Research methodology pdf

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Assala mu alykum My Name is saqib imran and I am the
student of b.tech (civil) in sarhad univeristy of
science and technology peshawer.
I have written this notes by different websites and
some by self and prepare it for the student and also
for engineer who work on field to get some knowledge
from it.
I hope you all students may like it.
Remember me in your pray, allah bless me and all of
you friends.
If u have any confusion in this notes contact me on my
gmail id: Saqibimran43@gmail.com
or text me on 0341-7549889.
Saqib imran.

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Research methodology
Definition of research | Positivism and Naturalism |
Subjectivity
Definition of Research
Research may be defined as
Careful study that is done to find and report new knowledge about something and to find
out answers to a question.
The activity of getting knowledge about a subject.
When you say you are doing a research then you are implying that the process:
1. is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies.
2. Uses procedure, methods and techniques that have been tested for their validity and
reliability.
3. is designed to be unbiased and objective.
Philosophical orientation
Your philosophical orientation may come from one of the two Ideas in research:
 Positivism
 Naturalism
 And the academic discipline in which you are trained.
Definition of Positivism
A theory that theology and metaphysics are earlier imperfect modes of knowledge and
that positive and knowledge is based on natural phenomenon, their properties and
relations as verified by the empirical sciences.
Definition of Naturalism
A theory denying that an event or object has a super natural significance.
Or we can say that the art of understanding people and things just like they are.

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Validity and Reliability
Concept of validity is applied to any aspect of research process. It ensures that in a
research process, correct methods have been used to find out answers to a question.
Reliability refers to the quality of the measurement procedure or method.
Unbiased and Objective
Unbiased and objective means that you have taken research and drawn each
conclusion to the best of your ability. Unbiased also means that you have
not introduced your own interest.
Subjectivity is another thing. There is a difference between Subjectivity and bias.
Subjectivity is based on your knowledge about your field and your skills. Knowledge that
you gain with your educational background and experience. Subjectivity is an integral
part of your way of thinking.
Bias, on the other hand, is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or show something you
want.
Reference:
 Merriam webster dictionary.
 Research methodology by Ranjit kumar.
Reasons for Literature review before starting research
Reasons for Literature review
One of the essential task when you undertake a research, is to review the existing
literature. This is to equipped yourself with the available domain of knowledge in your
area of interest. Reviewing this literature may be time consuming or frustrating. But you
should not become discouraged because you will find it fruitful in the end. A literature
review has three functions. It helps you to:
1. Bring Clarity and focus to your research problem.
2. improve your methodology.
3. Broaden your knowledge base in your research area.

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Bring Clarity and focus to your research problem
You cannot effectively undertake a literature search without having some idea of your
research problem. Literature review can play an important role in shaping your research
problem. When you review the literature, it will help you to better understanding of the
subject and thus helps you to conceptualise your research problem clearly and precisely.It
also helps you to understand relationships between your research problem and available
body of knowledge.
Improve Your methodology
Going through the literature review will let you know the methodologies adopted by others
to find out answers similar to the ones you are investigating. It will tell you procedures
and methods which others have used and if they are similar to the methods you are
proposing. What procedures have worked well for them and what problems they have
faced with them. By becoming better aware of any problems, you will be in a better
position to select a methodology that will provide answers to your research problem. This
will increase your confidence in methodology you chose for you.
Broaden your knowledge base in your research area
The most important function of the literature review is to ensure that you read widely
around the subject area in which you want to conduct your research question. What others
have researched in a similar research problem, what theories have been forwarded by
them. What gaps exist in the relevant body of knowledge. Whenever you are doing a
research for a higher degree, you are expected to be an expert in your area of study.
Literature review helps you to fulfill this expectation. It helps you to understand how your
findings will fit in the existing knowledge.
What can be a research topic for your study and its
Importance
Research Problem
Any question that you want answered and any assumption that you want to challenge or
investigate can become a research topic for your study.
However, it may be remembered that not all the problems can be converted into research
problem. Some may prove to be extremely difficult to study. Potential research questions
may come to us on a regular basis. The process of formulating them in a meaningful
way is not an easy task. As a new researcher, it might seem easy to formulate a problem.
But it requires a considerable knowledge of both the subject and the research
methodology.

