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AP Psych Motivation
- 2. Needs Assessment Questionnaire Handout 12-17 • Reverse the following scores (ex. 1=5, 2=4, 3=3) – #8, # 14, # 18 • Need for Achievement: – Your need to improve performance – Add your responses for 1, 5, 9, 13, 17 • Need for Affiliation: – Your desire to be accepted by others – Add your responses for 2, 6, 10, 14, 18 • Need for Autonomy: – Your need to be responsible for your own direction – Add your responses for 3, 7, 11, 15, 19 • Need for Dominance: – Your need for power (control others) – Add your responses for 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 WHERE DO YOU FALL? High scores are near 25 Average scores are near 14 Low scores are near 5 2
- 3. Section 1 Motivational Concepts • Learning Goals: – Students should be able to answer the following: From what perspectives do psychologists view motivated behavior 3 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about the perspectives and their views on motivational behavior. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the perspectives and their views on motivational behavior, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with the perspectives and their views on motivational behavior, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
- 4. What is Motivation? • Definition: a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal. • Need: a physiological state that triggers motivational arousal • Five Theories of what Motivates People: – Instinct theory – Drive-Reduction Theory – Incentive Theory – Arousal Theory – Hierarchy of Needs Theory 4
- 5. Instinct Theory • Also Known As: Genetically Programmed Fixed Action Patterns • Based on Evolutionary Perspective • Critics say it cannot be applied to all people (why?) • Works better in the animal kingdom (why?0 • Example: Picking a mate (men prefer certain attributes) • Can you think of other examples? 5
- 6. Drive-Reduction Theory (1940) • Drives Push us towards a goal • Based on the idea of homeostasis or the maintenance of a steady internal state • We get rewarded by reducing the drive • Which psychological perceptive does drive theory best match with? A. Cognitive B. Behavioral C. Humanistic 6
- 7. Incentive Theory • Incentives Pull us towards a goal • Usually an external reward is offered • Which person would most like incentive theory? A. Sigmund Freud B. B.F. Skinner C. Charles Spearman D. Lewis Terman 7
- 8. Optimum Arousal Theory • Boredom, sometimes causes us to seek out stimulation • Moderate to High Arousal is best especially for achievement- oriented people • Rats enjoy exploring parts of a maze where they receive a mild shock more because it arouses their curiosity • This might explain why people will explore different parts of the earth for fun (caves, mountains, underwater) 8
- 9. Yerkes-Dodson Law Yerkes-Dodson Law the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.
- 10. Aron Lee Ralston 127 Hours Stuck…
- 11. Short Discussion… Why do you think people go to college? (please formulate your response around one of the prior theories mentioned)
- 12. Hierarch of Needs Theory • Created by the Humanist Abraham Maslow (1954) • Self-Actualized People are more successful. • Critics of the theory say that it needs to be revised • How can people starve or get arrested for political protest? • Why do so many women continue to stay with their abusers? Know this! 12
- 13. New Hierarchy
- 14. Section Assessment Apply the situation below to the theories of motivation –Instinct theory –Drive-Reduction Theory –Incentive Theory –Arousal Theory Jeremy is aggressively trying to beat an opponent at a game of checkers 14
- 15. Motivational Theories Strengths and Weaknesses
- 16. Learning Goal:? From what perspectives do psychologists view motivated behavior 16 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about the perspectives and their views on motivational behavior. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the perspectives and their views on motivational behavior, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with the perspectives and their views on motivational behavior, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
- 17. 2: Hunger and Motivation • Learning Goals: – Students should be able to answer the following: 1. What physiological factors produce hunger? 2. What psychological and cultural factors influence hunger? 3. How do eating disorders demonstrate the influence of psychological forces on physiological motivated behaviors? 17 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about the interaction between hunger and motivation. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the interaction between hunger and motivation), and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with the interaction between hunger and motivation, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
- 18. Learning Goal: How is hunger influenced by motivation? Answer TRUE or FALSE for the following Statements: 1.The stomach has a lot to do with hunger. 2.People from hotter climates prefer spicy food. 3.People eat more food when around other people. 4.Americans eat slower than Europeans, which is why we have more obesity issues. 5.Eating disorders like anorexia are caused by childhood abuse. 18 1. False 2. True 3. True 4. False 5. False
- 19. The Stomach & Hunger (Washburn-Cannon Theory) • Hunger pangs do indicate feeling the need to eat • Those without stomachs (removed due to Gastric Cancer) still feel the need to eat 19
- 20. Body Chemistry • Glucose • The hormone insulin converts glucose to fat. • When glucose levels drop- hunger increases.
