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AP psych research
- 1. Psychology: The SciencePsychology: The Science Research Methods
- 2. Section 1: Intro to Research Methods Students should be able to answer the following: 1.Why are the answers that flow from the scientific approach more reliable than those based on intuition and common sense? 2.What are the main components of the scientific attitude and how do theories advance psychological science? 2 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about, the reliability of the scientific method and main components of scientific attitude. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the scientific method and compare/contrast the Aspects of the scientific attitudes within psychological science. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated (Learning goal), but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I need more prompting and/or support to identify the concepts stated in 2.0
- 3. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Psychology is more than Common Sense • Confirmation Bias -People look for evidence that confirms their beliefs, and deny evidence that disputes their beliefs • Hindsight Bias – Knew it all along – The outcome of a study can seem obvious • Overconfidence – Belief that we are more accurate than we really are • Solve this anagram: Y O L G S H Y O P C • Critical Thinking – Carefully evaluating assumptions, evidence and conclusions Anagram COURTRUTOC ENTRYETYRN WATERWREAT 3
- 4. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Psychology as a way of asking and answering questions Theory •an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. Hypothesis •a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
- 5. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Psychology is more than Common Sense
- 6. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions FIVE STEPS DRAW CONCLUSIONS HYPOTHESIZEPERCEIVE Scientific Method You mean you tell them what happened, even if it failed? 1.7 Why is psychology a science?
- 7. 1. Why are the answers that flow from the scientific approach more reliable than those based on intuition and common sense? 2. What are the main components of the scientific attitude and how do theories advance psychological science? 7 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about, the reliability of the scientific method and main components of scientific attitude. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the scientific method and compare/contrast the Aspects of the scientific attitudes within psychological science. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated (Learning goal), but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I need more prompting and/or support to identify the concepts stated in 2.0
- 8. Section Descriptive Research Methods Students should be able to answer the following: 1.How do psychologists observe and describe behavior? 8 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about, how psychologists observe and describe behavior. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the scientific method and compare/contrast the Aspects of the scientific attitudes within psychological science. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated , how psychologists observe and describe behavior, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I need more prompting and/or support to identify the concepts stated in 2.0
- 9. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Operational Definitions • Facial Hair • Getting out of your seat • Being Tardy • Yearbook Smiles 9
- 11. Operational Definition’s Definition… akward • Specific descriptions of concepts involving the conditions of a scientific study. • Operational definitions are stated in terms of how the concepts are to be measured or what operations are being employed to produce them. • It defines what the researcher will be observing and possibly manipulating
- 12. Operational Definitions • Who creates the operational definition? – Developed by the researcher conducting the study • Why do we have operational definitions – Needed for replication of studies – Assist in developing inter-rater reliability (all people grade the variable the same way)
- 13. Can You Identify the Op Defs? • Dr. Harris is conducting a correlational study about aggression and the number of hours teenagers spend studying. He gives volunteer participants a standard aggression survey, where teens rate their aggression levels. He then goes to the school and pulls their unweighted GPA. After running a correlation, Dr. Harris finds that those with high unweighted GPAs have lower levels of aggression. He concludes that more studying causes decreased aggression. • What are the two operational definitions?
- 14. What constitutes a smile?
- 15. Sample Operational Definition • Can you define a smile? • Sample: – A smile will be defined by the following criteria: (1) A person’s mouth curves upward, (2) zygomatic major muscle and the orbicularis oculi muscles contract to reveal a squint and (3) the person’s lips are apart showing one or more teeth
- 16. Smile or No Smile
- 17. Smile or No Smile
- 18. Smile or No Smile
- 19. Smile or No Smile
- 20. Smile or No Smile
- 21. Smile or No Smile
- 22. Smile or No Smile
- 23. Smile or No Smile
- 24. Smile or No Smile
- 25. Smile or No Smile
- 26. Smile or No Smile
- 27. Smile or No Smile
- 28. Smile or No Smile
- 29. Smile or No Smile
- 30. Smile or No Smile
- 31. Smile or No Smile
- 32. Smile or No Smile
- 33. Smile or No Smile
- 34. Smile or No Smile
- 35. Smile or No Smile
- 36. Smile or No Smile
- 37. Smile or No Smile
- 38. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions OPERATIONALIZING ROMANCE –Are you currently in love? How do you know for sure? Get together with a few other students and operationally define “being in love.” • In your group, discuss the practical implications of operationalizing your feelings. • You need at least 3 criteria in this operational definition
- 39. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Methods for Describing • Naturalistic Observation – advantages & disadvantages • Laboratory Observation – advantages & disadvantages 1.8 How do psychologists use naturalistic and laboratory settings?