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It is essential for the problem you formulate to be able to withstand scientific scrutiny in
terms or procedures required to be undertaken. Hence you should spend more time in
thinking it through.
Importance of formulating a research problem
The formulation of a research problem is first and most important step of a research
process.
It is like the identification of destination before undertaking a journey.
As in the absence of destination, it is impossible to identify the shortest route. In the
absence of a clear research problem, a clear and economical plan is impossible.
A research process is like the foundation of the building.
The type and design of building depends upon the foundation. If the foundation is well
designed and strong, you can expect the building to be strong.
Similarly, research problem serves as the foundation of a research study, if it is well
formulated you will expect a good study to follow.
If one wants to solve the problem, then it must be clear to him that what actually is the
problem. It can be said that large part of the problem lies in knowing what one trying to
do.
A research problem may take a number of forms, from the very simple to the very complex
one. The way you formulate the problem determines every step that follows:
 the type of study design that can be used.
 the type of sampling strategy.
 research instrument that can be used or developed.
 the type of analysis that can be undertaken.
Formulation of the problem is like the input to a study. And Quality of contents of the
research report is the output of your research report. You may become confuse in the
beginning. But remember how much you are clearer to your problem, the easier it will
be for you later on. Take time over formulating your problem. This is the most important
and crucial step.
Sources for selection of research problem

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Sources for selection of research problem
If you have not yet selected a research problem and do not know where to start then this
article may help you. Most research in humanities revolves around four P’s:
 People which may be individuals, organizations, groups or communities.
 Problems which is the study of issues, situations, associations, needs etc.
 Programs which is the study of contents, structure, outcomes, satisfaction, service
providers etc.
 Phenomenon which is the study of cause and effect relationship, the study of phenomenon
itself etc.
You may select a group of individuals for examining the certain existing issues to
ascertain the attitudes towards different aspects of lives or to establish effectiveness of
certain phenomenon. Your focus for the research problem may be the study of an issue,
or an association with the phenomenon. For example:
 relationship between unemployment and street crime.
 smoking and cancer.
 fertility and mortality.
This study is done on the basis of information collected by individuals, organizations,
groups or communities.
Similarly you can study different aspects of a program, the need for it, its effectiveness,
consumer satisfaction, its structure etc. This study is done on the basis of information
collected from people.
There are two aspects of a study about these four P’s.
1. Study population.
2. Subject area.
Study population is about the people from where the information is collected.
Subject area is the program, problem or a phenomenon about which information is
collected.
The study of an aspect of a program can be carried out in any professional field. For
example you can measure the effectiveness of a program in the field of health, nursing,
health promotion or a welfare program. Similarly you can record consumers satisfaction
about any aspect of a program.

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Examine your own academic discipline or professional field in the context of the four P’s
in order to identify your research problem and anything that looks interesting. For example
if you are a student in the health field, then there is enormous number of issues in each
sub field of health that you could investigate. Issues related to spread of a disease, drug
rehabilitation, an immunisation program, the effectiveness of a treatment can all provide
you with the range of research problems.
Similarly in education there are several issues. For example the effectiveness of home
environment on the educational achievements, and the supervisory needs of the post
graduate students in higher education. Any other academic or professional field can
further be dissected into sub fields and examined for a research problem.
Formulation of a research problem
Formulation of a research problem
This is the first and the most important step of the research process. It identifies your
destination.
If one wants to solve the research problem, then it must be clear to him that what
actually is the problem. It can be said that large part of the problem lies in knowing what
one trying to do.
A research problem may take a number of forms, from the very simple to the very
complex one. The way you formulate the problem determines every step that follows:
Hence you should give it considerable and careful thought at this stage.
It is extremely important to evaluate research problem in the light of the financial
resources available, time available, your and your research supervisor’s expertise and
knowledge in the field of study. It is equally important to identify any gaps in your
knowledge of relevant disciplines, such as statistics, required for analysis. If you have a
plan to use computer software then you must have sufficient knowledge of that.