- 21. Biological Basis of Hunger • Hunger does NOT directly come from our stomach. It comes from our… • Brain What part of the brain? • The Hypothalamus
- 22. Hypothalamus Lateral Hypothalamus • When stimulated it makes you hungry. • When lesioned (destroyed) you will never be hungry again. Ventromedial Hypothalamus • When stimulated you feel full. • When lesioned you will never feel full again.
- 23. Hypothalamus & Hunger FAT RAT What happened to this rat’s hypothalamus? 23
- 24. The Physiology of Hunger Body Chemistry and the Brain
- 25. Learning Goal: How is hunger influenced by motivation? Hormone Tissue Response Orexin increase Hypothalamus Increases hunger Ghrelin increase Stomach Increases hunger Insulin increase Pancreas Increases hunger Leptin increase Fat cells Decreases hunger PYY increase Digestive tract Decreases hunger 25
- 26. Set Point Theory • The hypothalamus acts like a thermostat. • Wants to maintain a stable weight. • Activate the lateral when you diet and activate the ventromedial when you start to gain weight.
- 27. Set Point Theory & Obesity – Do we have a predetermined set weight through genetics? – Can we change our set point? – Obese people went on a month- long diet reducing their calories from 3500 to 450 calories a day but only lost 6% of their weight. – Once we become obese, we require less calories to maintain that weight (fat has a lower metabolic rate) • Obesity – Typical adults have 35 billion fat cells. Obese people have 75 billion fat cells – Fat cells never go away, they shrink like a balloon. 27
- 28. Culture, Society & Food Preferences • Body chemistry and environmental factors influence not only when we feel hunger but what we feel hungry for! • Countries with hot climates use more bacteria-inhibiting spices in meat dishes. • People consume 60-75% more food when around others. • Some situations active food cues (i.e. popcorn at the movies) • Europeans eat more slowly, helping them to eat less food. 28
- 30. Criadillas- bull testicles. Mice Wine Dog Fried Frog Legs
- 31. Memory & Hunger • Based on a 2006 study, excess ghrelin has be found to increase learning and memory capabilities • Due to difficulties with retention (hippocampus damage), amnesia patients eat frequently if given food (Rozin et al., 1998). • Usually they will consume meals every 20 minutes if offered food. 31
- 32. Psychological Aspects of Hunger • Internals versus Externals • The Garcia Effect
- 33. Anorexia Nervosa •Extreme weight loss, typically through exercising and not eating •Obsessed with weight and feel fat •75% of people with this disorder are females •Usually abnormally skinny and can be considered a life long disorder •Changes the body’s chemistry 33 How is hunger influenced by motivation? Mary Kate Olsen has suffered from anorexia nervosa for years
- 34. Bulimia Nervosa •Eating large amounts of food and then purging (Usually sweets or carbs) •Anxiety or depression •By eating carbs, they reduce tension and anxiety (kicked up serotonin) •Weight is usually within normal range •Usually associated with higher than normal obesity in childhood and negative self-evaluations •Binge-eating Disorder: Eating large amounts, but not purging 34 How is hunger influenced by motivation? Lady Gaga has suffered from both anorexia and bulimia
- 35. Motivation & Eating Disorders
- 36. • Similar Disorders: Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) • Obsessed with a specific flaw in your body • Usually leads to extreme plastic surgery, steroid use or extreme weight training 36 How is hunger influenced by motivation?
- 37. BDD video…
- 38. Section Assessment 1. Which section of the brain is considered most vital to the initiation of feeding behaviors? (A) hippocampus (B) hypothalamus (C) superior olive complex (D) suprachiasmatic nucleus (E) amygdala 38
- 39. • 2. What most likely happened to Winston’s hypothalamus?
- 40. • 2. What most likely happened to Winston’s hypothalamus? • Ventromedial (which makes you feel full) was lesioned/damaged so he got extra pudgy. -or- • Lateral hypothalamus (makes you hungry) is constantly being stimulated/excited through electrode..
