Extrapyramidal System and Disorders of Extrapyramidal SystemChetan Ganteppanavar
The document discusses the extrapyramidal system and disorders of the extrapyramidal system. It begins by defining the extrapyramidal system as referring to the basal ganglia and array of brainstem nuclei. It then lists the components and tracts of the extrapyramidal system. The document goes on to discuss disorders like Parkinson's disease, classifying extrapyramidal disorders and listing clinical features. It also covers etiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of Parkinson's disease.
This document discusses various akinetic rigid syndromes including their causes, symptoms, and distinguishing features. The most common etiology is neurodegenerative disorders like Parkinson's disease (PD), multiple system atrophy (MSA), progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), and diffuse Lewy body disease (DLBD). Idiopathic PD is characterized by rigidity, tremor, bradykinesia, and a generally asymmetric presentation that responds well to levodopa. DLBD can present similarly but has a poorer levodopa response and more early cognitive deficits than PD.
Disorders of the neuromuscular junction include Myasthenia gravis, Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome, Botulism, Tetanus, Strychnine intoxication, Organophosphates poisoning and neuromyotonia. Pharmacology of the NMJ is also reviewed in brief.
Wallenberg syndrome, also known as lateral medullary infarction, is caused by occlusion of the posterior inferior cerebellar artery, which supplies blood to the lateral medulla. This leads to vertigo, abnormal eye movements, Horner's syndrome on one side, ataxia of the limb on the same side, and dissociated sensory loss. The condition is usually due to atherosclerosis but can also result from traumatic vertebral artery dissection. MRI and MRA are used to diagnose the infraction and rule out arterial dissection.
1. Guillain-Barré syndrome is an acute immune-mediated polyradiculoneuropathy characterized by rapidly progressive ascending paralysis.
2. It is considered an autoimmune disorder resulting from molecular mimicry following a bacterial or viral infection.
3. Clinical features include progressive symmetric weakness of the limbs and lack of reflexes with or without sensory involvement. Cranial nerve palsies and autonomic dysfunction may occur.
4. Diagnosis is based on the above clinical features along with elevated cerebrospinal fluid protein and electrodiagnostic studies showing demyelination.
West syndrome, also known as infantile spasms, is a severe childhood epileptic encephalopathy characterized by epileptic spasms, hypsarrhythmia on EEG, and developmental arrest or retardation. It affects 3 to 5 per 10,000 live births and is classified as a developmental and epileptic encephalopathy. The prognosis is generally poor but depends on the underlying etiology. Early identification of subtle spasms and prompt treatment, typically with steroids, is important to optimize developmental outcomes as delayed treatment can negatively impact cognitive development. Parental education on symptom recognition is also key to preventing poor long-term outcomes in cases of unknown etiology.
Peripheral neuropathy and Hereditary NeuropathiesAnand Nambirajan
This document provides an overview of approaching peripheral nerve disease. It discusses obtaining a thorough history and examination. Key signs that implicate peripheral nerve involvement include distal numbness, tingling, neuropathic pain and gait imbalance. Electrodiagnostic studies can help with diagnosis and classification. The document then covers the temporal evolution, distribution, underlying pathology and findings that help localize the level and type of nerve fiber involved in different neuropathies.
Extrapyramidal System and Disorders of Extrapyramidal SystemChetan Ganteppanavar
The document discusses the extrapyramidal system and disorders of the extrapyramidal system. It begins by defining the extrapyramidal system as referring to the basal ganglia and array of brainstem nuclei. It then lists the components and tracts of the extrapyramidal system. The document goes on to discuss disorders like Parkinson's disease, classifying extrapyramidal disorders and listing clinical features. It also covers etiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of Parkinson's disease.
This document discusses various akinetic rigid syndromes including their causes, symptoms, and distinguishing features. The most common etiology is neurodegenerative disorders like Parkinson's disease (PD), multiple system atrophy (MSA), progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), and diffuse Lewy body disease (DLBD). Idiopathic PD is characterized by rigidity, tremor, bradykinesia, and a generally asymmetric presentation that responds well to levodopa. DLBD can present similarly but has a poorer levodopa response and more early cognitive deficits than PD.
Disorders of the neuromuscular junction include Myasthenia gravis, Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome, Botulism, Tetanus, Strychnine intoxication, Organophosphates poisoning and neuromyotonia. Pharmacology of the NMJ is also reviewed in brief.
Wallenberg syndrome, also known as lateral medullary infarction, is caused by occlusion of the posterior inferior cerebellar artery, which supplies blood to the lateral medulla. This leads to vertigo, abnormal eye movements, Horner's syndrome on one side, ataxia of the limb on the same side, and dissociated sensory loss. The condition is usually due to atherosclerosis but can also result from traumatic vertebral artery dissection. MRI and MRA are used to diagnose the infraction and rule out arterial dissection.
1. Guillain-Barré syndrome is an acute immune-mediated polyradiculoneuropathy characterized by rapidly progressive ascending paralysis.
2. It is considered an autoimmune disorder resulting from molecular mimicry following a bacterial or viral infection.
3. Clinical features include progressive symmetric weakness of the limbs and lack of reflexes with or without sensory involvement. Cranial nerve palsies and autonomic dysfunction may occur.
4. Diagnosis is based on the above clinical features along with elevated cerebrospinal fluid protein and electrodiagnostic studies showing demyelination.
West syndrome, also known as infantile spasms, is a severe childhood epileptic encephalopathy characterized by epileptic spasms, hypsarrhythmia on EEG, and developmental arrest or retardation. It affects 3 to 5 per 10,000 live births and is classified as a developmental and epileptic encephalopathy. The prognosis is generally poor but depends on the underlying etiology. Early identification of subtle spasms and prompt treatment, typically with steroids, is important to optimize developmental outcomes as delayed treatment can negatively impact cognitive development. Parental education on symptom recognition is also key to preventing poor long-term outcomes in cases of unknown etiology.
