Fungi have many applications including as biocontrol agents, food sources, and for producing industrial and pharmaceutical products. As biocontrol agents, fungi can be used as bioherbicides to control weeds through host-pathogen interactions. Some examples of successful classical bioherbicides include rust fungi controlling skeleton weed and blackberries in Australia. Fungi are also an important food source as many mushrooms are cultivated commercially. Mushrooms provide various nutrients and medicinal properties. Additionally, fungi produce useful antibiotics like penicillin through fermentation and are a major source of pharmaceutical drugs amounting to billions in annual sales.
Introduction :
Mycorrhizae are mutualistic symbiotic associations formed between the roots of higher plants and fungi.
Fungal roots were discovered by the German botanist A B Frank in the last century (1855) in forest trees such as pine.
In nature approximately 90% of plants are infected with mycorrhizae. 83% Dicots,79% Monocots and 100% Gymnosperms.
Convert insoluble form of phosphorous in soil into soluble form.
Introduction :
Mycorrhizae are mutualistic symbiotic associations formed between the roots of higher plants and fungi.
Fungal roots were discovered by the German botanist A B Frank in the last century (1855) in forest trees such as pine.
In nature approximately 90% of plants are infected with mycorrhizae. 83% Dicots,79% Monocots and 100% Gymnosperms.
Convert insoluble form of phosphorous in soil into soluble form.
Some of the landmark discoveries are tabulated below: 1902 Haberlandt proposed concept of in vitro cell culture 1966 Guha and Maheshwari produced first haploid plants from pollen grains of Datura
1904 Hannig cultured embryos from several cruciferous species 1970 Smith and Nathans discovered first restriction enzyme from Haemophilus influenza (HindIII)
1922 Kolte and Robbins successfully cultured root and stem tips respectively 1970 Baltimore isolated Reverse transcriptase from RNA tumour virus
two dimensional gel electrophoresis system
Organisms are classified by humans for convenience of reference. In the scheme of classification, mycologists may not give equal importance to the criteria available. And therefore, we find different schemes of classification
It is a biofertilizer that contains symbiotic Rhizobium bacteria which is the most important nitrogen-fixing organism. These organisms have the ability to drive atmospheric Nitrogen and provide it to plants. It is recommended for crops such as Groundnut, Soybean, Red-gram, Green-gram, Black-gram, Lentil, Cowpea, Bengal-gram and Fodder legumes, etc.
INTRODUCTION:
The first plant virus shown to have a DNA genome and the first shown to replicate by reverse transcription.
Worldwide but only causes significantly losses locally.
It is transmitted by aphids .
Type member of the Caulimovirus genus, contains 11 species and 6 possible members.
significantly impact on plant virology and plant molecular biology.
The virus is an important source of gene regulatory elements, used exclusively in the genetic manipulation of plants.
STRUCTURE:Icosachedral with a diameter of 52Â nm built from 420 capsid protein subunits.
It contains a circular double-stranded DNA molecule of about 8.0 kB .
Dna is interrupted by sitespecific discontinuties resulting from its replication by reverse transcription.
After entering the host, the single stranded nicks in the viral DNA are repaired, forming a supercoiled molecule that binds to histones.
DNA is transcriped into a full length .
Replication
Risk Factors:The Cauliflower mosaic virus promoter (CaMV 35S) is used in most transgenic crops to activate foreign genes which have been artificially inserted into the host plant. It is inserted into transgenic plants in a form which is different from that found when it is present in its natural Brassica plant hosts. This enables it to operate in a wide range of host-organism environments which would otherwise not be possible.
MUSHROOM CULTIVATION AND ITS IMPORTANCEViolinaBhuyan
A mushroom or toadstool is a fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, that are produced mainly above the ground on soil, wood logs, or on the surface of its food sources. Mushrooms belongs to a group of plants known as Fungi and they are the most common and popular edible fungus that provides several important nutrients to human body. Most edible mushrooms inhabit the soil while wood inhabiting fungi are non-edible.
In 18th century, mushrooms were cultivated in caves on composted animal manure beds to which later rotten leaf litter was added. In the 1960’s rapid development and growth of mushroom industry, from a primitive cave culture into highly technical and controlled methods with establishment of research laboratories was stimulated. Chinese were the earliest growers of mushroom. Auricularia auricula was first to be cultivated in China in 600A.D.