- 41. 2: Hunger and Motivation • Learning Goals: – Students should be able to answer the following: 1. What physiological factors produce hunger? 2. What psychological and cultural factors influence hunger? 3. How do eating disorders demonstrate the influence of psychological forces on physiological motivated behaviors? 41 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about the interaction between hunger and motivation. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the interaction between hunger and motivation), and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with the interaction between hunger and motivation, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
- 42. 3: Sexual Motivation and Orientation (Awkward)• Learning Goals: – Students should be able to answer the following: 1 What stages mark the human response cycle? 2. How do hormones influence human sexual motivation? 3. How do internal and external stimuli influence sexual motivation? 4. What has research taught us about sexual orientation? 42 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about the psychology of sexual orientation and motivation. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the psychology of sexual orientation and motivation, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated the psychology of sexual orientation and motivation), but need to review this concept more. 1.0 I don’t understand this concept and need help!
- 43. Section 3 Sexual Motivation and Orientation (Awkward)… Please read the article…answer the questions on the back
- 44. Hi/Lo Game Instructions: Guess if the actual number is higher or lower than the number listed below. 1.40% of males think about sex everyday 2.25% of females think about sex everyday 3.The typical American has on average 10 sexual partners in a lifetime 4.About 10% of the population is gay or lesbian 5.35% of people in the United States say that homosexuality is “never justified” 44
- 45. Sexual Motivation • Sex is natural. • Without sex, none of us would be here. • How do scientists (or you) find out about sex? YOU ASK!!!!!!
- 46. Research Into Sex & Motivation • The infamous Alfred Kinsey Studies (1940) • Kinsey’s Findings – Virtually all men and half of all women masturbate regularly (more than expected) – 8-10% of the population is gay or bisexual (this is wrong according to more modern survey data and scientific estimates) – Over 50% of men and women have premarital sex (more than expected) • Criticisms of Kinsey’s Study – Unrepresentative Study (mostly whites) – Volunteer Bias – Out-Dated Study 46
- 47. Research Into Sex & Motivation
- 48. Masters and Johnson Study • In the 1960’s William Masters and Virginia Johnson set out to explore the physiology of sex. • 382 females and 312 males. After their research was done they ran an institute that claimed to turn gay people straight.
- 49. Masters and Johnson Study (explicit image warning)
- 50. Motivation & Sex • Masters and Johnson’s Sexual Response Cycle Study Phase Physiological Response Excitement Genitals become engorged with blood. Vagina expands secretes lubricant. Penis enlarges. Plateau Excitement peaks such as breathing, pulse and blood pressure. Orgasm Contractions all over the body. Increase in breathing, pulse & blood pressure. Sexual release. Resolution Engorged genital release blood. Male goes through refractory phase. Women resolve slower. 50
- 51. How are humans influenced by sexuality? • Masters and Johnson’s Sexual Response Cycle Study 51 Time (Minutes)
- 52. Mapped out the Sexual Response Cycle • Initial Excitement • Plateau Phase • Orgasm • Resolution Phase (with refractory period).
- 53. How are humans influenced by sexuality? Internal and External Stimuli •Men and Women are driven by testosterone (men have more). •Viewing attractive people or pornography leads people to devalue their own partners. •According to one study, men and women are equally aroused by watching x-rated movies, but men’s brains respond more in the amygdala. •Men tend to fantasize about sex and women about romance. 53
- 54. Sexual Orientation Research Findings • Until 1973, homosexuality was considered a disorder by the APA • 3-4% of men are gay; 1-2% of women are lesbian • Approximately 20% of the population has had a bisexual encounter • If one identical twin is gay, there is a 52% likelihood the other twin is also gay. • Injecting testosterone into a sheep’s womb will produce homosexual tendencies in their female offspring • Gay men’s brains “light up” in a similar way to straight women’s brains when they smell a man’s pheromonal sweat. • Lesbians are better at visual spatial tasks than straight women • Children adopted by gay or lesbians are no more likely to become gay later in life than anyone else • Gay men are slightly more likely to be promiscuous than lesbians or straight men • Private educational programs used to change people from a gay lifestyle to a straight lifestyle are largely unsuccessful, showing that sexual orientation is persistent and hard to change. (evidence it is not a choice) 54
- 55. Sexual Orientation An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own gender or the other gender. Percentage, brothers and cities
- 56. How is Sexual Orientation Determined • There has been NO evidence that sexuality is socially determined. • Kids raised by gay parents are no more likely to be gay that if they were raised by hetero parents. • It is most-likely biologically determined.
- 57. Prenatal Environment • Current research seems to point to the hormonal levels in the prenatal environment. • Scientists have created homosexual male fruit flies and lesbian sheep!!!
- 58. The Brain • Simon LeVay discovered that there is a cluster of cells in the hypothalamus that is larger in heterosexual men than in heterosexual women or homosexual men.
- 59. 59 Learning Goal: How are humans influenced by sexuality?