Peripheral neuropathy and Hereditary NeuropathiesAnand Nambirajan
This document provides an overview of approaching peripheral nerve disease. It discusses obtaining a thorough history and examination. Key signs that implicate peripheral nerve involvement include distal numbness, tingling, neuropathic pain and gait imbalance. Electrodiagnostic studies can help with diagnosis and classification. The document then covers the temporal evolution, distribution, underlying pathology and findings that help localize the level and type of nerve fiber involved in different neuropathies.
This document discusses spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), including its causes, types, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment. SMA is caused by a mutation in the SMN1 gene that results in a lack of survival motor neuron protein and the degeneration of alpha motor neurons in the spinal cord. It is classified into five types based on age of onset and severity. There is currently no cure for SMA, but treatment focuses on managing symptoms through rehabilitation, assistive devices, ventilation support, and gene therapy research shows promise for slowing disease progression.
The document provides information on the evaluation of hypotonia in infants. It discusses that hypotonia can be caused by central or peripheral nervous system disorders. The most common central cause is hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy, while the most common peripheral causes are congenital myopathies and spinal muscular atrophy. A thorough history, physical exam, and testing are needed to determine the underlying cause, which guides management and prognosis. The evaluation involves assessing tone, strength, reflexes and other features to localize the problem and rule out various disorders through laboratory and imaging studies.
This document discusses peripheral neuropathies and their causes and characteristics. It covers different types of neuropathies including mononeuropathies, mononeuritis multiplex, and polyneuropathies. Common causes of polyneuropathies discussed include inherited conditions, metabolic/endocrine disorders, toxins, infections, inflammation, and vitamin deficiencies. Signs and symptoms and investigative approaches are also summarized.
Vestibular and Cerebellar Ataxia - Julius King KwedhiDr. Julius Kwedhi
The word "ataxia", comes from the Greek word, "a taxis" meaning "without order or incoordination". The word ataxia means without coordination. (http://www.ataxia.org/learn/ataxia-diagnosis.aspx)
Inability to coordinate voluntary muscle movements; unsteady movements and staggering gait. (WordWeb Dictionary)
This document provides definitions and information about seizures and epilepsy. It defines a seizure as a sudden wave of synchronous electrical activity in the brain that affects how a person feels or acts for a short time. Epilepsy is defined as a condition that affects the central nervous system and requires a person to have had at least two seizures not caused by a known medical condition or extremely low blood sugar. The document discusses different types of seizures including partial and generalized seizures, as well as diagnostic testing and treatment options for epilepsy.
This document discusses peripheral neuropathy and provides guidance on evaluating and diagnosing peripheral nerve disorders. It defines peripheral neuropathy as disorders affecting the peripheral nervous system, which can involve sensory nerves, motor nerves, or both. The document outlines that peripheral neuropathies can be classified based on whether they primarily affect the cell body, myelin, or axon. It also lists common causes of peripheral neuropathy like diabetes, paraproteinemia, alcohol misuse, and vitamin B12 deficiency. The document provides guidance on clinical assessment, laboratory and electrodiagnostic testing, skin or nerve biopsy, and treatment approaches for peripheral neuropathy.
Disorders of autonomic nervous system neurologykotaNeurologyKota
This document provides an overview of disorders of the autonomic nervous system. It begins with definitions and classifications of ANS disorders. It then describes several key tests used to assess autonomic function, including heart rate and blood pressure responses to changes in posture, respiration, and sustained hand grip. Additional tests involve sweat response to heat and tests of pupillary function. Differing patterns of abnormalities in these tests can localize lesions to the preganglionic, ganglionic or postganglionic levels of the ANS. Management may involve non-pharmacological or pharmacological approaches.
This document provides information about stroke, including definitions, statistics, risk factors, signs and symptoms, treatments, and the stroke program at PGI, Chd. Some key points:
- Stroke is defined as a sudden loss of brain function caused by an interruption of blood flow to the brain. It is the second most common cause of death worldwide.
- India has a high burden of stroke, with over 5000 new cases reported daily. Risk factors include hypertension, diabetes, smoking, heart disease, prior stroke or TIA, and high cholesterol.
- Signs of stroke include sudden numbness, confusion, vision problems, trouble walking or talking. The acronym FAST is used to help remember common
This document provides an overview of peripheral neuropathy, including:
1. It describes the anatomy of peripheral nerves and different types of peripheral neuropathies such as mononeuropathy, mononeuropathy multiplex, polyneuropathy, polyradiculopathy, and plexopathy.
2. It outlines the various clinical presentations of peripheral neuropathy including sensory, motor, and autonomic symptoms as well as patterns of nerve fiber involvement.
3. It discusses the etiology, clinical course, investigations and management of different peripheral neuropathies.
Guillain-Barré syndrome with Physiotherapeautic managementsSAGAR KUMAR GOUDA
GBS, also known as Guillain-Barre syndrome, is an acute immune-mediated polyneuropathy that results in demyelination of peripheral nerves. It typically presents with ascending paralysis, though some patients experience descending paralysis or a Miller-Fisher variant characterized by ophthalmoplegia. Physiotherapy management aims to prevent complications through techniques like chest physiotherapy, range of motion exercises, positioning, and addressing pain and weakness. Treatment includes supportive care, plasmapheresis, IVIG, and focusing on recovery of motor and sensory function.