- 40. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Naturalistic Observation Jane Goodall •2.2 What methods do researchers use to study behavior?
- 41. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions The Trouble with Naturalistic Observation•2.2 What methods do researchers use to study behavior? Count how many times the cat hits the printer
- 42. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Methods for Describing • Case Studies –advantages & disadvantages • Surveys –advantages & disadvantages “Next question: I believe that life is a constant striving for balance, requiring frequent tradeoffs between morality and necessity, within a cyclic pattern of joy and sadness, forging a trail of bittersweet memories until one slips, inevitably, into the jaws of death. Agree or disagree?” 1.9 Case studies and surveys
- 43. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Descriptive Research: Surveys • A new CBS News/New York Times poll shows how the wording of a survey question dramatically influences the result. The poll finds 59% of Americans say they now support allowing "homosexuals" to serve in the U.S. military. But when the question is changed to whether Americans support "gay men and lesbians" serving in the military, 70% of Americans say they support that. There's a further difference when the question specifies that they "openly" serve. In this case, just 44% favor allowing "homosexuals" to openly serve in the military while 58% favor allowing "gay men and lesbians" to serve openly. 43
- 44. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Descriptive Research: Surveys • 1255 people were surveyed by New York, American Museum of Natural History: 77% interested in plants and trees, but only 39% interested in botany 48% interested in fossils, but only 39% interested in paleontology 42% interested in rocks and minerals, but 53% interested in geology 44
- 45. 1. How do psychologists observe and describe behavior? 45 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about, how psychologists observe and describe behavior. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the scientific method and compare/contrast the Aspects of the scientific attitudes within psychological science. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated , how psychologists observe and describe behavior, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I need more prompting and/or support to identify the concepts stated in 2.0
- 46. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Section 2: Test Your Knowledge • In order to yield information that is generalizable to the population from which it was drawn, a sample must be A.made up of at least 30 members of the population B.as large as possible C.normally distributed D.representative of the population E. made up of at least 50 percent of the members of the population 46
- 47. Section 3: Correlations Students should be able to answer the following: 1.What are positive and negative correlations, and why do they enable prediction but not cause and effect explanation? 2.What are illusory correlations? 47 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about, the statistical significance of positive , negative and illusory correlations. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the scientific method and compare/contrast the Aspects of the scientific attitudes within psychological science. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated he statistical significance of positive , negative and illusory correlations.), but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I need more prompting and/or support to identify the concepts stated in 2.0
- 48. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Finding Relationships: Correlation Variable 1 Variable 2Income EducationSmoking Health • Correlation – a measure of the relationship between two variables Variable – anything that changes or varies 1.10 Correlational Technique
- 49. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions • Positive correlation – variables related in same direction Positive Correlation +.70 Show graph
- 50. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions • Negative correlation – variables related in opposite direction Negative Correlation -.70 Show graph
- 51. Think about it…!!?!??!!?!? How are ice cream sales and murder rates related?
- 52. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Correlation and Causation • Does low self esteem cause depression? • Confounding Variables or Third Variable Problem • Example: Ice Cream Sales and Murder Rates or 52
- 53. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Perfect Correlations and Non-Correlations If we found a perfect correlation between cigarette smoking and health, does this mean that smoking causes a decrease in health?