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Selecting a research design | Main functions of a research
design
Conceptualising a research design
An extremely important feature of research is the use of scientific methods. Research
process involves systematic, controlled, valid and carefully established associations and
causes that permit similar outcomes under the given set of conditions.
Research process also involves
1. identifying gaps in knowledge.
2. verification of what is already known.
3. Identification of past errors and limitations.
The validity of what you find largely rest on how it was found.
Main function of research design
 Main function of research design is to explain how you will find the answers to a research
problem.
 The research design sets out the logic of your inquiry.
The research design should include the following:
 The study design.
 Logistical arrangements that you suppose to undertake.
 Measurement procedures.
 Sampling strategy.
 Frame of analysis and time frame.
For any inquiry, the selection of an appropriate research design enable you to arrive at
valid findings. A faulty design will result in misleading findings and is therefore wasting
human and financial resources.
When selecting a research design it is important to ensure that:
 It is valid workable, and manageable.
There are number of study designs. You need to be equipped with the most common
ones. Select or develop the design that is most suited to your study. You must have
strong reasons for selecting a particular design. You must be aware of its weaknesses
and limitations.

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Definition of Research tool | Different forms of research tool
Constructing a Research tool for data collection
Research tool may be defined as:
Anything that becomes a means of collecting information for your study is called a
research tool or a research instrument. For example, observation forms, interview
schedules, questionnaires, and interview guides are all classified as research tools.
Constructing a research tool is the first practical step in carrying out research process.
You will need to decide how you will collect the data then you construct a research
instrument for this.
If you are planning to collect data specifically for your research then you have to
develop a research instrument or select an already developed one.
If you are using a secondary data (information already collected for other purposes),
develop a form to extract required data.
Field testing a research tool is an important part. But as a rule, field testing should not
be carried out on the sample of your study but on a similar population.
Selection of a sample in a research process
Selecting a Sample in a research process
The accuracy of your estimates largely rest on the way you select your sample. The
basic objective of any sampling design is to minimise the gap between the values
obtained from your sample and those prevalent or dominant in the population.
The underlying theory in sampling is that, if a relatively small number of units is
scientifically selected, it can provide a fairly true reflection of the sampling population
being studied.
Sampling theory is guided by two principles:
1. Avoidance of bias in selecting sample.
2. the attainment of maximum precision for a given outlay of resources.
There are three categories of sampling design:

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1. Random sampling designs.
2. Non random sampling designs.
3. Mixed sampling designs.
There are many sampling strategies within the first two categories. You need to be
equipped with these sampling designs to select the one most appropriate for your study.
You need to know the strength and limitations of each. You also need to know the
situations in which it can or it cannot be applied in order to select the most appropriate
design for your research process. The type of sampling strategy you use also
determines your ability to generalise from the sample to the total population and the
type of statistical tests you can perform on the data.
Definition of research proposal | Writing a research proposal
Writing a research proposal
Before writing a research proposal, you have done all the preparatory work. Next put
everything together in a way that provides adequate information. This will give
information about your research report to your research supervisor and others.
This overall plan tells a reader about your research problem and how you are planning
to investigate, and is called a research proposal.
The main function of research proposal is to detail the operational plan for obtaining
answers to your research questions. It ensures readers of the validity of methodology
adopted to obtain answers.
Universities and other institutions may have different requirements about the contents of
research proposal. Requirements may also vary within an institution, from discipline to
discipline or from supervisor to supervisor.
A research proposal may tell you, your supervisor and the reader the following things:
1. What are you proposing to do.
2. How you plan to proceed.
3. Why you selected the proposed strategy.
A research proposal must contain following information about your study.
1. A statement of the objectives of the study.
2. a list of hypothesis, if you are testing any.
3. the study design you are proposing to use.
4. the setting for your study.
5. the research tool you are planning to use.