A 4-year-old boy presented to the emergency department with balance problems. On examination, he had an unsteady, wide-based gait and abnormal finger-to-nose testing, consistent with ataxia. The main differential diagnoses in children presenting with acute ataxia include post-infectious cerebellitis, brain tumor, drug ingestion, and acute cerebellar ataxia. Further workup with imaging and labs is needed to identify the underlying cause and guide treatment.
Essential tremor is a common condition characterized by bilateral, fast, low amplitude tremors mainly in the upper limbs that are often inherited and worsened by anxiety. It causes postural tremors when holding objects. Huntington's disease is a cause of chorea that presents in middle life with initial subtle movements and later psychiatric and cognitive symptoms due to a CAG trinucleotide repeat expansion. Tourette's syndrome is the most common cause of tics, characterized by multiple motor and at least one vocal tic starting in childhood and persisting over a year, affecting boys more than girls and associated with behavioral problems and disorders like ADHD and OCD.
CSN Vittal is a post-infectious polyneuropathy that mainly affects motor nerves and sometimes sensory and autonomic nerves. It is a common cause of acute flaccid paralysis in infants. It can be caused by various viral and bacterial respiratory and gastrointestinal infections, as well as vaccinations. Treatment involves general care like monitoring, nutrition, and managing complications. Specific treatments include intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) or plasmapheresis. With treatment, around 90% of patients recover, usually starting from the last affected muscles and progressing upwards over 2-4 weeks.
The document describes a case of acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) in a 12-year-old male who presented with pain and weakness in his lower limbs. On examination, he had hypotonia, hyporeflexia, and reduced motor strength in both upper and lower limbs. Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) is the most common cause of AFP and involves demyelination of peripheral nerves due to autoimmune attack. Key diagnostic features of GBS are rapid onset of symmetric ascending paralysis, intact sensation, absence of fever or cranial nerve involvement, and albuminocytologic dissociation on CSF analysis. Treatment involves hospitalization, IV immunoglobulin or plasmapher
Guillain-Barré syndrome is an acute polyneuropathy that affects the peripheral nervous system, causing demyelination of nerve fibers which results in loss of neurotransmission to the periphery. It is an acute and potentially fatal disorder that more commonly affects males. Common causes include bacterial or viral infections. Symptoms include ascending paralysis, bulbar weakness, paresthesia, hypotonia, and areflexia. Treatment focuses on corticosteroids, immunoglobulins, antibiotics, and supportive care like plasmapheresis or mechanical ventilation.
This document provides information on spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), including its genetics, epidemiology, classification, clinical features, diagnosis, management, and clinical trials of potential treatments. SMA is caused by a loss of motor neurons in the spinal cord due to a defect in the SMN1 gene and results in progressive muscle weakness. It is classified into five types based on age of onset and severity. Current management involves a multidisciplinary approach including nutritional and respiratory support as well as pharmacological treatments such as nusinersen, onasemnogene abeparvovec, and risdiplam which are being investigated in clinical trials as potential disease-modifying therapies.
This document provides an overview of the approach to evaluating and diagnosing myopathies. It discusses the types of muscle fibers and symptoms that may be present in patients with myopathies. The evaluation involves assessing temporal evolution, distribution of weakness, family history, and laboratory/diagnostic testing including CK levels, EMG, and muscle biopsy. Causes of myopathies include genetic, acquired, inflammatory/immune, and those associated with other systemic illnesses. Specific myopathies discussed include central core disease, nemaline myopathy, and centronuclear myopathy.
The document provides guidance on evaluating patients presenting with suspected muscle disease. It outlines the key goals of determining the site of lesion, cause, and available treatments. Symptoms like weakness, fatigue, myalgia and their patterns are discussed to help determine underlying conditions. The temporal evolution, including acute vs chronic onset and progression, helps differentiate between genetic, inflammatory and metabolic myopathies. Considering symptom precipitants and distributions can provide clues to diagnose specific myopathies based on pattern recognition of proximal, distal or other muscle group involvement.
This document discusses different types of tremors, including their classification, causes, symptoms, and treatment. It covers rest tremors like Parkinsonian tremor and midbrain tremors. It also discusses postural tremors such as essential tremor and enhanced physiologic tremor. Treatment options covered include medications, botulinum toxin injections, deep brain stimulation, and thalamotomy.
This document discusses various causes of falls, including syncope (transient loss of consciousness) and non-syncopal causes. It covers topics such as neurocardiogenic, cardiac, and neurological causes of syncope including seizures, progressive supranuclear palsy, third ventricular cysts, and more. Investigations discussed include Holter monitoring, loop recorders, tilt table testing, and imaging. Differential diagnosis and management are also covered.
Vasovagal shock clinical features and management NirajDhinoja1
Vasovagal syncope is a common cause of fainting triggered by events that cause a sudden drop in heart rate and blood pressure. This can result from an overactive parasympathetic nervous system and underactive sympathetic nervous system. Symptoms include feeling faint or dizzy before losing consciousness for a brief period. Treatment focuses on addressing the triggers and using medications like midodrine to constrict blood vessels and prevent drops in blood pressure.
This document discusses spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), including its causes, types, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment. SMA is caused by a mutation in the SMN1 gene that results in a lack of survival motor neuron protein and the degeneration of alpha motor neurons in the spinal cord. It is classified into five types based on age of onset and severity. There is currently no cure for SMA, but treatment focuses on managing symptoms through rehabilitation, assistive devices, ventilation support, and gene therapy research shows promise for slowing disease progression.