Process of mushroom cultivation-
1. Spawning
2. Substrate
3. Bedding
4. Casing and pinning
5. Harvesting
6. Processing and marketing
Direct Action Against The Pathogen
Genetic Modification Of The Host To Resist
Modification Of The Environment To Make It Unfavorable For Diseases Development.
Some of the landmark discoveries are tabulated below: 1902 Haberlandt proposed concept of in vitro cell culture 1966 Guha and Maheshwari produced first haploid plants from pollen grains of Datura
1904 Hannig cultured embryos from several cruciferous species 1970 Smith and Nathans discovered first restriction enzyme from Haemophilus influenza (HindIII)
1922 Kolte and Robbins successfully cultured root and stem tips respectively 1970 Baltimore isolated Reverse transcriptase from RNA tumour virus
two dimensional gel electrophoresis system
Organisms are classified by humans for convenience of reference. In the scheme of classification, mycologists may not give equal importance to the criteria available. And therefore, we find different schemes of classification
It is a biofertilizer that contains symbiotic Rhizobium bacteria which is the most important nitrogen-fixing organism. These organisms have the ability to drive atmospheric Nitrogen and provide it to plants. It is recommended for crops such as Groundnut, Soybean, Red-gram, Green-gram, Black-gram, Lentil, Cowpea, Bengal-gram and Fodder legumes, etc.
INTRODUCTION:
The first plant virus shown to have a DNA genome and the first shown to replicate by reverse transcription.
Worldwide but only causes significantly losses locally.
It is transmitted by aphids .
Type member of the Caulimovirus genus, contains 11 species and 6 possible members.
significantly impact on plant virology and plant molecular biology.
The virus is an important source of gene regulatory elements, used exclusively in the genetic manipulation of plants.
STRUCTURE:Icosachedral with a diameter of 52Â nm built from 420 capsid protein subunits.
It contains a circular double-stranded DNA molecule of about 8.0 kB .
Dna is interrupted by sitespecific discontinuties resulting from its replication by reverse transcription.
After entering the host, the single stranded nicks in the viral DNA are repaired, forming a supercoiled molecule that binds to histones.
DNA is transcriped into a full length .
Replication
Risk Factors:The Cauliflower mosaic virus promoter (CaMV 35S) is used in most transgenic crops to activate foreign genes which have been artificially inserted into the host plant. It is inserted into transgenic plants in a form which is different from that found when it is present in its natural Brassica plant hosts. This enables it to operate in a wide range of host-organism environments which would otherwise not be possible.
MUSHROOM CULTIVATION AND ITS IMPORTANCEViolinaBhuyan
A mushroom or toadstool is a fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, that are produced mainly above the ground on soil, wood logs, or on the surface of its food sources. Mushrooms belongs to a group of plants known as Fungi and they are the most common and popular edible fungus that provides several important nutrients to human body. Most edible mushrooms inhabit the soil while wood inhabiting fungi are non-edible.
In 18th century, mushrooms were cultivated in caves on composted animal manure beds to which later rotten leaf litter was added. In the 1960’s rapid development and growth of mushroom industry, from a primitive cave culture into highly technical and controlled methods with establishment of research laboratories was stimulated. Chinese were the earliest growers of mushroom. Auricularia auricula was first to be cultivated in China in 600A.D.
Process of mushroom cultivation-
1. Spawning
2. Substrate
3. Bedding
4. Casing and pinning
5. Harvesting
6. Processing and marketing
Direct Action Against The Pathogen
Genetic Modification Of The Host To Resist
Modification Of The Environment To Make It Unfavorable For Diseases Development.
Role of fungi and it’s tolerance limits and measures to check them in stored products, Vishnu Vardhan Reddy.P
College of Veterinary Science, Tirupati
Sri Venkateswara Veterinary University, safe limits of mycotoxins,
Plant tissue culture,its methods, advantages,disadvantages and applications.Komal Jalan
Plant tissue culture is the most widely used technique for growing very large number of plant using a very small part of the main plant(explant). Tissue culturing is very common for many popular and demanding crops.Few of them discussed here are Potato,Papaya,Pinepple,Banana,Gerbera,Sunflower,Orchids
Home Vegetables: Organic Controls for Insects
`
For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159`
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110
Anthracnose of cotton _Baishali Mohanta(2119).pptxBAISHALIMOHANTA1
Anthracnose of cotton is caused by 2 species of Colletotrichum which are seed borne in nature. This Cotton disease has worldwide distribution. In India , it was 1st reported from Bihar in 1918 by Butler. The Average estimated yield loss ranges from 1-3% to as high as 80-90%. The major symptoms are seen on the leaves. The leaves develops water soaked circular , Sunken , reddish brown lesions . When the condition is dry the tissue in the center of the lesions drys & fall down .It can be control by spraying Bordeaux mixture on seedlings .