- 54. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Illusory Correlations • The perception of a relationship where none exists • Why do we succumb to illusory correlations? – We are sensitive to dramatic events that seem linked together • Examples: – Arthritis and Cold Weather – Pregnant cravings and sex of the child – Sugar and Hyperactivity – Gay Males and High Voices – Wet Hair and Catching a Cold Virus 54
- 55. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Illusory Correlations 55
- 56. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Perceiving Order in Random Events 56
- 57. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Correlation Review
- 58. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Section 3: Test Your Knowledge • Tell me three things you can discern from the following: 58
- 59. 1. What are positive and negative correlations, and why do they enable prediction but not cause and effect explanation? 2. What are illusory correlations? 59 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about, the statistical significance of positive , negative and illusory correlations. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the scientific method and compare/contrast the Aspects of the scientific attitudes within psychological science. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated he statistical significance of positive , negative and illusory correlations.), but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I need more prompting and/or support to identify the concepts stated in 2.0
- 60. Section 4: Experiments Students should be able to answer the following: 1.How do experiments, powered by random assignment, clarify cause and effect? 60 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about how experiments clarify cause and effect In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the scientific method and compare/contrast the Aspects of the scientific attitudes within psychological science. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with how experiments clarify cause and effect, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I need more prompting and/or support to identify the concepts stated in 2.0
- 61. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions True Experiments • Experiment-A research method in which investigators manipulate one variable in order to determine cause and effect • Must control for all variables in order to prove causation • Looks to isolate cause and effect relationships • Example: How does breakfast impact test scores? • IV? DV? Hypothesis? • Example: Miracle Drug and memory abilities • IV? DV? Hypothesis? 61
- 62. Operational definitions • Independent and dependent variables (e.g., type of dog and level of fear) • Experimental, control groups & random assignment Experiments 1.11 Designing an experiment
- 63. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Representative Sample Non-representative Sample From Population To Sample 70 % POPULATION
- 64. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Research Methods Video Part 1 Events or other observations in society often create the need for experimental research. This can test and determine cause/effect relationships where other methods cannot!
- 65. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Research Methods Video Part 2
- 66. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions The Experiment • Placebo effect • Single-blind • Experimenter effects & “double blinding” Prevents researcher bias • Quasi-experimental designs when random assignment is impossible 1.12 Placebo and other experimental effects
- 67. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions •Language Disclaimer… Placebo Effect Explained
- 68. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Watch out for Confounding Variables • Confounding Variables – Any variable that was not previously considered in a study – Example: head injuries and IQ scores. – Also known as extraneous variables – Can be found in any research method 68 When interviewed after the fight, this boxer couldn’t put two words together appropriately. Is it due to his head injury or something else?
- 69. 1. How do experiments, powered by random assignment, clarify cause and effect? 69 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about how experiments clarify cause and effect In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the scientific method and compare/contrast the Aspects of the scientific attitudes within psychological science. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with how experiments clarify cause and effect, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I need more prompting and/or support to identify the concepts stated in 2.0
- 70. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Section 4: Test Your Knowledge • In small groups discuss: • You are to design a psychology experiment dealing with the following ideas: 1. A drug referred to as “drug x” and its treatment of ADHD… (1) What is the Independent Variable (IV)? (2) What is the Dependent Variable (DV)? (3) Which group (experimental or control) gets the IV? (4) Operationally Define the dependent variable(s) of the experiment. (5) How would you randomly assign the participants? 70
- 71. Section 5 Statistics in Research Students should be able to answer the following: 1.How can we describe data with measures of central tendency and variation? 2.What principles guide our making generalizations from samples and deciding whether differences are significant? 71 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about the measure of central tendency an d variation. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the scientific method and compare/contrast the Aspects of the scientific attitudes within psychological science. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with the measure of central tendency an d variation, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I need more prompting and/or support to identify the concepts stated in 2.0
- 72. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Three Measures of Central Tendency • Mean – Statistical Average (add all score and divide by the total number of scores) – Most commonly used • Median – The 50th percentile (Line up all data from least to greatest and then find the middle number) – Best to use when when you have outliers • Mode (the score that occurs the most often in a set of data) – Most frequently occurring score 72
- 73. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Figure 2.9 A skewed distribution This graphic representation of the distribution of a village’s incomes illustrates the three measures of central tendency—mode, median, and mean. Note how just a few high incomes make the mean—the fulcrum point that balances the incomes above and below— deceptively high. © 2010 by Worth Publishers