- 60. 60 Learning Goal: How are humans influenced by sexuality?
- 61. Sexual Orientation Research Findings 61 The Anterior Commissure in gay men is significantly larger than in straight men. There is a slight correlation between finger length and sexual orientation, probably due to hormone activity during prenatal development.
- 62. Figure 8A.15 The fraternal birth-order effect Researcher Ray Blanchard (2008) offers these approximate curves depicting a man’s likelihood of homosexuality as a function of his number of older brothers. This correlation has been found in several studies, but only among right-handed men. © 2010 by Worth Publishers
- 63. Trends in Societal Thinking 63
- 64. Nat Geo: The Biology of Homosexuality
- 65. Section Assessment: Sex and Motivation 65 1. Which stage of the sexual response cycle is different for men and women? 2. Describe one reason why the Kinsey study may have been inaccurate. 3. What evidence supports that sexual orientation is genetic and not environmental? 4. What might change in society if there is really strong scientific evidence that being gay or straight is biologically driven?
- 66. Learning Goal: 1 What stages mark the human response cycle? 2. How do hormones influence human sexual motivation? 3. How do internal and external stimuli influence sexual motivation? 4. What has research taught us about sexual orientation? 66 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about the psychology of sexual orientation and motivation. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the psychology of sexual orientation and motivation, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated the psychology of sexual orientation and motivation), but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
- 67. 4: The Need to Belong • Learning Goals: – Students should be able to answer the following: 1. Explain why humans have a need to belong. 2. Describe the characteristics of Achievement Motivation. 67 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about why humans have a need to belong and are motivated to achieve and In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze why humans have a need to belong and are motivated to achieve, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated why humans have a need to belong and are motivated to achieve, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
- 68. Social Motivation: Needing to Belong • Aristotle calls us the “social animal” • Belonging Aids in Survival (1) Cooperation and Caring kept our ancestors alive • Our Wanting to Belong (1) Peak moments in life are dominated by relationships (Sheldon et al, 2001) (2) College students care more about rich, close relationships than money (Seligman, 2002) • Need to Increase Social Acceptance (1) Much of our social behavior aims to increase the acceptance by others, henceforth producing higher self esteem and continued conformity. 68 In the movie Castaway, the main character tries to fulfill his need for belongingness by creating an imaginary friend named “Wilson”
- 69. Social Motivation: Needing to Belong • Maintaining Relationships (1) Divorced people are only half as likely to say they are “very happy” compared to married couples (Inglehart, 1990). (2) When something threatens a relationship, we are overcome with feelings such as anxiety, loneliness, jealousy, guilt. • Ostracism/Social Exclusion (1) When the need to belong is denied or blocked (2) Seen as punishment by most people (3) People who are ostracized in laboratory experiments will activate regions of the anterior cingulate cortex, where we feel real pain. (4) People who are continually ostracized can turn aggressive, especially intelligent individuals. • Fortifying Health (1) People with close friends tend to suffer less psychological disorders, less premature death, less depression, and are not prone to suicide. 69 In 2001, Andy Williams killed two students and injured three was described as a “freak, dork, nerd…”
- 71. Achievement Motivation • Studied by I/O Psychologists • Definition: A desire to pursue high standards and significant accomplishments. • Uses both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation • Those with high achievement motivation: – More hobbies as a kid – High levels of self-discipline – Prefer to participants than spectators – Waiting on the marshmallow • In the end: “discipline out performs talent” -Martin Seligman, Founder of Positive Psychology Movement 71
- 72. Achievement Motivation What motivates us to work? (School, job, sports, video games, relationships etc..) Intrinsic Motivators • Rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction. Extrinsic Motivators • Reward that we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves (grades or money or etc..) • Work great in the short run.