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
2. INTRODUCTION TO FUNGAL USES
Primary production: - concerns with the commercial products of fungi (food) and
the fungal products (soy sauce) that are consumed by the human and animal
Industrial production: - concerns with the processes in fungi which maybe
exploited in the industry (antibiotics) or products (like pest and pathogen control).
In principle, to exploit all the fields which may directly or indirectly benefit human
3. USES OF FUNGI
•As biological control
• Weed control
• Plant pathogen control
• Nematode control
• Insect control
•Mushroom production
•Disease of fungi
•Industrial production
• Fermentation
• Food processing
• Fungal drugs
• Paper industry
4. A) FUNGI AS A BIO-HERBICIDE
Plant pathology is a large field to study and we will talk about it later, but the
basics of the subject is to know about the host-pathogen interaction between
plants (majorly economical plants) and their respective pathogen (majorly fungi).
Generally pathogen destroys the normal life cycle of economical plants, which are
of great interest for us.
Not only economical plants are their target, their hosts maybe any other plants
too
So how about if we use these fungi as pathogen to control weeds (which also
harms the normal life cycle of the crop plants)
So when biological pests are used to control growth of weeds it is known as bio-
herbicide
5. BIO-HERBICIDE IS USED TO CONTROL….
to control the rate of growth or fecundity of weedy hosts
to control the vigour of the weeds so that they loose in competition to crop
plants
Also used as poison
In perennial weeds, even longevity is reduced
The growth of weed is reduce to such an extent that they are no longer
harmful economically, but……..
The pathogen will not eliminate the weed completely as that would eliminate
the pathogen too, so there is a chance of flourishment of weeds again
6. THE “CLASSICAL STRATEGY”
Attempts to control the weeds was by isolating the weeds and pathogen both into
a separate environment, and let the pathogen do it’s work. If successful this
causes the weeds to grow less and the pathogen to flourish upon them.
A very few cases are documented which are successful.
Main type of fungi successful in these method is- ‘Rusts’, for the following
reasons:
Air-borne dissemination
Adaptable to wide variety of environment
Can cause epidemics in ideal condition
Very specific for their hosts
7. EXAMPLES OF CLASSICAL CONTROL METHOD
• In Australia, Puccinia chondrillina has been used to control a wheat weed’s
growth to a tolerable number, called Chondrilla juncea (skeleton weed)
8. • In Australia, rusts has been tested successfully to control growth of
blackberries, parthenium, rubber vine (Cryptostegia) and Mimosa pigra
• Lantana camara is a native of C.America and has a huge weedy infestations
worldwide. In Australia it was also a problem, so they released a series of
bio-controlling agents. About 25 insects was released to control their
growth, but failed due to plant’s own protective responses.