- 74. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions • Variation – How diverse the set of scores are in a data set – Range • The highest score minus the lowest score – Standard Deviation • A statistical measure of how much scores vary around the mean • Standard deviation is a more accurate measure of variation than range • Rule of Thumb: Smaller the data range, smaller the standard deviation • Standard deviation is the variance square root (i.e. variance =100, SD = 10) Two Measures of Variation 74
- 75. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions
- 76. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Sample Standard Deviation Bell Curve
- 77. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Data Skews 77 Pay close attention to the measures of central tendency Pay close attention to the measures of central tendency
- 78. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Figure 2.10 The normal curve Scores on aptitude tests tend to form a normal, or bell-shaped, curve. For example, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale calls the average score 100. © 2010 by Worth Publishers
- 79. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Surveys and Random Samples • Population – A group of people which you intend to sample • Random Sample – Every person has an equal chance of being chosen for ANY STUDY, especially SURVEYS – Helps to avoid bias • Things to Remember… – Bigger sample sizes are only better if they are random and representative – Example: sampling nation on political candidates • Question: – How would I sample the High School population to see which is the most worshiped religion? – 79
- 80. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Statistical Significance • Representative samples are better than biased samples • More cases are better than fewer cases • Findings are more likely to be statistically significant when large groups have small standard deviations • When are things significant – Statistical significance is a mathematical tool used to determine whether the outcome of an experiment is the result of a relationship between specific factors or due to chance (measured with p score) – Goal: 5% (.05) or less. Meaning your results are not sue by chance! – In an experiment, statistical significance means the results occurred due to manipulation of the variable and not from random chance! – Statistical significance looks like this p < .05 using a T-Test. 80 Splitting an arrow is luck unless she can do it over and over again
- 81. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Section 5: Test Your Knowledge 1. When psychologists say that their results are statistically significant, they mean the results: A. Have important practical applications. B. Have important implications in scientific theory. C. Are unlikely to be do to the fluctuations of chance. D. All of the above. 2. If a teacher says that the test scores form a negative skew, this means that: A. Most students scored low on the test. B. You should use the mean to locate the average test score. C. The mean comes before the median. D. The median comes before the mean. 81
- 82. 1. How can we describe data with measures of central tendency and variation? 2. What principles guide our making generalizations from samples and deciding whether differences are significant? 82 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about the measure of central tendency an d variation. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the scientific method and compare/contrast the Aspects of the scientific attitudes within psychological science. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with the measure of central tendency an d variation, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I need more prompting and/or support to identify the concepts stated in 2.0
- 83. Think about it…!!?!??!!?!? Ethics: Which of the following studies was not conducted in the field of psychology because it was considered too unethical? A) Letting pretend prison guards physically abuse pretend prisoners. B) Making people think they shocked someone to death. C)Shocking a dog that was tied to a cage and could not move. D) Taking a baby monkey away from its mother to be raised in isolation. .
- 85. Section 6: Ethical Considerations Students should be able to answer the following: 1.Why do psychologists study animals, and is it ethical to experiment on animals and is it ethical to experiment on people? 85 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about why psychologists study animals and the ethical principals that guided human experimentation. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the scientific method and compare/contrast the Aspects of the scientific attitudes within psychological science. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with psychologists study animals and the ethical principals that guided human experimentation but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I need more prompting and/or support to identify the concepts stated in 2.0
- 86. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Ethics in Animal Research • Animal research – answers questions we could never do with human research • Focus is on avoiding unnecessary pain/suffering • Animals used in approximately 7% of psychological studies
- 87. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Ethical Considerations • Informed Consent – Explain what is expected of the participant before beginning the study – Telling them they can leave the study at any point in time – May be deceptive if it will influence the study • Protect From Harm & Discomfort – Both physical and psychological – Deception is allowed as long as it is debriefed • Maintain Confidentiality – Do not reveal participant names – Helps participants be honest • Debrief Participants – Fully explain the research to participants after the study – Must happen in order to use deception! • Institutional Review Board (IRB) – Approval to do a study on human or animal subjects 87
- 88. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Ethical Considerations
- 89. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Ethical Considerations 1. What, if any, recommendations would you make to Bronx Psychiatric Hospital for changing its policy in running experimental drug tests? 2. Are persons who suffer severe mental disorders ever capable of giving “informed consent”? 3. How do we best test new experimental drugs designed to treat severe psychological disorders?