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6. information on sample size and sampling design.
7. information on data processing procedures.
8. an outline of the proposed chapters of the report.
9. the study problems and limitations.
10. the proposed time frame.
Means of collecting data in a research process
Collecting Data in a research process
Having formulated a research problem, developed a study design, constructed a
research instrument and selected a sample. Now you collect the data from which you
will draw influences and conclusions for your study.
Many methods could be used to gather the required information. As a part of research
design, you will decide the procedure through which you want to collect the data.
At this stage you are actually collecting data.
For example, depending upon your plans, you might commence interviews, mail
questionnaire, conduct group discussions or make observations. Collection of data by
any method may involve some ethical issues as well.
Processing of data in a research process
Processing of data in a research process
The way you analyse the information largely depends on two things:
1. the type of information: descriptive, qualitative, quantitative or attitudinal.
2. the way you want to write your report.
There are two broad categories of report: quantitative and qualitative. The difference is
more academic than real. Because in reality you need to combine quantitative and
qualitative skills. But there are some only qualitative and some only quantitative studies.
In addition to qualitative and quantitative distinction, it is equally important for data
analysis that you want to analyse it manually or by a computer.
If your study is purely descriptive, you can write your report on the basis of your field
notes, manually analyse the contents of your notes, or use a computer program such as
Nudist or Ethnograph for this purpose.

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If you want quantitative analysis, it is also necessary to decide:
 upon the type of analysis required. For example frequency distribution, cross-tabulations,
regression analysis, factor analysis or analysis of variance etc.
 how it should be presented.
 variables to be subjected to these statistical procedures.
Writing a research report in a research process
Writing a research report in a research process
Writing the report is the last and for many, the most difficult step of the research
process. This report informs the world of
 what you have done.
 what you have discovered.
 and what conclusions you have drawn from your findings.
If you are clear about the whole research process, you will also clear about the way you
want to write your research report. Your report should be written in academic style and
be divided into different chapters and sections based upon the main theme of your
study.
Primary and secondary sources of Data collection and its
limitations
There are two main approaches for data collection about a problem, person or a
phenomenon.
Primary Data
There are times when the information must be collected. Sources used in the this
approach are called as primary sources.
Examples of information collected through primary sources are:
 Finding out attitude of a community towards health services.
 estimate the health needs of a community.
 evaluating a social program.
 determining the job satisfaction of the employees of an organization.
 Estimating the qualities of services provided by a worker.
In summary, primary sources provide first hand data, whereas secondary sources provide
second hand data.

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Primary sources of data collection are:
1. Observations which may be participant or non participant.
2. Interviews which may be structured or non structured.
3. Questionnaire which may be mailed or collective questionnaire.
Secondary Data
Sometimes information required is already available and need only to be extracted.
Information gathered using this approach is said to be collected from secondary
sources.
Example of secondary sources of data collection are:
 use of census data to obtain information on the age-sex structure of a population.
 the use of hospital record to find out the mortality patterns of a particular population.
 the use of an organization record to estimate its activities.
 data collection through articles, journals, magazines and books.
 It may be documents like, govt. publications, earlier research, census forms or personal
records.
Limitations while using data from secondary sources
When using data from secondary sources you need to be careful as there may be certain
problems with the availability, format and quality of data. The extent of these problems
varies from source to source. While using such data some issues you should keep in mind
are:
Validity and reliability
The validity and reliability of information may vary from source to source. For example
data collection through census may be more valid than data collection through personal
diaries.
Personal bias
The information obtained from personal diaries, magazines and newspapers may be
personal bias, as these writers are likely to exhibit less rigorousness and objectivity than
one would expect in a research report.
Availability of data
It is common for beginning researchers to assume that the required data will be available.
But you cannot and should not make this assumption. Therefore, it is important to make
sure that the required data is available before you proceed further with your study.

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Format
Before deciding to use the data from the secondary sources, it is equally important to
make sure that the data are available in the required format. For example, you might need
to analyse the age in the categories 23-33, 34-48 etc., but in your sources age may be
categorized differently, e.g., 21-24, 25-29 etc.
Observation as a primary source of data collection in a
research study
Observation
Observation is one way to collect primary data. It is a purposeful way of watching and
listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place.
Types of observations
There are two types:
1. Participant.
2. Non Participant.
Participant
When the researcher participates in the activities of the group being observed in the
same manner as its members. Members may know or do not know that they are being
observed.
For example:
1. You might want to study the life of prisoners. In order to do this you pretend to be a
prisoner.
2. You might want to study the reactions of general population towards people in wheel
chairs. You can study their reactions by sitting in a wheel chair yourself.
Non participant
When the researcher does not participate in the activities of the group being observed
but remains a passive observer.
For example:

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1. You might want to study the functions carried out by nurses in a hospital. As an observer
watch, follow and record the activities they performed. After making observations, results
can be drawn from them. Similarly, you can do this in any other occupation.
Situations in which observation can be made
Situations can be:
 Natural: Observing a group in its natural operation without intervening in their activities is
classified as natural conditions.
 Controlled: Introducing a stimulus to the group for it to react and then observing the
reaction is classified as controlled conditions.
Advantages of using observation as a method of data collection
There are many situations when observation is an appropriate tool for data collection.
For example:
1. When you want to learn about interaction in a group.
2. Study the dietary patterns of a population.
3. Ascertain the functions performed by a worker.
4. Study the behavior or personality traits of an individual.
5. It is also useful in situations where full information cannot be received by questioning.
6. Because respondents either are not co operative or unaware of the answers.
7. When subjects are so involved in the interaction that they are unable to provide objective
information about it.
8. In short, when you are more interested in behavior rather than their perception,
observation is the best approach to collect information.
Limitations while using observation as a method of data collection
Using observation as a method of data collection may suffer from a number of problems.
But it does not mean that all these problems or any of these necessarily present in every
situation. But as a beginner you should be aware of these problems.
Changing of behavior when a group become aware
When a person or a group become aware that they are being observed. Then they may
change their behavior. Depending upon the situation this change could be positive or
negative. It may increase or decrease their productivity.
When a person or a group become aware they are being observed and they change
their behavior due to this, it is known as Hawthorne effect.
The use of observation in such a situation does not represent their actual behavior.

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Observer bias
There is always a possibility of observer bias. If observer is bias then he can easily
introduce bias. Then there is no easy way to verify observations and inferences drawn
from them.
Interpretation may vary
Interpretations drawn from observation may vary from observer to observer.
Possibility of incomplete observation
There is always a possibility of incomplete observation or recording. This varies with the
method of recording. An observer may watch keenly but at the expense of detailed
recording. Another problem which may occur when the observer takes detailed notes, but
while doing this misses some of the interaction.
The Research Process | Eight steps you need to carry out
research
The research process eight steps
1. Formulation of a research problem.
2. Conceptualising a research design.
3. Constructing a research instrument or tool for data collection.
4. Selecting a sample.
5. Writing a research proposal.
6. Collecting data.
7. Processing data.
8. Writing a research report.
1-Formulation of a research problem
This is the first and the most important step of the research process. It identifies your
destination.
If one wants to solve the problem, then it must be clear to him that what actually is the
problem. It can be said that large part of the problem lies in knowing what one trying to
do.

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A research problem may take a number of forms, from the very simple to the very
complex one. The way you formulate the problem determines every step that follows:
Hence you should give it considerable and careful thought at this stage.
It is extremely important to evaluate research problem in the light of the financial
resources available, time available, your and your research supervisor’s expertise and
knowledge in the field of study. It is equally important to identify any gaps in your
knowledge of relevant disciplines, such as statistics, required for analysis. If you have a
plan to use computer software then you must have sufficient knowledge of that.
2- Conceptualising a research design
An extremely important feature of research is the use of scientific methods. Research
process involves systematic, controlled, valid and carefully established associations and
causes that permit similar outcomes under the given set of conditions.
Research process also involves
1. identifying gaps in knowledge.
2. verification of what is already known.
3. Identification of past errors and limitations.
The validity of what you find largely rest on how it was found.
Main function of research design
 Main function of research design is to explain how you will find the answers to a research
problem.
 The research design sets out the logic of our inquiry.
The research design should include the following:
 The study design.
 Logistical arrangements that you suppose to undertake.
 Measurement procedures.
 Sampling strategy.
 Frame of analysis and time frame.

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For any inquiry, the selection of an appropriate research design enable you to arrive at
valid findings. A faulty design will result in misleading findings and is therefore wasting
human and financial resources.
When selecting a research design it is important to ensure that:
 It is valid workable, and manageable.
There are number of study designs. You need to be equipped with the most common
ones. Select or develop the design that is most suited to your study. You must have
strong reasons for selecting a particular design. You must be aware of its weaknesses
and limitations.
3-Constructing a Research tool for data collection
Research tool may be defined as:
Anything that becomes a means of collecting information for your study is called a
research tool or a research instrument. For example, observation forms, interview
schedules, questionnaires, and interview guides are all classified as research tools.
Constructing a research tool is the first practical step in carrying out research process.
You will need to decide how you will collect the data then you construct a research
instrument for this.
If you are planning to collect data specifically for your research then you have to
develop a research instrument or select an already developed one.
If you are using a secondary data (information already collected for other purposes),
develop a form to extract required data.
Field testing a research tool is an important part. But as a rule, field testing should not
be carried out on the sample of your study but on a similar population.
4-Selecting a Sample
The accuracy of your estimates largely rest on the way you select your sample. The
basic objective of any sampling design is to minimise the gap between the values
obtained from your sample and those prevalent or dominant in the population.