The document provides information on the evaluation of hypotonia in infants. It discusses that hypotonia can be caused by central or peripheral nervous system disorders. The most common central cause is hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy, while the most common peripheral causes are congenital myopathies and spinal muscular atrophy. A thorough history, physical exam, and testing are needed to determine the underlying cause, which guides management and prognosis. The evaluation involves assessing tone, strength, reflexes and other features to localize the problem and rule out various disorders through laboratory and imaging studies.
This document discusses peripheral neuropathies and their causes and characteristics. It covers different types of neuropathies including mononeuropathies, mononeuritis multiplex, and polyneuropathies. Common causes of polyneuropathies discussed include inherited conditions, metabolic/endocrine disorders, toxins, infections, inflammation, and vitamin deficiencies. Signs and symptoms and investigative approaches are also summarized.
Vestibular and Cerebellar Ataxia - Julius King KwedhiDr. Julius Kwedhi
The word "ataxia", comes from the Greek word, "a taxis" meaning "without order or incoordination". The word ataxia means without coordination. (http://www.ataxia.org/learn/ataxia-diagnosis.aspx)
Inability to coordinate voluntary muscle movements; unsteady movements and staggering gait. (WordWeb Dictionary)
This document provides definitions and information about seizures and epilepsy. It defines a seizure as a sudden wave of synchronous electrical activity in the brain that affects how a person feels or acts for a short time. Epilepsy is defined as a condition that affects the central nervous system and requires a person to have had at least two seizures not caused by a known medical condition or extremely low blood sugar. The document discusses different types of seizures including partial and generalized seizures, as well as diagnostic testing and treatment options for epilepsy.
This document discusses peripheral neuropathy and provides guidance on evaluating and diagnosing peripheral nerve disorders. It defines peripheral neuropathy as disorders affecting the peripheral nervous system, which can involve sensory nerves, motor nerves, or both. The document outlines that peripheral neuropathies can be classified based on whether they primarily affect the cell body, myelin, or axon. It also lists common causes of peripheral neuropathy like diabetes, paraproteinemia, alcohol misuse, and vitamin B12 deficiency. The document provides guidance on clinical assessment, laboratory and electrodiagnostic testing, skin or nerve biopsy, and treatment approaches for peripheral neuropathy.
Disorders of autonomic nervous system neurologykotaNeurologyKota
This document provides an overview of disorders of the autonomic nervous system. It begins with definitions and classifications of ANS disorders. It then describes several key tests used to assess autonomic function, including heart rate and blood pressure responses to changes in posture, respiration, and sustained hand grip. Additional tests involve sweat response to heat and tests of pupillary function. Differing patterns of abnormalities in these tests can localize lesions to the preganglionic, ganglionic or postganglionic levels of the ANS. Management may involve non-pharmacological or pharmacological approaches.
This document provides information about stroke, including definitions, statistics, risk factors, signs and symptoms, treatments, and the stroke program at PGI, Chd. Some key points:
- Stroke is defined as a sudden loss of brain function caused by an interruption of blood flow to the brain. It is the second most common cause of death worldwide.
- India has a high burden of stroke, with over 5000 new cases reported daily. Risk factors include hypertension, diabetes, smoking, heart disease, prior stroke or TIA, and high cholesterol.
- Signs of stroke include sudden numbness, confusion, vision problems, trouble walking or talking. The acronym FAST is used to help remember common
This document provides an overview of peripheral neuropathy, including:
1. It describes the anatomy of peripheral nerves and different types of peripheral neuropathies such as mononeuropathy, mononeuropathy multiplex, polyneuropathy, polyradiculopathy, and plexopathy.
2. It outlines the various clinical presentations of peripheral neuropathy including sensory, motor, and autonomic symptoms as well as patterns of nerve fiber involvement.
3. It discusses the etiology, clinical course, investigations and management of different peripheral neuropathies.
Guillain-Barré syndrome with Physiotherapeautic managementsSAGAR KUMAR GOUDA
GBS, also known as Guillain-Barre syndrome, is an acute immune-mediated polyneuropathy that results in demyelination of peripheral nerves. It typically presents with ascending paralysis, though some patients experience descending paralysis or a Miller-Fisher variant characterized by ophthalmoplegia. Physiotherapy management aims to prevent complications through techniques like chest physiotherapy, range of motion exercises, positioning, and addressing pain and weakness. Treatment includes supportive care, plasmapheresis, IVIG, and focusing on recovery of motor and sensory function.
A 4-year-old boy presented to the emergency department with balance problems. On examination, he had an unsteady, wide-based gait and abnormal finger-to-nose testing, consistent with ataxia. The main differential diagnoses in children presenting with acute ataxia include post-infectious cerebellitis, brain tumor, drug ingestion, and acute cerebellar ataxia. Further workup with imaging and labs is needed to identify the underlying cause and guide treatment.
Essential tremor is a common condition characterized by bilateral, fast, low amplitude tremors mainly in the upper limbs that are often inherited and worsened by anxiety. It causes postural tremors when holding objects. Huntington's disease is a cause of chorea that presents in middle life with initial subtle movements and later psychiatric and cognitive symptoms due to a CAG trinucleotide repeat expansion. Tourette's syndrome is the most common cause of tics, characterized by multiple motor and at least one vocal tic starting in childhood and persisting over a year, affecting boys more than girls and associated with behavioral problems and disorders like ADHD and OCD.
CSN Vittal is a post-infectious polyneuropathy that mainly affects motor nerves and sometimes sensory and autonomic nerves. It is a common cause of acute flaccid paralysis in infants. It can be caused by various viral and bacterial respiratory and gastrointestinal infections, as well as vaccinations. Treatment involves general care like monitoring, nutrition, and managing complications. Specific treatments include intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) or plasmapheresis. With treatment, around 90% of patients recover, usually starting from the last affected muscles and progressing upwards over 2-4 weeks.