- 90. 1. Why do psychologists study animals, and is it ethical to experiment on animals and is it ethical to experiment on people? 90 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about why psychologists study animals and the ethical principals that guided human experimentation. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the scientific method and compare/contrast the Aspects of the scientific attitudes within psychological science. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with psychologists study animals and the ethical principals that guided human experimentation but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I need more prompting and/or support to identify the concepts stated in 2.0
- 91. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Critical Thinking “Truths” Evidence Authorities Open minds 1 2 3 4 1.15 What are the basic principles of critical thinking
- 92. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Pseudopsychologies • Pseudopsychologies – unscientific systems explaining behaviors – Phrenology – Palmistry – Graphology Astrology
- 93. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions
- 95. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Limits of Common Sense With which of the following do you agree? Why? “Birds of a feather flock together” “Opposites attract” Attraction “Absence makes the heart grow fonder” “Out of sight, out of mind” Commitment “Can’t teach an old dog new tricks” “Never too old to learn” Motivation
- 96. SettingsSci Method TrendsProfessionals Critical ThinkingEthicsExperimentsCorrelationsCase studies ModernEarlyFunctionalStructuralDefinitions Correlation Research 1. Find a partner and develop a list of two numeric variables that you think would be associated (i.e., amount of sleep and GPA) and survey/observe at least 10 people in class. 2. Graph your findings in a scatterplot. 3. Discuss the findings with your partner and write your conclusions.
- 97. Applying Critical Thinking to Astrology Are astrologer’s charts up-to-date? The basic astrological charts were designed over 3,000 years ago. The stars, planets, and constellations are no longer in the same positions in the sky due to changes in the rotation of the Earth’s axis over long periods of time—over 24 degrees in just the last 2,000 years. So a Gemini is really a Cancer and will be a Leo in another 2,000 years. 1.16 How might critical thinking be applied to a real-world example?
- 98. Acknowledgements
- 99. • Photos used with permission under the Creative Commons “Attribution 2.0 Generic” license from the internet domain of www.flickr.com – Star Walker – username “Jon go” – Wreck – username “JennyHuang” – A week in Vienna: Angel – username “guldfisken” • Tiger barb fish animation by Dave Sutton, developer of Seven Oaks Art • Some royalty-free images adapted from www.clipart.com, an internet domain of Jupiterimages Corporation • Various menu boxes and menu bubbles adapted from PowerPoint © templates (distributed for business and commercial use) by www.themegallery.com and developed by Guild Design, Inc.
Editor's Notes
- Oleth (hotel); rktcu (truck); lsuso (souls) The hindsight bias, also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon, is the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. Finding out that something has hap- pened makes it seem inevitable. Thus, after learning the results of a study in psychology, it may seem to be obvious common sense. However, experiments have found that events seem far less obvious and predictable beforehand than in hindsight. Sometimes, psychological findings even jolt our common sense. Overconfidence-Our everyday thinking is also limited by our tendency to think we know more than we do. Asked how sure we are of our answers to factual questions, we tend to be more confident than correct. Students’ predictions of their future behaviors are similarly overconfident. Experts’ predictions of world events made with 80 percent confidence were right less than 40 percent of the time. Scientific attitude encourages critical thinking-The scientific attitude reflects a hard-headed curiosity to explore and understand the world without being fooled by it. The eagerness to skeptically scrutinize competing claims requires humility because it means we may have to reject our own ideas. This attitude, coupled with scientific prin- ciples for sifting reality from illusion, helps us winnow sense from nonsense. It carries into every- day life as critical thinking in which we examine assumptions, discern hidden values, evaluate evidence, and assess conclusions.
- Oleth (hotel); rktcu (truck); lsuso (souls) The hindsight bias, also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon, is the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. Finding out that something has hap- pened makes it seem inevitable. Thus, after learning the results of a study in psychology, it may seem to be obvious common sense. However, experiments have found that events seem far less obvious and predictable beforehand than in hindsight. Sometimes, psychological findings even jolt our common sense. Overconfidence-Our everyday thinking is also limited by our tendency to think we know more than we do. Asked how sure we are of our answers to factual questions, we tend to be more confident than correct. Students’ predictions of their future behaviors are similarly overconfident. Experts’ predictions of world events made with 80 percent confidence were right less than 40 percent of the time. Scientific attitude encourages critical thinking-The scientific attitude reflects a hard-headed curiosity to explore and understand the world without being fooled by it. The eagerness to skeptically scrutinize competing claims requires humility because it means we may have to reject our own ideas. This attitude, coupled with scientific prin- ciples for sifting reality from illusion, helps us winnow sense from nonsense. It carries into every- day life as critical thinking in which we examine assumptions, discern hidden values, evaluate evidence, and assess conclusions.