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The underlying theory in sampling is that, if a relatively small number of units is
scientifically selected, it can provide a fairly true reflection of the sampling population
being studied.
Sampling theory is guided by two principles:
1. Avoidance of bias in selecting sample.
2. the attainment of maximum precision for a given outlay of resources.
There are three categories of sampling design:
1. Random sampling designs.
2. Non random sampling designs.
3. Mixed sampling designs.
There are many sampling strategies within the first two categories. You need to be
equipped with these sampling designs to select the one most appropriate for your study.
You need to know the strength and limitations of each. You also need to know the
situations in which it can or it cannot be applied in order to select the most appropriate
design. The type of sampling strategy you use also determines your ability to generalise
from the sample to the total population and the type of statistical tests you can perform
on the data.
5-Writing a research proposal
Before writing a research proposal, you have done all the preparatory work. Next put
everything together in a way that provides adequate information. This will give
information about your research report to your research supervisor and others.
This overall plan tells a reader about your research problem and how you are planning
to investigate, and is called a research proposal.
The main function of research proposal is to detail the operational plan for obtaining
answers to your research questions. It ensures readers of the validity of methodology
adopted to obtain answers.
Universities and other institutions may have different requirements about the contents of
research proposal. Requirements may also vary within an institution, from discipline to
discipline or from supervisor to supervisor.
A research proposal may tell you, your supervisor and the reader the following things:
1. What are you proposing to do.

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2. How you plan to proceed.
3. Why you selected the proposed strategy.
A research proposal must contain following information about your study.
1. A statement of the objectives of the study.
2. a list of hypothesis, if you are testing any.
3. the study design you are proposing to use.
4. the setting for your study.
5. the research tool you are planning to use.
6. information on sample size and sampling design.
7. information on data processing procedures.
8. an outline of the proposed chapters of the report.
9. the study problems and limitations.
10. the proposed time frame.
6-Collection of Data
Having formulated a research problem, developed a study design, constructed a
research instrument and selected a sample. Now you collect the data from which you
will draw influences and conclusions for your study.
Many methods could be used to gather the required information. As a part of research
design, you will decide the procedure through which you want to collect the data.
At this stage you actually collect the data.
For example, depending upon your plans, you might commence interviews, mail
questionnaire, conduct group discussions or make observations. Collection of data by
any method may involve some ethical issues as well.
7-Processing of data
The way you analyse the information largely depends on two things:
1. the type of information: descriptive, qualitative, quantitative or attitudinal.
2. the way you want to write your report.
There are two broad categories of report: quantitative and qualitative. The difference is
more academic than real. Because in reality you need to combine quantitative and
qualitative skills. But there are some only qualitative and some only quantitative studies.
In addition to qualitative and quantitative distinction, it is equally important for data
analysis that you want to analyse it manually or by a computer.

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If your study is purely descriptive, you can write your report on the basis of your field
notes, manually analyse the contents of your notes, or use a computer program such as
Nudist or Ethnograph for this purpose.
If you want quantitative analysis, it is also necessary to decide:
 upon the type of analysis required. For example frequency distribution, cross-
tabulations, regression analysis, factor analysis or analysis of variance etc.
 how it should be presented.
 variables to be subjected to these statistical procedures.
8- Writing a research report
Writing the report is the last and for many, the most difficult step of the research
process. This report informs the world of
 what you have done.
 what you have discovered.
 and what conclusions you have drawn from your findings.
If you are clear about the whole research process, you will also clear about the way you
want to write your research report. Your report should be written in academic style and
be divided into different chapters and sections based upon the main theme of your
study.

Research methodology pdf

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