- 73. Mini FRQ Describe the role each of the following mechanisms plays in determining an individual’s eating habits or body weight. •Brain structure •Cultural factors •Body chemistry 73
- 74. Learning Goal: 1. Explain why humans have a need to belong. 2. Describe the characteristics of Achievement Motivation. 74 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about why humans have a need to belong and are motivated to achieve and In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze why humans have a need to belong and are motivated to achieve, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated why humans have a need to belong and are motivated to achieve, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
- 75. Emotions 75
- 76. 5: Embodied Emotions • Learning Goals: – Students should be able to answer the following: 1. What are the components of an emotion? 76 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about the components of emotions. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the components of emotions, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with the components of emotions, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
- 78. Love… <3
- 79. What are Emotions? • Emotions are: – Temporary – Positive & Negative – Physiological Reactions – Expressive Behaviors – Conscious Experiences – States of Feeling • Where do Emotions Come From? – Limbic System (Thalamus & Amygdala) – Cerebral Cortex (Left/Right Hemispheres) – Autonomic Nervous System (epinephrine) 79
- 80. Three Elements of Emotion •28.1 What are the biological, behavioral, and cognitive components of emotion? •1. Physical arousal •2. Behavior that reveals emotion •3. Inner awareness of feelings
- 81. Theories of Emotion • James-Lange Theory – Your body first experiences the physiological reaction, then you automatically experience the emotion depending on what occurs in the body – In other words: We feel sad because we cry, angry because we punch – Evidence Supporting this theory: • Spinal cord injured patients experience a less intense emotion • Anger causes blood to rush to the hands and feet, fear causes blood to rush away from the hands and feet 81
- 83. Theories of Emotion • Cannon-Bard Theory – States the emotion is first felt in the thalamus, then it is simultaneously direct to the cerebral cortex and the autonomic nervous system – Evidence supporting this theory: • Even people with a suppressed nervous system can experience emotions too 83
- 84. Emotion Demo 2
- 85. Theories of Emotion • Two-Factor (Schachter-Singer) – Also Known as the cognitive theory of emotion – The interplay of thinking and feeling – Evidence Supporting this theory: • Most emotions invoke the same physiological response • Men injected with epinephrine and placed in a waiting room with a confederate will “catch” the confederates emotion 85
- 86. Emotion Demo 3
- 87. Section Assessment 1. Which theory of emotion implies that people can change their emotions simply by changing the way they think about the situation and their arousal? (A) James-Lange Theory (B) Cannon-Bard Theory (C) Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory (D) Opponent Processing Theory 2. Which theory of emotion would indicate that people’s emotions are experienced simultaneously with arousal? (A) James-Lange Theory (B) Cannon-Bard Theory (C) Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory (D) Opponent Processing Theory 87
- 88. Learning Goal: What are the components of an emotion? 88 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about the components of emotions. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze the components of emotions, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with the components of emotions, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
- 90. 5 and 6: Expressed Emotion and Embodied Emotion• Learning Goals: – Students should be able to answer the following: 1. What is the link between emotional arousal and the autonomic nervous system? 2. Do different emotions activate different physiological and brain patterns? interpret and label them? 3.How do we communicate nonverbally? 4. Are nonverbal expressions of emotion universally understood across cultures? 5. Do our facial expressions influence our feelings? 90 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about how emotions are expressed and embodied. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze how emotions are expressed and embodied, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated how emotions are expressed and embodied, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
- 91. Emotions & The Autonomic Nervous System 91 Epinephrine & Norepinephrine
- 92. Arousal and Performance 92 • Complex Tasks require lower emotional arousal • Simple Tasks can be sustained with higher emotional arousal • Performance is usually best at moderate to high arousal (not too low, not too high)
- 93. Lie Detection • Polygraph – Measures physiological arousal while being asked yes or no questions – Most used lie detection method (although it is highly unreliable) – Breathing rate, blood pressure, heart rate, skin perspiration • Guilty Knowledge Test – Present false and true information about the details of a crime to a suspect and gauge their reaction – Said to be better than a polygraph • Microexpressions (Paul Ekman) – Facial expressions that last for 1/25- 1/3 of a second • fMRIs – Looks at brain imagery where certain parts of the brain “light up” when people are making a creative lie 93
- 94. Lie Detection
- 95. Lie Detection 95
- 96. Lie Detection 96
- 97. Lie Detection 97
- 99. Learning Goal: What theories explain emotions? SPILL-OVER EFFECT •When emotion from one event spills over into another event •Supports Schatcher-Singer Two Factor Theory •Experiment: Walking the Bridge •Examples: – Rioting after team wins Super Bowl – Falling in Love at the Gym 99
- 100. Different Roads to Emotions • Zajonc & LeDoux (low road) – Concludes that simple emotions (fear, anger) are processed without thinking and emotions can occur before cognition takes place – Example: We still fear snakes even when we know it is a harmless snake • Lazarus (high road) – Concludes that complex emotions like guilt, happiness, and love involve how we appraise the situation (Cognitive Appraisal Theory) 100