• Propodium tuberculatum, a rust fungi, was applied in 2001 for controlling the
growth of red-edged and pink Lantana sp. It grows in the sub-tropical
conditions with life cycle of 3 weeks
• Even Puccinia lantanae has also been used in laboratory but not yet released
as a biological control
10. REQUIREMENTS FOR A FUNGI TO WORK
AS BIO-HERBICIDE
Pathogen must be highly specific and host must be highly susceptible
The pathogen must be able to sustain the growth of weeds even if the
conditions favour towards weeds
Pathogen must be able to mutate in order to attack other strains of the weed
Other controlling measures should be available if there is an unexpected
situation
Reproduction in artificial conditions
11. LIMITATIONS OF MYCOHERBICIDE
Biological
Resistivity of host
Genetic variation in hosts
Interactions with other organism on same plant
Hosts range
Genetic stability of fungus
Commercial: small return
Environmental
Germination in time
Temperature
moisture
12. FUNGI AS “FOOD”
The great example of fungi as a “food” is – Mushrooms
Long range of edible fungi are cultured throughout the world
Mushrooms or toadstool (commonly called but not literally, it has nothing to
do with toad nor stool) are spore bearing fruiting body, produced by
intermingling and anastomosed hyphal branches
Found in fungi classes basidiomycetes and ascomycetes
Generally have a stem/stipe, cap/pileus and gills underneath the pileus
13. NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF MUSHROOM
In normal cases colourful fruits provide variety of nutrients and dull coloured food
products provide less nutrient. Mushroom is quite contrary
Increased consumption of whole unprocessed mushrooms helps to control
diabetes, heart disease and obesity
They also promote a healthy complexion and hair and increased energy and lower
weight
One cup of chopped raw white mushroom contains:
15 cal
0 fat
2.2 gm proteins
2.3 gm carbs (0.7 gm fiber+1.4 gm sugar)
Rich in Vit B (B1, B2, B3, B5, B9) which helps the body to get energy from food
and help form the RBC
14. • For vegans the dietary source of Vit D is only mushrooms, as they do not
consume milk
• Pregnant mothers are often advised to take folic acid or folate or Vit B9 as
dietary supplement
• Minerals like- Se, K, Cu, Fe, P all available in fungi
• B-glucans are present in cell wall of many fungi which helps in decreasing blood
cholesterol and might influence insulin resistance boosting immunity and
decreasing obesity
• Mushrooms also have high amount of Choline in them, which helps in nerve
stimulation transfer, structure of membrane, chronic inflammation
15. USE OF MUSHROOMS FOR MEDICAL
PATIENTS
• For Cancer patients:
• high antioxidants, will help in get free of oxidative radicles formed in cells
• Se present helps in liver detoxification, tumor suppression, inflammation
• Vit D helps in cell cycle regulation
• Folate or vit B9 helps in DNA damage and repair
• For diabetes patients:
• High fiber diets will help to lower blood glucose level in type 1 patients
• Type 2 patients may have improved blood sugar, lipids and insulin level
• For heart patients:
• Fiber, K and Vit C work for better cardiovascular health. Na-K ion channel helps in
regulating blood pressure. B-glucans can reduce the blood cholesterol by 5 %.
• For immune sensitive people:
• Se is thought to increase immunity in individuals, as they help in production of cytotoxic
T cells
16. CULTIVATED MUSHROOMS
• Cultivated mushrooms such as –
• Agaricus bisporus
• Shii-take (Lentinus edodus)
• Straw fungi (Flammulina velutipes)
• Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus)
• Chinese black mushroom (Auricularia polytricha)
• These are cultivated throughout the western world and most Asian countries
• Many are eaten fresh but maximum are dried and preserved and marketed
as canned truffles
17. COMMON OR BUTTON MUSHROOM• Agaricus bisporous:
• Grown commercially in straw is mixed
with poultry litter and then composted
• Spawn is then added in the compost
when gets cooled
• Compost is then laid out beneath shade
at 24 deg C
• Alkaline material is added as a casing
over the surface for hyphae to grow
• Once mycelia reach surface of the
beds temperature is reduced for
fruiting, which is seen within the next 3
weeks
18. SHII-TAKE LOG CULTURE
• Lentinus edodus
• Highly prized mushroom in Japan for it’s diverse flavours and odours
• Range depends on the genotype of spawn, the selection of log incubated for
growth
• Grown mainly on log of deciduous plants which are inoculated with spore
suspension
• After extensive colonisation growth takes place when logs are kept standing
and temp drops
• Fruiting takes place in spring and continues for some years
• Cropping takes place in open and in traditional way in Japan.
• They are dried, packaged and sold throughout the year
• Auricularia and Pleurotus sp also grow on timber logs and are used for high
range of culture.
20. STRAW MUSROOMS
• Flammulina velutipes
• Traditionally grown on rice straw
• Bundles are drenched and stood upright
• Then spawn is added in the straw
• Each bundles can produce fresh fundi for
several weeks
• Bundles are often mixed with cotton
(largely used) or organic wastes
• This often leads to more production
probably due to high N:C content
21. ECTOMYCORRHIZAL FUNGI
• Black truffle (Tuber melanosporum) most highly priced among these due to it’s
high flavour
• Other truffle such as Tirmania, Terfezia are also eaten
• Morchella and Cantharellus sp are also used in diet
• Truffles are harvested in Europe for many centuries specifically in France,
gradually spread to Spain, Italy and even China
• Culturing them is indirect
• Trees that support these fungi growth like oak and hezel tree, are used to produce
the maximum production
• Soil must be alkaline, calcareous, well drained
• Sapling are planted and pruned to encourage lateral growth.