- Scientific method - system of gathering data so that bias and error in measurement are reduced. Steps in the Scientific Method: Perceive the question. Form a hypothesis – tentative explanation of a phenomenon based on observations. Test the hypothesis. Draw conclusions. Report your results so that others can try to replicate - repeat the study or experiment to see if the same results will be obtained in an effort to demonstrate reliability of results.
- Specific descriptions of concepts involving the conditions of a scientific study. Operational definitions are stated in terms of how the concepts are to be measured or what operations are being employed to produce them. Yearbook PowerPoint Activity
- A useful theory effectively organizes a wide range of observations and implies testable predic- tions, called hypotheses. By enabling us to test and reject or revise a particular theory, such pre- dictions give direction to research. They specify in advance what results would support the theory and what results would disconfirm it. As an additional check on their own biases, psychologists report their results precisely with clear operational definitions of concepts. Such statements of the procedures used to define research variables allow others to replicate, or repeat, their observations. Often, research leads to a revised theory that better organizes and predicts observable behaviors or events.
- Aggression, time spent studying
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- Johnny Depp
- Bloom
- Naturalistic observation – watching animals or humans behave in their normal environment. Major Advantage: Realistic picture of behavior. Disadvantages: Observer effect - tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed. Participant observation - a naturalistic observation in which the observer becomes a participant in the group being observed (to reduce observer effect). Observer bias - tendency of observers to see what they expect to see. Blind observers – people who do not know what the research question is (to reduce observer bias). Each naturalistic setting is unique and observations may not hold. Observing Behavior without interfering Only Describes, does not explain Good for studying different cultures Examples: Humans laugh 30 times more when in social situations Students play with their hair when taking tests Note: If you know you are being watched, you will act differently (Hawthorne Effect) Laboratory observation – watching animals or humans behave in a laboratory setting. Advantages: Control over environment. Allows use of specialized equipment. Disadvantage: Artificial situation that may result in artificial behavior.
- Cartoon: © The New Yorker Collection 1989 George Price from www.cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved. Case study - study of one individual in great detail. Advantage: tremendous amount of detail. Disadvantage: cannot apply to others. Famous case study: Phineas Gage. What is a case study? One of the oldest research methods Looking at one person or very small group Yields lots of data What are they used for? To suggest hypothesis for further research Suggests what might happen in other cases What are problems with case studies? Cannot generalize to large groups People may be atypical Example: “Anna’s story” Surveys – researchers will ask a series of questions about the topic under study. Advantages: Data from large numbers of people. Study covert behaviors. Disadvantages: Have to ensure representative sample (or results not meaningful). People are not always accurate (courtesy bias). What are surveys? Verbal assessments or written questionnaires What are the advantages? Lots of data in a short time What are the disadvantages? People lie to look good (or be funny) Can’t prove cause and effect Wording Effects might influence data Wording can influence how someone answers a question Example: “Aid the needy” or “Increase Welfare
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- Finding Relationships Correlation - a measure of the relationship between two variables. Variable - anything that can change or vary. Measures of two variables go into a mathematical formula and produce a correlation coefficient (r), which represents two things: direction of the relationship. strength of the relationship. Knowing the value of one variable allows researchers to predict the value of the other variable. Correlation coefficient ranges from –1.00 to +1.00. Closer to 1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship between the variables. No correlation = 0.0. Perfect correlation = -1.00 OR +1.00. Positive correlation – variables are related in the same direction. As one increases, the other increases; as one decreases, the other decreases. Negative correlation – variables are related in opposite direction. As one increases, the other decreases. CORRELATION DOES NOT PROVE CAUSATION!!!
- Finding Relationships Correlation - a measure of the relationship between two variables. Variable - anything that can change or vary. Measures of two variables go into a mathematical formula and produce a correlation coefficient (r), which represents two things: direction of the relationship. strength of the relationship. Knowing the value of one variable allows researchers to predict the value of the other variable. Correlation coefficient ranges from –1.00 to +1.00. Closer to 1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship between the variables. No correlation = 0.0. Perfect correlation = -1.00 OR +1.00. Positive correlation – variables are related in the same direction. As one increases, the other increases; as one decreases, the other decreases. Negative correlation – variables are related in opposite direction. As one increases, the other decreases. CORRELATION DOES NOT PROVE CAUSATION!!! Have students give example for each type of correlation (Complete shoe size and height)
- Finding Relationships Correlation - a measure of the relationship between two variables. Variable - anything that can change or vary. Measures of two variables go into a mathematical formula and produce a correlation coefficient (r), which represents two things: direction of the relationship. strength of the relationship. Knowing the value of one variable allows researchers to predict the value of the other variable. Correlation coefficient ranges from –1.00 to +1.00. Closer to 1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship between the variables. No correlation = 0.0. Perfect correlation = -1.00 OR +1.00. Positive correlation – variables are related in the same direction. As one increases, the other increases; as one decreases, the other decreases. Negative correlation – variables are related in opposite direction. As one increases, the other decreases. CORRELATION DOES NOT PROVE CAUSATION!!!