- 101. Nonverbal Communication, Display Rules and Emotions • Women read non-verbals better than men • Fear and Anger come from eyes • Most likely to pick out angry faces faster than happy faces • Body language changes by culture, but Facial expressions are the same worldwide • Display Rules: Different cultures will display different expressions based on certain situations – Example: Japanese Medical students watching a surgery 101 Which is the real smile? WATCH THIS
- 102. Facial Expressions 1. Communicate Emotion 2. Amplify Emotion 3. Regulate Emotion •Research on Facial Expressions: – Facial expressions provide the best nonverbal communication as to how someone is feeling – Facial-Feedback Phenomenon • Making a certain type of face will amplify emotions • Students who fake smile when looking at cartoons find them to be funnier • Students who frown report more sadness when looking at sad pictures. • Mimicking another person’s facial expression with increase empathy • This evidence supports the James-Lange Theory 102
- 103. Experienced Emotions Izard (1977) isolated 10 emotions. Most of them are present in infancy, except for contempt, shame, and guilt. What do you think this can tell us about emotions? 103
- 104. Learning Goal: 1. What is the link between emotional arousal and the autonomic nervous system? 2. Do different emotions activate different physiological and brain patterns? interpret and label them? 3.How do we communicate nonverbally? 4. Are nonverbal expressions of emotion universally understood across cultures? 5. Do our facial expressions influence our feelings? 104 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about how emotions are expressed and embodied. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze how emotions are expressed and embodied, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated how emotions are expressed and embodied, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
- 105. 7: Stress and Health • Learning Goals: – Students should be able to answer the following: 1. What are the causes and consequences of fear, anger and happiness? 2. What is stress? 3. Why are some of us more prone than others to coronary heart disease? 105 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about stress and how it is intertwined with health. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze stress and how it is intertwined with health, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with stress and how it is intertwined with health, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
- 106. Basic Emotions: Fear • Extreme Fear is called Terror • Fear increases the release of epinephrine • Biology & Fear – Its all about the Amygdala • People who have damage to their amygdala will trust scary-looking people • There is a gene that influences how much serotonin the amygdala uses, which leads to different fear responses • Are Fears Learned or Not? (judge the following statements) – Lab raised monkeys do not fear snakes, but wild monkeys do – Humans are more quick to develop a fear of spiders than a fear of guns. – Infants start to fear heights after they begin crawling – Monkeys can observe other monkeys being afraid of a snake and they will fear a snake, but after watching other monkeys appear to be afraid of a flower, they do not fear flowers 106
- 107. Basic Emotions: Anger • Extreme Anger is called Rage • We become angry most often because of a perceived misdeed by a friend or loved one. • Small annoyances can also produce anger (Traffic, foul odors and high temperatures) • Gender Differences in Anger Management – Boys walk away or exercise – Girls talk to friends or listen to music – Best way to resolve anger: Walk away and Forgive 107
- 108. Catharsis Theory • Venting anger through action or fantasy achieves an emotional release or catharsis. – Examples: Hitting a Pillow, Burning an Ex’s picture • Issues with Catharsis: – Leaves a person feeling guilty – Creates a new threshold of anger – Encourages future anger outburst (reward system that is habit-forming) 108
- 109. Catharsis Theory
- 110. Basic Emotions: Happiness • People who are happy: – perceive the world as being safer. – are able to make decisions easily, – are more cooperative, – rate job applicants more favorably, – and live healthier, energized, and more satisfied lives. • Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon – When we feel happy we are more willing to help others 110
- 111. Basic Emotions: Happiness • Our positive moods rise to a maximum within 6-7 hours after waking up. Negative moods stay more or less the same throughout the day. 111
- 112. Wealth, Happiness and Satisfaction • It is true that people with more money are happier than those who struggle for their basic needs • Losses of money are more emotional than gains in money • People in rich countries are only slightly happier than those in poor countries • Subjective Well-Being of college students is correlated with those who value Love over Money; report greater life satisfaction • Winning the lottery will make people happy in the short-term, but they eventually return to their original state of happiness • Wealth is like health: its utter absence can breed misery, yet having it is no guarantee of happiness 112
- 113. Adaption & Comparison • Adaption-Level Phenomenon – Our tendency to adapt to new things over time – Example: at first you are excited about your new cell phone, but as time wears on, it become just another piece of technology – Example: Lottery winners eventually adapt to their winnings • Relative Deprivation – The sense that we’re worse off than people around us – Keeping up the with Jones 113
- 115. Stress 115
- 116. How does stress affect the body and mind? What is stress? •Stress Defined by Psychologists: the process by which we perceive and respond to threats that challenge us •Daily Hassles vs. Life Changing Stressors 116 Daily Hassle Stressors 1. Health 2. Money 3. Work 4. Transportation 5. Relationships Life Changing Stressors 1. Injury/Death of a Loved One 2. Divorce 3. Moving 4. Physical Changes in Health 5. Marriage
- 117. • How does the body react to stress? Do you have GAS? • Hans Selye’s research on rats led to General Adaptation Syndrome • Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases – alarm, resistance, exhausion. • Critical Thinking: Which phase is a person most likely to suffer a physical illness? 117 Cortisol levels increase as it is secreted from the adrenal glands How does stress affect the body and mind?