• Growth seen after 5-10 years and continues for about 30 years
• Inoculated plants re mostly imported from France and gron in New Zealand and
Australia
23. HEALTH RISKS FOR CONSUMING
MUSHROOMS
• Wild mushrooms have been part of the human diet for several centuries.
• Uncultivated wild mushrooms may possess threat to normal human life and even
death, as they will be rich in high amount of heavy metals and toxic substances
• Since b-glucans boost the immunity it may possess threat for the autoimmune
patients like- rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, asthma and multiple sclerosis
• Amanita phalloidis (death cap) produces -amnitin, which inhibits the normalα
function of RNA-polymerase II
24. B) FUNGI USED TO CONTROL PLANT PATHOGEN
So first of all answer this question:- maximum of the plant diseases are caused by
the fungi, then how can fungi act as plant pathogen controller?
By interaction between fungi and fungi, that is by competition
Interactions between fungi can be manipulated to reduce the damage caused by
one fungus on the plant. Essentially, these interactions include:
Direct hyphal parasitism
Anatagonistic reactions
Competition for resources
We will talk about each of these in details in further slides
25. DIRECT HYPHAL PARASITISM
• Direct hyphal parasitism or Mycoparasitism- one fungi derives its nutrition from
another without any benefit
• Parasite interactions maybe – Biotropic and Necrotropic
• Biotropic are those who are very specific to their hosts and extremely difficult to
manipulate
• Necrotropic on the other hand tends to kill those cells from which they derive
nutrients. Have broad host range and extremely useful for antibiotics extraction
• So which of these fungi should be used as biocontrol agents?
• Biotropic parasites right !! Because they are specific for their hosts
26. EXAMPLES OF NECROTROPIC FUNGI
• Trichoderma can act as a parasite for so many soil fungi:
• Rhizoctonia, Scerotinia, Fusarium, Verticillium
• Straminipiles like Phytophthora, Pythium
• Trichoderma grows from the host where it is an endophyte, releases some
hydrolytic enzymes that digest the wall of host prior penetration. It also
releases some toxins to reduce any responses from the host to invasion
27. C) FUNGI FOR DRUG PRODUCTION
• Extraordinary contribution of fungi on drug development for human
• Before the discovery of antibiotics or specifically penicillin, Egyptians used to
apply moldy bread on cut and infected wounds.
• It was 1928 when the first true antibiotic was developed by Alexander
Fleming, professor of bacteriology in St. Mary’s hospital in London.
• Still US played a huge role in marketing and large scale development of this
antibiotics by which huge number of WWII army and patients were treated.
• Penicillium juice can inhibit the growth of a large number of harmful bacteria
like- Streptococcus, Meningococcus, Diptheria bacillus etc.
• Fleming published his study in the british journal of experimental pathology in
June 1929
• It was the contribution of Howard florey, Ernst chain and their colleagues first
made the unstable penicillin into a stable life saving drug around 10 years
later it’s discovery
• They turned the oxford laboratory into penicillin factory
28. • For about 10-20 years fungi are involved in medicinal industries
• Medicines like anti-cholesterol, cyclosporin A (immunosuppressant), new
generation Penicillin are among the top 10-20 medicines being produced
• Each of these medicines have a turnover of more than $1 billion annually
• Recent medicines approved for human use-
• Micafungin- as antifungal agent
• Mycophenolate- prevent tissue rejection
• Rosuvastatin- reduce cholesterol
• Cefditoren- antibiotic
• Want to read more about penicillin and it’s drug discovery go to
https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/flemingpenicillin.html
30. POSITIVES AND NEGATIVES OF
FUNGI USED IN DRUG INDUSTRY
• These diversified molecules is due to the diversified metabolic pathways fungi
uses within themselves to produce such diverse final products
• Each taxa of fungi produce a different final product from the same
• On the negative, a single isolates of fungi may lose their capacity to form or
release target molecules. As the target molecules maybe expressed only under
certain specific conditions
• In more recent approaches application of hydrophobins from fungi to surfaces
helps in drug delivery in much more targeted way and also helps in
biocompatibility with implants
32. PENICILLIN
• Penicillin- Penicillium chrysogenum, first isolated to treat bacteria
• During the early days about 1ϻg/ml was the concentration of active ingredient. But
today about 700 ϻg/ml are isolated as active ingredients from development of strains
• Penicillin both synthetic and natural, are
among the ß-lactam group of anitibiotics
• They attack the cell-wall formation in
bacteria by binding to the PBP’s
(penicillin binding proteins) helping in
formation of the cell wall
• PBP’s- transpeptidase, caroboxypeptidase