- Illusory correlation, the perception of a relationship where none exists, often occurs because our belief that a relationship exists leads us to notice and recall confirming instances of that belief. Because we are sensitive to unusual events, we are especially likely to notice and remember the occurrence of two such events in sequence, for example, a premonition of an unlikely phone call followed by the call. Illusory correlation is also a result of our natural eagerness to make sense of our world. Given even random data, we look for meaningful patterns. We usually find order because random sequences often don’t look random. Apparent patterns and streaks (such as repeating digits) occur more often than people expect. Failing to see random occurrences for what they are can lead us to seek extraordinary explanations for ordinary events.
- Illusory correlation, the perception of a relationship where none exists, often occurs because our belief that a relationship exists leads us to notice and recall confirming instances of that belief. Because we are sensitive to unusual events, we are especially likely to notice and remember the occurrence of two such events in sequence, for example, a premonition of an unlikely phone call followed by the call. Illusory correlation is also a result of our natural eagerness to make sense of our world. Given even random data, we look for meaningful patterns. We usually find order because random sequences often don’t look random. Apparent patterns and streaks (such as repeating digits) occur more often than people expect. Failing to see random occurrences for what they are can lead us to seek extraordinary explanations for ordinary events.
- Illusory correlation, the perception of a relationship where none exists, often occurs because our belief that a relationship exists leads us to notice and recall confirming instances of that belief. Because we are sensitive to unusual events, we are especially likely to notice and remember the occurrence of two such events in sequence, for example, a premonition of an unlikely phone call followed by the call. Illusory correlation is also a result of our natural eagerness to make sense of our world. Given even random data, we look for meaningful patterns. We usually find order because random sequences often don’t look random. Apparent patterns and streaks (such as repeating digits) occur more often than people expect. Failing to see random occurrences for what they are can lead us to seek extraordinary explanations for ordinary events.
- Weak, negative, not a proper sample
- Experiment - a deliberate manipulation of a variable to see if corresponding changes in behavior result, allowing the determination of cause-and-effect relationships.
- Independent Variables Manipulated Variable (Ex. Drug given to patients) Dependent Variables Measured Variable (Ex. Test Scores) Operational definition - definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured. Independent variable (IV) - variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter. Dependent variable (DV) - variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of the subjects in the experiment. Experimental group - subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable. Control group - subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the independent variable and who may receive a placebo treatment (controls for confounding variables). Random assignment - process of assigning subjects to the experimental or control groups randomly, so that each subject has an equal chance of being in either group. Controls for confounding (extraneous, interfering) variables.
- Population – all individuals of interest Sample – a part of the population Representative sample – randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population of subjects; sample comprises relevant psychological/physical/psychological characteristics comparable to the population
- The scientific method is a way to determine facts and control the possibilities of error and bias when observing behavior. The five steps are perceiving the question, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, drawing conclusions, and reporting the results.
- The scientific method is a way to determine facts and control the possibilities of error and bias when observing behavior. The five steps are perceiving the question, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, drawing conclusions, and reporting the results.
- Placebo effect - the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior. “I shall please” People feel better because they expect to feel better Similar to self-fulfilling prophecy Single-blind study- subjects do not know if they are in the experimental or the control group (reduces placebo effect). Experimenter effect - tendency of the experimenter’s expectations for a study to unintentionally influence the results of the study. Double-blind study - neither the experimenter nor the subjects knows if the subjects are in the experimental or control group (reduces placebo effect and experimenter effect). Quasiexperimental designs - not considered true experiments because of the inability to randomly assign participants to the experimental and control groups (for example, if age is the variable of interest).