The document describes a case of acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) in a 12-year-old male who presented with pain and weakness in his lower limbs. On examination, he had hypotonia, hyporeflexia, and reduced motor strength in both upper and lower limbs. Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) is the most common cause of AFP and involves demyelination of peripheral nerves due to autoimmune attack. Key diagnostic features of GBS are rapid onset of symmetric ascending paralysis, intact sensation, absence of fever or cranial nerve involvement, and albuminocytologic dissociation on CSF analysis. Treatment involves hospitalization, IV immunoglobulin or plasmapher
Guillain-Barré syndrome is an acute polyneuropathy that affects the peripheral nervous system, causing demyelination of nerve fibers which results in loss of neurotransmission to the periphery. It is an acute and potentially fatal disorder that more commonly affects males. Common causes include bacterial or viral infections. Symptoms include ascending paralysis, bulbar weakness, paresthesia, hypotonia, and areflexia. Treatment focuses on corticosteroids, immunoglobulins, antibiotics, and supportive care like plasmapheresis or mechanical ventilation.
This document provides information on spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), including its genetics, epidemiology, classification, clinical features, diagnosis, management, and clinical trials of potential treatments. SMA is caused by a loss of motor neurons in the spinal cord due to a defect in the SMN1 gene and results in progressive muscle weakness. It is classified into five types based on age of onset and severity. Current management involves a multidisciplinary approach including nutritional and respiratory support as well as pharmacological treatments such as nusinersen, onasemnogene abeparvovec, and risdiplam which are being investigated in clinical trials as potential disease-modifying therapies.
This document provides an overview of the approach to evaluating and diagnosing myopathies. It discusses the types of muscle fibers and symptoms that may be present in patients with myopathies. The evaluation involves assessing temporal evolution, distribution of weakness, family history, and laboratory/diagnostic testing including CK levels, EMG, and muscle biopsy. Causes of myopathies include genetic, acquired, inflammatory/immune, and those associated with other systemic illnesses. Specific myopathies discussed include central core disease, nemaline myopathy, and centronuclear myopathy.
The document provides guidance on evaluating patients presenting with suspected muscle disease. It outlines the key goals of determining the site of lesion, cause, and available treatments. Symptoms like weakness, fatigue, myalgia and their patterns are discussed to help determine underlying conditions. The temporal evolution, including acute vs chronic onset and progression, helps differentiate between genetic, inflammatory and metabolic myopathies. Considering symptom precipitants and distributions can provide clues to diagnose specific myopathies based on pattern recognition of proximal, distal or other muscle group involvement.
This document discusses different types of tremors, including their classification, causes, symptoms, and treatment. It covers rest tremors like Parkinsonian tremor and midbrain tremors. It also discusses postural tremors such as essential tremor and enhanced physiologic tremor. Treatment options covered include medications, botulinum toxin injections, deep brain stimulation, and thalamotomy.
This document discusses various causes of falls, including syncope (transient loss of consciousness) and non-syncopal causes. It covers topics such as neurocardiogenic, cardiac, and neurological causes of syncope including seizures, progressive supranuclear palsy, third ventricular cysts, and more. Investigations discussed include Holter monitoring, loop recorders, tilt table testing, and imaging. Differential diagnosis and management are also covered.
Vasovagal shock clinical features and management NirajDhinoja1
Vasovagal syncope is a common cause of fainting triggered by events that cause a sudden drop in heart rate and blood pressure. This can result from an overactive parasympathetic nervous system and underactive sympathetic nervous system. Symptoms include feeling faint or dizzy before losing consciousness for a brief period. Treatment focuses on addressing the triggers and using medications like midodrine to constrict blood vessels and prevent drops in blood pressure.
Management of patient with Epilepsy involves treating acute seizures, identifying and removing underlying causes, and long-term antiepileptic drug therapy. Seizures are classified as partial or generalized based on origin in one brain region or both hemispheres. Evaluation includes thorough history, physical exam, EEG and imaging to diagnose epilepsy and guide treatment. Management focuses on controlling seizures through medications while also addressing psychosocial needs through rehabilitation. Surgery may be considered for drug-resistant epilepsy localized to one brain region.
Syncope is defined as a brief, self-limited loss of consciousness due to reduced cerebral blood flow. It is characterized by rapid onset, short duration, and spontaneous recovery. The document discusses the various causes of syncope including neurally-mediated (vasovagal), orthostatic, cardiac, and others. It outlines the evaluation process including history, physical exam, ECG, and cardiac monitoring. Further tests like tilt table testing and electrophysiology studies may be used depending on the suspected cause to determine the etiology and appropriate treatment. The history is critical to differentiate syncope from other mimics and identify high-risk patients who require more extensive cardiac evaluation and monitoring.
This document provides an overview of approaches to seizure and epilepsy diagnosis and classification. It discusses the differential diagnosis of seizures and conditions that can mimic seizures like syncope. It describes focal seizures which originate in one hemisphere and can involve motor, sensory or cognitive symptoms. Generalized seizures rapidly engage both hemispheres and include absence seizures, tonic-clonic seizures and atonic seizures. Seizures are classified based on their origin and symptoms. The EEG findings for different seizure types are also outlined.
PHYSIOTHERAPY MANAGEMENT OF POST STROKE PATIENT.Jonasbrother2013
This document provides an overview of physiotherapy management for stroke. It begins with definitions of stroke and transient ischemic attack. It then discusses risk factors, types, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, and medical management of stroke. The remainder of the document focuses on the physiotherapy assessment and treatment approaches in both the acute and post-acute stages. The assessment covers various body functions and structures, while the treatment approaches aim to improve motor function, mobility, balance, sensation, flexibility, strength, and reduce spasticity to achieve functional independence.
