreting Diagrams
Instruction. Study the following illustrations and answer the following
questions.
Figure 1
128
Pretest Posttest
101. Which group received the treatment?
a.group A b. group B
b.c. none of the above
102. Why did group B remain stable across the
experiment?
a. there is an EV
b. there is no treatment
c. there is the occurence of ceiling effect
103. What is the problem at the start of the
experiment?
a.the groups are nonequivalent
b.the groups are competing with each other
c. the treatment took place immediately

129. Analysis of Test
Results
Reliability, Validity, and Item Analysis

130. Learning Content
• Levels of Measurement
• Correlation Coefficient
• Reliability
• Validity
• Item Analysis

131. Objectives
• 1. Determine the use of the different
ways of establishing an assessment
tools’ validity and reliability.
• 2. Familiarize on the different methods
of establishing an assessment tools’
validity and reliability.
• 3. Assess how good an assessment
tool is by determining the index of
validity, reliability, item discrimination,
and item difficulty.

132. Levels of Measurement
• Nominal
• Ordinal
• Interval
• Ratio

133. Correlation Coefficient
• Relationship of two variables (X & Y)
• Direction
• Positive Negative
X
Y

134. Degree of Relationship
• 0.80 – 1.00 Very High
relationship
• 0.6 – 0.79 High Relationship
• 0.40 – 0.59 Substantial/Marked
relationship
• 0.20 – 0.39 Low relationship
• 0.00 – 0.19 Negligible
relationship

135. Testing for Significance
• Nominal: Phi Coefficient
• Ordinal: Spearman rho
• Interval & Ratio: Pearson r
• Interval with nominal: Point biserial
• Decision rule:
• If p value < α=.05: significant relationship
• If p value > α=.05: no significant
relationship

136. Variance
• R2
• Square the correlation coefficient
• Interpretation: percentage of time that the
variability in X accounts for the variability
in Y.

137. Reliability
• Consistency of scores Obtained by the
same person when retested with the
identical test or with an equivalent form of
the test

138. Test-Retest Reliability
• Repeating the identical test on a second
occasion
• Temporal stability
• When variables are stable ex: motor
coordination, finger dexterity, aptitude, capacity
to learn
• Correlate the scores from the first test and
second test.· The higher the correlation the
more reliable

139. Alternate Form/Parallel Form
• Same person is tested with one form on the first
occasion and with another equivalent form on
the second
• Equivalence;
• Temporal stability and consistency of response
• Used for personality and mental ability tests
• Correlate scores on the first form and scores on
the second form

140. Split half
• Two scores are obtained for each person by
dividing the test into equivalent halves
• Internal consistency;
• Homogeneity of items
• Used for personality and mental ability tests
• The test should have many items
• Correlate scores of the odd and even numbered
items
• Convert the obtained correlation coefficient into
a coefficient estimate using Spearman Brown
•

141. Kuder Richardson
(KR #20/KR #21)
• When computing for binary (e.g.,
true/false) items
• Consistency of responses to all items
• Used if there is a correct answer (right or
wrong)
• Use KR #20 or KR #21 formula

142. Coefficient Alpha
• The reliability that would result if all values
for each item were standardized (z
transformed)
• Consistency of responses to all items
• Homogeneity of items
• Used for personality tests with multiple
scored-items
• Use the cronbach’s alpha formula

143. Inter-item reliability
• Consistency of responses to all items
• Homogeneity of items
• Used for personality tests with multiple
scored-items
• Each item is correlated with every item in
the test

144. Scorer Reliability
• Having a sample of test papers independently
scored by two examiners
• To decrease examiner or scorer variance
• Clinical instruments employed in intensive
individual tests ex. projective tests
• The two scores from the two raters obtained are
correlated with each other

145. Validity
• Degree to which the test actually
measures what it purports to measure

146. Content Validity
• Systematic examination of the test content to
determine whether it covers a representative
sample of the behavior domain to be measured.
• More appropriate for achievement tests &
teacher made tests
• Items are based on instructional objectives,
course syllabi & textbooks
• Consultation with experts
• Making test-specifications

147. Criterion-Prediction Validity
• Prediction from the test to any criterion situation
over time interval
• Hiring job applicants, selecting students for
admission to college, assigning military
personnel to occupational training programs
• Test scores are correlated with other criterion
measures ex: mechanical aptitude and job
performance as a machinist

148. Concurrent validity
• Tests are administered to a group on
whom criterion data are already available
• Diagnosing for existing status ex. entrance
exam scores of students for college with
their average grade for their senior year.
• Correlate the test score with the other
existing measure

149. Construct Validity
• The extent to which the test may be said to
measure a theoretical construct or trait.
• Used for personality tests. Measures that are
multidimensional
∀ • Correlate a new test with a similar earlier
test as measured approximately the same
general behavior
∀ • Factor analysis
∀ • Comparison of the upper and lower group
∀ • Point-biserial correlation (pass and fail with
total test score)
∀ • Correlate subtest with the entire test

150. Convergent Validity
• The test should correlate significantly from
variables it is related to
• Commonly for personality measures
• Multitrait-multidimensional matrix

151. Divergent Validity
• The test should not correlate significantly
from variables from which it should differ
• Commonly for personality measures
• Multitrait-multidimensional matrix

156. Item Analysis
• Item Difficulty – The percentage of
respondents who answered an item
correctly
• Item Discrimination – Degree to which an
item differentiates correctly among test
takers in the behavior that the test is
designed to measure.

157. Difficulty Index
• Difficulty Index Remark
• .76 or higher Easy Item
• .25 to .75 Average Item
• .24 or lower Difficult Item

158. Index Discrimination
• .40 and above - Very good item
• .30 - .39 - Good item
• .20 - .29 - Reasonably Good
item
• .10 - .19 - Marginal item
• Below .10 - Poor item