• It discontinues the formation of the peptide
bond b/w the L-Lys and D-Ala of tetrapeptide
chain
33. • ß-lactam group of antibiotics are very safe to use in eukaryotes as they don’t
have cell walls in them
• Still bacteria secreting ß-lactamase are resistant to this antibiotics like:
• gram positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus) are resistant to this antibiotic, as
they have constitutive plasmid and chromosomal production of this enzyme
• gram negative bacteria like- Pseudomonas aeruginosa, have inducible chromosomal
ß-lactamase gene in them
• Disadvantages of naturally occurring penicillin:
• Can’t be ingested orally, as it gets degraded in acidic stomach
• Sensitive to ß-lactamase
• Only work on gram positive bacteria
• Though development in medicinal sciences has discovered oral ingestions of this
antibiotics but rise of MDR’s is a serious concern in having antibiotics
34. Penicillium notatum is a
mold that frequently
grows on fruit and is the
source of the
antibiotic penicillin.
35.
36. • Cephalosporin- another ß-lactam antibiotic molecule. Developed from
Cephalosporium sp.
• Also sensitive to ß-lactamase enzyme, thus not applicable for all those secreting
this enzyme
cephalosporin
37.
38.
39.
40.
41. GreseoFUlVin
• A broad spectrum antibiotics (antifungal agent) is Griseofulvin produced first from
Penicillium griseofulvin.
• It is a fungistatic not fungicidal
• Used to treat dermatophytes in hair skin etc.
42. sTroBilUrins
• Strobilurins excreted from fungi as soon they are produced
• It targets the ubihydroquinone oxidation centre in mammals.
• Specifically basidiomycetes of tropical region produce this diverse compounds
in huge amount
• Produced from Strobilus tenacellus
43. soDarins
• Sodarins are narrow range of antifungal agents against yeast and yeast like fungi
• It targets the protein biosynthesis process, thus becomes a good antifungal agents
against many harmful fungi attacking human
46. cYclosporin a
• Primary metabolite of Trichoderma polysporum and Cylindrocarpon lucidum
• Strong immunosuppressant
• Widely used after bone marrow and organ transplantation
• Cyclic peptide consisting 11 main hydrophobic a.a
• It inhibit lymphocytes in a specific way:
47. • Calcineurin is highly conserved in phylogenetically diverse organisms
• In human pathogenic fungi Cryptococcus neoformans, calcineurin is necessary
for recovery from cell cycle arrest
• Thus application of cyclosporin A will cause death of the fungi
• The only disadvantage of application of Cylcosporin A in human is that it
supresses the immune system of human too and the side effect is a huge risk
• In human, this drug is not used as fungicide
48. GlioToXins
• Gliotoxins (Fig 1) have both immunological and antibiotic effect
• Belongs to a class of molecule called- Epipolythiodioxopiperazines (A,B,C)
Fig1
49. erGoT alKaloiDs
• Claviceps purpurea causes the St. Anthonies fire, a scourge of middle east when
the flour got infected by ergot
• Ergot contain various alkaloids, with diverse functions
• Dilates blood vessel by inhibiting noradrenaline and
sclerotin of sympathetic nervous system
• They act directly on smooth muscles of uterus causing
premature abortion
• Strongest use in intoxication due to the lysergic acid
amides
• Causes ergotism: long term effect of ergot alkaloids
50. MeDicinal Uses oF erGoT
• Due to presence of wide varieties of alkaloids they are used in medicinal purposes
a lot
• Treatment of migraine
• Vasodilation causes relief from tension and pressure
• Alkaloids are now produced by C. fusiformis and C. paspalii
52. • Phoma sp produces a type of statins called- Squalestatin
53. USES OF STATINS
• Reduce or remove low density lipoprotein from blood vessels
• Lovostatin inhibits HMG CoA redustase whereas squalistatin inhibits
squalene synthase
• Blocking these enzymes actually prevents the cholesterol in bloods
• Thus indirectly helping in controlling diabetes, pressure, fat deposition in
heart
• Statins also attracts stem cells towards damaged tissues
• Only one negative impact; one of its derived compounds causes muscle lose
54. ORGANIC ACIDS PRODUCED FROM FUNGI
Introduction
•Filamentous fungi has an exceptional record in producing organic acids
•They have quite a ability to degrade lignocellulosic biomass, and can turn certain
organic products into organic acids
•For an example, Aspergillus niger can produce hundreds of grams of citric acid/ ltr
from glucose with >80% efficiency
•But production of organic acids from fungi is not even considered in the
bioprocessing aspects of fungi (but you should highly consider it)
55. • Perhaps some of you who may find this aspect of science quite interesting, may
exploit these organisms for the better production of organic acids in this new
genomics based era
• Though till now the fungi like yeasts, Saccharomyces, Rhodotorula, Pichia etc were
of great importance biotechnologically for beverages and drugs. There has not
been much report about them in organic acids.