Syncope is defined as a transient loss of consciousness and postural tone caused by a fall in cerebral blood flow. The document outlines the various causes of syncope including neurally-mediated, orthostatic, cardiac, metabolic, neurological/psychiatric disorders, and unexplained causes. It emphasizes obtaining a detailed history of the syncopal episode including circumstances, symptoms, age of onset, drugs, and pregnancy to help determine the underlying cause, which guides further testing and management.
This document discusses epilepsy, including its definition, types, diagnostic workup, treatment, and management. The key points are:
1. Epilepsy is defined as two or more unprovoked seizures and results from excessive neuronal discharges in the brain. Seizures can be generalized, arising from both sides of the brain simultaneously, or partial/focal, arising from a localized region.
2. The diagnostic workup involves a detailed history, physical exam, neurological exam, EEG, imaging studies, and lab tests to determine seizure type, etiology, and likelihood of recurrence to guide treatment decisions.
3. Treatment aims to prevent seizures without adverse effects and improve quality of life. First-line treatments
The document provides guidance on approaching a patient presenting with syncope (transient loss of consciousness). Key points include:
- Take a thorough history, including details of the syncopal episode and any predisposing/precipitating factors, as this identifies the cause in up to 85% of cases.
- Perform a physical exam focusing on signs of underlying cardiac disease.
- Consider additional testing like ECG, echocardiogram, tilt table testing or cardiac monitoring depending on suspected causes like arrhythmia, structural heart disease or neurally-mediated reflex syncope.
- Leading causes are neurally-mediated reflex syncope, orthostatic hypotension, cardiac arrhythmias or structural
The document summarizes autonomic dysfunction and dysautonomia. It describes the autonomic nervous system and how it regulates involuntary body functions. Dysautonomia is a disorder of the autonomic nervous system that can affect multiple organ systems. Common symptoms include orthostatic hypotension and intolerance. Treatment aims to manage symptoms and preserve function, though there is no cure for severe autonomic dysfunction.
The document discusses seizure disorders and epilepsy. It defines epilepsy as a brain disorder causing seizures from abnormal electrical activity in the brain. Seizures are classified as partial or generalized depending on where they originate and spread in the brain. Common causes of epilepsy include genetic factors, brain injuries, infections, and metabolic imbalances. Diagnosis involves a medical history, neurological exam, EEG, and brain imaging. Treatment focuses on medications to control seizures and sometimes surgery for refractory cases. Nursing care includes safety measures during seizures and education on epilepsy management.
Syncope, or fainting, is caused by insufficient blood flow to the brain. It is usually brief and self-limited. Evaluation of syncope involves obtaining a detailed history, physical exam, ECG, and testing based on risk factors. Causes are categorized as benign if due to things like vasovagal response, or dangerous if due to cardiac arrhythmias. High-risk patients warrant further cardiac workup and monitoring, while low-risk patients can often be evaluated as outpatients.
1. The document discusses various neurological emergencies including coma, seizures, syncope, and stroke. It provides guidance on assessing and managing the airway, breathing, and circulation for patients with an altered mental status.
2. For seizures, it describes different seizure types and emphasizes protecting the patient during a seizure and assessing them afterwards.
3. Syncope or fainting is discussed as a temporary loss of consciousness often due to low blood pressure or cardiac issues. Stroke signs like paralysis and speech problems are also outlined.
This document discusses syncope, defined as a transient loss of consciousness due to decreased blood flow to the brain. It outlines several common causes of syncope including vasovagal, cardiac arrhythmias, orthostatic hypotension. It emphasizes taking a detailed patient history and physical exam. Common tests include ECG, tilt table test, and echocardiogram. Treatment depends on the underlying cause but may include medications to increase blood pressure, cardiac pacing for arrhythmias, and avoiding triggers.
This document provides definitions and information about seizures and epilepsy. It defines a seizure as a sudden wave of electrical activity in the brain that affects how a person feels or acts for a short time. Epilepsy is defined as a condition of the central nervous system where a person has had at least two seizures not caused by a known medical condition. It describes different types of seizures including partial and generalized seizures. It also discusses evaluation, treatment and management of epilepsy including use of antiepileptic drugs and factors related to treatment resistant epilepsy.
This document discusses the classification and diagnosis of seizures and epilepsy. It defines key terms like seizure, epilepsy, and types of seizures. Seizures are classified as partial or generalized. Partial seizures are further divided into simple and complex, based on effects on consciousness. Generalized seizures include absence, tonic-clonic, myoclonic, tonic, clonic, and atonic. The document also discusses evaluation methods, differential diagnosis, comorbidities, mortality risks, and treatment approaches including anti-epileptic drugs.
1. The document discusses convulsions (seizures) in children, including their causes, types, diagnosis, and treatment. It describes different types of seizures like simple partial, complex partial, generalized absence, myoclonic, tonic-clonic, and infantile spasms.
2. Febrile seizures, which occur due to fever but are not indicative of epilepsy, are also explained. Risk factors for developing epilepsy after febrile seizures are provided.
3. Status epilepticus, defined as continuous seizure activity for over 30 minutes, is outlined as a medical emergency with potential for neurological injury and mortality. Treatment options for different seizure types and status epilepticus are summarized.