- The placebo effect is the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior. The experimenter effect is the tendency of the experimenter’s expectations for a study to unintentionally influence the results of the study. Experiments in which the subjects do not know if they are in the experimental or control groups are single-blind studies, whereas experiments in which neither the experimenters nor the subjects know this information are called double-blind studies. Quasi-experimental designs are not considered true experiments because of the inability to randomly assign participants to the experimental and control groups.
- Whats the problem with using a mean to describe central tendency? Statistics help us to organize, summarize, and make inferences from data. They help us see and interpret what the unaided eye might miss. Statistical principles enable us to evaluate big, round, undocumented numbers that often misread reality and mislead the public. One way to organize statistical data is to convert the data into a simple bar graph. The mode is the most frequently occurring score in a distribution. The mean is the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. If the distribution is skewed by even a few extreme scores, the mean will be biased. The median is the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.
- The range of scores—the gap between the lowest and highest score—provides only a rough estimate of variation. The more standard measure of how scores deviate from one another is the standard deviation. It better gauges whether scores are packed together or dispersed because it uses information from each score. Many types of scores are distributed along a bell-shaped curve, or a normal curve.
- M&M ACTIVITY?
- Psychologists use tests of statistical significance to help them determine whether differences between two groups are reliable. The purpose of inferential statistics is to help psychologists decide when their findings can be applied to the larger population. Many different inferential statistical tests exist such as t-tests, chi square tests, and ANOVAs. They all take into account both the magnitude of the difference found and the size of the sample. However, what is most important for you to know is that all these tests yield a p value. The smaller the p value, the more significant the results. Scientists have decided that a p value of .05 is the cutoff for statistically significant results. A p value of .05 means that a 5 percent chance exists that the results occurred by chance. A p value can never equal 0 because we can never be 100 percent certain that results did not happen due to chance. As a result, scientists often try to replicate their results, thus gathering more evidence that their initial findings were not due to chance. A p value can also be computed for any correlation coefficient. The stronger the correlation and the larger the sample, the more likely the relationship will be statistically significant. SS Questions
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- ]” [0.4%] or refused to provide an answer [0.6%].
- Based on the 2013 NHIS data [collected in 2013 from 34,557 adults aged 18 and over], 96.6% of adults identified as straight, 1.6% identified as gay or lesbian, and 0.7% identified as bisexual. The remaining 1.1% of adults identified as “something else[]” [0.2%,] stated “I don’t know the answer[]” [0.4%] or refused to provide an answer [0.6%].
- Some psychologists study animals out of an interest in animal behaviors. Others do so because knowledge of the physiological and psychological processes of animals enables them to better understand the similar processes that operate in humans. Because psychologists follow ethical and legal guidelines, animals used in psychological experi- ments rarely experience pain. The debate between animal protection organizations and researchers has raised two important issues: Is it right to place the well-being of humans above that of animals, and what safeguards are in place to protect the well-being of animals in research? Many professional organizations and funding agencies have developed extensive guidelines for the humane use of animals.
- Ethical principles for the treatment of human participants urge investigators to obtain informed consent, protect subjects from harm and discomfort, treat information about individuals confiden- tially, and fully explain the research afterward (debrief the participants).
- Critical thinking - making reasoned judgments about claims. Four Basic Criteria: Few “truths” do not need to be subjected to testing All evidence is not equal in quality Authorities and experts are not automatically right or correct Critical thinking requires an open mind
- Pseudopsychologies - systems of explaining human behavior that are not based on or consistent with scientific evidence. Phrenology – reading bumps on the skull. Palmistry – reading palms. Graphology – analysis of personality through handwriting. Astrology – personality explanation/prediction by using the positions of the stars and planets at the moment of birth.
- Critical thinking applied to astrology (a pseudopsychology): Are astrologer’s charts up-to-date? The basic astrological charts were designed over 3,000 years ago. The stars, planets, and constellations are no longer in the same positions in the sky due to changes in the rotation of the Earth’s axis over long periods of time—over 24 degrees in just the last 2,000 years. So a Gemini is really a Cancer and will be a Leo in another 2,000 years. What exactly is so important about the moment of birth? Why not the moment of conception? What happens if a baby is born by cesarean section and not at the time it would have been born naturally? Is that person’s whole life screwed up? Why would the stars and planets have any effect on a person? Is it gravity? The body mass of the doctor who delivers the baby has a far greater gravitational pull on the infant’s body than the moon. (Maybe people should use skinny obstetricians?)