• Exception of all these yeasts species- Yarrowia lipolytica and it’s related yeasts has
reports for producing citric acids
• Furthermore in the near future yeasts maybe used in production of lactic acids.
56. EVOLUTIONARY SIGNIFICANCE
• But why is it that only some fungi can produce huge amount of organic acid from a
provided organic compounds but other can’t? Is it a kind of adaptation?
• Ans: Well some fungi like the filamentous one’s can produce more amount of
organic acids than any other type of fungi. The reason behind that maybe the
habitat they grow like, rocks, fruits, breads etc. the organic acid production gives
them a competitive advantage over the other fungi by decreasing the ambient pH.
• Even due to the production of organic acids by them the are of great help
maintaining ecological balance by metal detoxification and weathering of rocks
57.
58. • From a study by Liaud et al. 2014, about 26 strains of Basidiomycota and 40
strains of Ascomycota are capable of producing organic acids and ethanol from
glucose solution and turn it into an acidic one.
• From that study after 6 days of inoculation one group mainly consisting of
Aspergillus and a few ascomycota produced acids in 4g/ltr, where the other group
contained basidiomycota and ascomycota members producing mainly ethanol.
• Acids like oxalic, gluconic and formic acids were made specifically by the
basidiomycetes members whereas Aspergillus mainly produced the oxalic, citric,
gluconic and ethanol
59. according to the final pH of growth medium after 6 days
of incubation. (orange square) Ascomycota, (sky blue
square) Basidiomycota [Liaud et al. 2014]
60. Figure 2 Hierarchical
clustering of organic acids
and/or ethanol producing
strains. Concentration were
determined by HPLC-UV or RI
analysis
and expressed as a
percentage of the maximum
concentration observed for
each metabolite and
represented by a color scale
with different intensity of
blue. Concentration of
butyric, tartaric, oxalic,
malic, citric, gluconic,
succinic acids and ethanol
were used to build distance
tree. The figure was edited
using
the Multiexperiment Viewer
61. Highest concentrations of organic acids and
ethanol obtained at day 6 of incubation, for
each compound and the corresponding
producing strains
63. Repartition of the strains selected for the screening in
the Ascomycota and Basidiomycotaphyla. 40 strains
of Ascomycota representing 6 families and 26 strains of Basidiomycota representing
16 families were screened.
66. REFERENCE
• Magnuson, J. K., & Lasure, L. L. (2004). Organic acid production by filamentous fungi. In Advances
in fungal biotechnology for industry, agriculture, and medicine (pp. 307-340). Springer, Boston, MA.
• Ruijter, G. J. G., Kubicek, C. P., & Visser, J. (2002). Production of organic acids by fungi.
In Industrial Applications (pp. 213-230). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
• Liaud, N., Giniés, C., Navarro, D., Fabre, N., Crapart, S., Herpoël-Gimbert, I., ... & Sigoillot, J. C.
(2014). Exploring fungal biodiversity: organic acid production by 66 strains of filamentous
fungi. Fungal Biology and Biotechnology, 1(1), 1.
• Sazanova, K. V., Shchiparev, S. M., & Vlasov, D. Y. (2014). Formation of organic acids by fungi
isolated from the surface of stone monuments. Microbiology, 83(5), 516-522.
• https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/flemingpenicillin.html