This document provides an overview of syncope (transient loss of consciousness). It discusses the pathophysiology, typical presentations, differential diagnoses, evaluation and treatment of different syncope types. The main causes discussed are neurally-mediated syncope (the most common), orthostatic hypotension, and cardiac syncope. For evaluation, the document recommends a thorough history, physical exam including orthostatic vital signs and carotid sinus massage in older patients, and tests like ECG, tilt table testing and cardiac monitoring. Treatment depends on the underlying cause, including fluid supplementation, compression stockings and pharmacotherapy for orthostatic hypotension, and pacing for cardiac syncope.
The document provides an overview of the approach to evaluating and managing patients presenting with coma. It discusses the components of consciousness, relevant anatomy, disorders of consciousness, and a general clinical approach involving taking a history, performing a general and neurological examination to assess level of arousal, brainstem reflexes, and Glasgow Coma Scale. The examination aims to determine the cause of coma and guide immediate management of airway, breathing, and circulation issues.
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approach to transient loss of consciousness.pdf
1. APPROACH TO (TLOC) TRANSIENT LOSS OF
CONSCIOUSNESS
SYNCOPE AND SEIZURE
Dr. Mohamed Habeel
Lecturer of Neurology
2.
3. Consciousness
has two domains, wakefulness (arousal) and awareness. Arousal is
governed by the integrated function of different parts of the central
nervous system including the reticular activating system (RAS)
located within the upper and posterior part of brainstem, thalamus
and the major neuronal projections to bilateral cerebral hemisphere.
LOC results from dysfunction of either upper brain stem or bilateral
cerebral hemisphere and thalamus. It could be transient (which is the
focus of this discussion) or more prolonged (e.g. coma).
The two main groups of TLOC are ‗TLOC due to head trauma‘ and
‗non-traumatic TLOC‘ (which is covered in this discussion).
The non-traumatic group of TLOC is :
Syncope: is sudden cessation cerebral perfusion.
Epileptic seizures: Abnormal excessive brain activity.
Psychogenic TLOC: Psychological process of conversion.
4. Is it true LOC
spell? NO
Mimics
Cataplexy
partial seizure
Drops attack
y
e
s
Is it transient LOC
COMA
Cardiac arrest
y
e
s
Is it associated with
trauma
Traumatic TLOC
N
O
Is it associated with
Neurological deficit
yes
yes
Vetebrobasilar TIA , stroke
subclavian steal
SYNCOPE SEIZURE Psychogenic
No
5. Seizures
are abnormal, paroxysmal synchronous discharges of cortical
neurons resulting in abrupt neurologic manifestations that depend on
the area of the brain involved.
Seizures are classified as :
generalized when they involve the entire brain, producing an abrupt
alteration in consciousness with or without motor manifestations.
Focal seizures involve a single brain region, causing limited
dysfunction, which may include motor manifestations or non motor
manifestations such as sensory disturbances, behavioral/cognitive
changes, automatisms, or abnormal speech.
Focal seizures are further subdivided into those with preserved
consciousness and those without.
Status epilepticus is
defined as 5 minutes or more of continuous clinical and/or
electrographic seizure activity, or repeated seizures between which
the patient fails to return to baseline.
6. Syncope
is defined as a symptom that present with an abrupt TLOC associated with
inability to maintain postural tone, with rapid and spontaneous recovery and
return to baseline neurologic function within seconds .
There should not be clinical features of other non syncope causes of loss of
consciousness, such as seizure, antecedent head trauma, or apparent LOC (ie,
pseudo syncope)
Relevant terms and definitions :
TLOC:
is defined as a state of real or apparent LOC with loss of awareness,
characterized by amnesia for the period of unconsciousness, abnormal motor
control, loss of responsiveness, and a short duration (self-limited).
Presyncope:
The symptoms before syncope. These symptoms could include extreme
lightheadedness; visual sensations, such as ―tunnel vision‖ or ―graying out‖; and
variable degrees of altered consciousness without complete loss of
consciousness. Presyncope could progress to syncope, or it could abort without
syncope.
It should be considered a spectrum of the same symptom and approached in a
similar fashion .
Psychogenic pseudosyncope:
A syndrome of apparent but not true loss of consciousness that may occur in the
absence of identifiable cardiac, reflex, neurological, or metabolic causes.
7. BEFORE A SPELL
Syncope Seizure
Sweating, lightheadedness,
graying of vision and/or
nausea
Common Rare
Occurring out of sleep Rare Occasional
Aura (déjà vu or olfactory
hallucination, unilateral
symptoms)
Rare Common
Identifiable Trigger (change
in position, prolonged
standing, emotion, Valsalva,
exercise)
Common Rare
8. DURING A SPELL
syncope Seizure
Duration of loss of
consciousness
≤ 10 secs ≥60 secs
Movements A few rhythmic
jerks of the
limbs, lasting
<5-10seconds
Prolonged stiffening
of the limbs (tonic),
transitioning to
rhythmic jerking of
the limbs (clonic),
lasting ~30-90
seconds
Automatic behavior
(lip smacking,
picking, patting)
Occasional Common (focal
dyscognitive
seizures)
Tongue biting
(lateral)
Rare Occasional
Pallor Common Rare
Cyanosis Rare Common
9. AFTER A SPELL
syncope seizure
Frothing/ hypersalivation
/vomiting
Rare common
Confusion/
disorientation
Rare <30
seconds
common
Diffuse muscle pain Rare /brief common
Creatinine kinase (CK)
elevation
Rare common
Focal neurological
signs
Rare occasional
Incontinence Rare occasional
Headache Rare common
Amnesia for the event Rare /less common common
10. Syncope is brief loss of consciousness caused by a
sudden reduction of cerebral blood flow.
Presyncope refers to the sensation of impending loss of
consciousness, but the patient does not actually pass
out.
Syncope is a cardiovascular symptom. Regardless of the
underlying causes of the syncope, the final common
pathway is interrupted blood flow for a short period of
time (e.g. 8-10 seconds) to both cerebral cortices or to
the brainstem ‗RAS‘ resulting in transient loss of
consciousness.
11. Cerebral Autoregulation is the ability of the brain to
maintain cerebral blood flow relatively constant (40
to 60 ml/100 g/min) over a wide range (50 to 150
mm Hg) of arterial pressures.
12. Syncope accounts for common ED visits and
hospital admission .
Although most common causes of syncope are
benign, identification of life threatening causes
associated with syncope is sometimes challenging.
The task is to confirm that the event was syncope
and to discover the cause of the syncopal attack.
13. The pathophysiologic classification of the syncope (which
centers on a fall in systemic blood pressure and
decrease in global cerebral blood flow) defines syncope
in three classes :
Reflex mediated syncope
Orthostatic hypotension
Cardiac syncope
14. Reflex mediated syncope
Secondary to pain ,
blood phobia, pain ,
prolonged standing in a
warm place,…
Vasovagal
Micturation , defecation ,
coughing ,….
Situational
Pressure over carotid
sinus , shaving , turning
head,..
Carotid sinus
hypersensitivity
18. SYNCOPE
History , exam,
ECG,Echo ,lab.,
Diagnosis certain
Is there is life threatening
conditions? e.g , MI, Hge,..,.?
yes
Manage
accordingly
Hge, MI,…
No
Discharge
VVS, situational
If recurrent refer to
OPD
Diagnosis
uncertain
High risk
Admission to hospital for further diagnosis
and management
Intermediate risk
Admission to emergency observation unit for further
management
Low risk
Discharge
If
recuurent
refer to
outpatint
clinic
19.
20.
21. DYSAUTONOMIA
covers a range of clinical conditions with different
characteristics and prognoses. They are classified as:
Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy (CAN) .
Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome
(POTS).
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome.
Neurogenic Orthostatic Hypotension (nOH) .
Carotid Sinus Hypersensitivity Syndrome.
22. VASOVAGAL SYNDROMES X DYSAUTONOMIA
Vasovagal syndromes are clinical situations that are
different from cardiovascular autonomic neuropathies.
As they do not represent intrinsic diseases in the
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS), resulting from reflex,
transient, benign mechanisms, therefore having a favorable
prognosis.
23. AUTONOMIC TESTING
Sweat Test:
Small plastic capsules are attached to the arms and legs. A machine is
used to stimulate the sweat glands and measure sweat production. You
may feel a slight local burning or tingling during this test.
Heart Rate during Deep Breathing (HRDB) Test:
This test measures your heart rate variation during deep breathing. You
will be asked to breathe deeply and steadily at a rate of 6 breaths per
minute guided by a moving green light.
Valsalva Test:
During this test you blow into a plastic tube for 15 seconds hard enough
to produce a pressure of 40mm/Hg as indicated by a timer that you will
be asked to observe. This test measures your blood pressure and heart
rate response to Valsalva maneuver. The Valsalva maneuver is
performed by attempting to forcibly exhale while keeping the mouth and
nose closed, usually done by closing one‘s mouth, pinching one‘s nose
shut while pressing out as if blowing up a balloon.
The Tilt Table Test:
After lying on a table for the first part of the test, you will be raised to a
nearly upright position. You will be secured to the table so you cannot
fall. The test will measure your blood pressure and pulse from laying to
upright.
25. THERAPEUTIC APPROACH TO DYSAUTONOMIA
Neurogenic Orthostatic Hypotension
Non Pharmacological Interventions:
Reduced venous retention in lower limbs
• Physical counter-maneuvers (e.g.: crossing the legs, squatting,
moving the legs, hand compression); Slow change in position.
• Compressive clothing (elastic stockings, preferably waistline-high
— 30–40 mmHg and/or abdominal straps 20–30 mmHg).
Increased central blood volume
• Increasing sodium intake (2-3 g/day or 5–7.5 g NaCl) or higher
doses, in the absence of supine hypertension, edema or heart
failure.
• Increasing water intake (2–3 liters/day).
• Head-up tilt sleeping (20-30 cm).
26. OTHER LIFE STYLE CHANGES
• Light, fractional meals.
• Regular daily physical activity, such as water exercises, sitting bicycle
with support, short-term walks with a companion and gradual increases.
• Avoiding alcohol and carbohydrate-rich foods.
• Avoiding situations that may increase body temperature (such as
sauna, hot bath).
• Drinking 400–500 ml of water before getting up or after prolonged
decubitus or before exercising (acute osmotic effect).
• Avoiding drugs that may worsen the condition.
• Learning to identify prodromal symptoms of orthostatic hypotension.
27. PHARMACOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS:
Reviewing the whole pharmacological therapy, avoiding
drugs that may worsen orthostatic hypotension.
• Increasing intravascular volume.
- Fludrocortisone (0.1–0.3 mg/day – once a day)/Erythropoietin
(25–75 U/Kg — 3 times a week).
• Increasing vascular resistance
- Midodrine (2.5–10 mg, 3 times a day)/Droxidopa (100–600 mg,
3 times a day) / Atomoxetine (18–40 mg per day) / Pyridostigmine
(30–60 mg, 2 to 3 times a day) / Pseudoephedrine (30 mg, 3
times a day) / Ergotamine / caffeine (1 mg/100 mg/day).
• Octreotide (12.5–25 mcg subcutaneously), 30 min to 1 hour
before a meal), especially for postprandial OH or Acarbose 100
mg.
Combined therapy
• Fludrocortisone (0.1–0.3 mg/day, orally) and midodrine (2.5–10
mg, orally — 3 times a day).