- 118. • Type A – Competitive, Impatient, Time-conscious, easily angered – Type A people experience higher level of stress causing hormones – Accountants are more likely to experience heart attacks during tax season – Anger is the most important factor in causing heart attacks • Type B – Easygoing, Mellow, Laidback – Still can get angry, but less likely to develop heart disease • QUESTION: Which type of person is rewarded more in American society? 118 How does stress affect the body and mind?
- 119. • Perceived Control – An absence of control over stressors is a predictor of future health problems. Rates will experience less ulcers if they can control shocks – Perceived control has the ability to extend one’s life when admitted to nursing homes or rehab centers • Explanatory Style – People with an optimistic explanatory style tend to have more control over stressors, cope better with stressful events, have better moods and a strong immune system • Social Support – Supportive family members and close friends help people cope with stress. Their immune system functions better with lower blood pressure – People with cancer do better when supported by groups and loved ones – People who attend church services tend to live longer 119 How does stress affect the body and mind?
- 120. How to Manage Stress •Experience Less Stress By: – Having a sense of control – Developing optimistic attitude (cognition) – Building a social support system •Manage your Stress 1. Aerobic exercise (produce new brain cells) 2. Biofeedback (machine based) 3. Relaxation 4. Meditation 5. Spirituality 120 How does stress affect the body and mind?
- 121. 121 Crazy German Kid… definitely Type A personality
- 122. Review Mini FRQ Janet just finished competing in a bowling tournament with a group from her office. Unfortunately they lost. Explain how the following terms might affect Janet after the match as she goes to a restaurant with friends. •Spill-Over Effect •Catharsis •Framing 122
- 123. Learning Goal: . What are the causes and consequences of fear, anger and happiness? 2. What is stress? 3. Why are some of us more prone than others to coronary heart disease? 123 Rating Student Evidence 4.0 Expert I can teach someone else about stress and how it is intertwined with health. In addition to 3.0 , I can demonstrate applications and inferences beyond what was taught 3.0 Proficient I can analyze stress and how it is intertwined with health, and compare/contrast the Aspects of the learning goal. 2.0 Developing I can identify terms associated with stress and how it is intertwined with health, but need to review this concept more. 1.0 Beginning I don’t understand this concept and need help!
Editor's Notes
- A motivation is a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it toward a goal. The perspectives useful for studying motivated behavior include (1) instinct/evolutionary perspective, (2) drive-reduction theory, (3) arousal theory, and (4) Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
- Under Darwin’s influence, early theorists viewed behavior as being controlled by instincts, com- plex behaviors that are rigidly patterned throughout a species and are unlearned. When it became clear that people were naming, not explaining, various behaviors by calling them instincts, this approach fell into disfavor. The idea that genes predispose species-typical behavior is still influen- tial in evolutionary psychology. Other examples: avian mating dancing, yawning,
- Drive-reduction theory proposes that most physiological needs create aroused psychological states that drive us to reduce or satisfy those needs. The aim of drive reduction is internal stability, or homeostasis B- Behavioral (Classical Conditioning)
- . Furthermore, we are not only pushed by internal drives but are also pulled by external incentives. When there is both a need (hunger) and an incentive (smell of freshly baked bread), we feel strongly driven. B- B.F. Skinner
- Arousal theory states that rather than reducing a physiological need or minimizing tension, some motivated behaviors increase arousal. Curiosity-driven behaviors, for example, suggest that too little or too much stimulation can motivate people to seek an optimum level of arousal.
- Arousal theory states that rather than reducing a physiological need or minimizing tension, some motivated behaviors increase arousal. Curiosity-driven behaviors, for example, suggest that too little or too much stimulation can motivate people to seek an optimum level of arousal.
- An effective way of introducing the nature and diversity of human motivation is to ask students, “Why do you think people go to college?” Answers will cover the full range of human motives, from “Eventually they have to get a job” through “Some come for a new community of friends” to “They simply want to know, to increase their competence.” The discussion provides an excellent opportunity to illustrate that motivation has both energizing and directional aspects. The diversity of answers also provides a good lead-in to Maslow’s hierarchy of motives.
- Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs expresses the idea that, until satisfied, some motives are more compelling than others. At the base of the hierarchy are our physiological needs, such as for food and water. Only if these are met are we prompted to meet our need for safety, and then to meet the uniquely human needs to give and receive love, to belong and be accepted, and to enjoy self-esteem. Beyond this lies the need to actualize one’s full potential. Near the end of his life, Maslow suggested that some people reach a level of self-transcendence in which they strive for meaning and purpose that is beyond the self, that is, transpersonal.
- False True True False False
- Washburne Study Balloon in stomach experiment. Stomach contractions accompany our feelings of hunger. Although the stomach’s pangs contribute to hunger, variations in body chemistry are more important
- Increases in the hormone insulin diminish blood glucose, partly by converting it to body fat. Hyper-blood sugar is to high-diabetes Hypo-two low- dizziness, weakness
- Rather, our body’s internal state is monitored by the hypothalamus, which regulates the body’s weight as it influences our feelings of hunger and fullness.
- Surgical Destruction of the Rat’s Ventromedial Hypothalamus
- Some researchers have abandoned the idea that the body has a precise set point—a biologically fixed tendency to maintain an optimum weight—preferring the term settling point to indicate an envi- ronmentally and biologically influenced level at which weight settles in response to caloric input and expenditure.
- Human bodies regulate weight through the control of food intake, energy output, and basal metabolic rate—the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure. Obesity affects both how you are treated and how you feel about yourself. Obese people, especial- ly obese women, experience weight discrimination in job hiring, placement, promotion, compensa- tion, and discharge. Similarly, they experience bias in searching for a romantic relationship and experience lower psychological well-being. Although genes influence body weight, they do not determine it. Some people are genetically pre- disposed to have more and larger fat cells than others, but in an obese person, the original fat cells double or triple in size and then divide or trigger nearby immature fat cells to divide—resulting in up to 75 billion fat cells. Once the number of fat cells increases, it never decreases. People also differ in their resting metabolic rates, and once someone gains fat tissue, less energy is needed to maintain that tissue than is needed to maintain other tissue. Unquestionably, environmental factors such as sleep loss, social influence, often eating high-calorie foods, and living a sedentary life- style also matter, as comparisons of similar people from different generations or different locations indicate. Research indicates that most people who succeed on a weight-loss program eventually regain most of the weight. Those who wish to diet should set realistic goals, minimize exposure to food cues, boost energy expenditure through exercise, eat healthy foods spaced throughout the day, beware of the binge, and make a lifelong change in eating patterns.
- Part of knowing when to eat is our memory of our last meal. As time passes, we anticipate eating again and feel hungry. Our preferences for sweet and salty tastes are genetic and universal. Other taste preferences are conditioned. Culture also affects taste. For example, Bedouins enjoy eating the eye of a camel, which most North Americans would find repulsive. Most North Americans also shun dog, rat, and horse meat, all of which are prized elsewhere. With repeated exposure, our appreciation for a new taste typically increases, and exposure to one set of novel foods increases willingness to try anoth- er. Some of our taste preferences, such as the avoidance of foods that have made us ill, have sur- vival value.
- Explain how the eating disorders demonstrate the influence of psychological forces on physiologically motivated behavior. Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder in which a normal-weight person (usually an adolescent female) diets to become significantly (15 percent or more) underweight, yet feels fat and is obsessed with losing weight. Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by private, binge-purge episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise. Binge-eating disorder is marked by significant binge-eating episodes followed by remorse but not by purging, fasting, or excessive exercise. In these disorders, challenging family settings and weight-obsessed societal pressures overwhelm the homeostatic drive to maintain a balanced internal state. Those most vulnerable to eating disorders are also those (usually women) who most idealize thinness and have the greatest body dissatisfaction. Low self-esteem and negative emotions that interact with stressful life experiences are additional contributing factors. Twin studies suggest that eating disorders may also have a genetic component. Question: How do we know that culture and media play a major role in eating disorders? Answer: Eating disorders are more prevalent in America and Western Europe
- Answer: B
- Start with reading Gender Differences in Sexual Activity w/Discussion Questions
- 58%-Higher 18%-Lower 6-Lower 3%-lower 50%-Higher
- Watch Kinsey Trailer
- Watch Kinsey Trailer
- The human sexual response cycle normally follows a pattern of excitement, plateau, orgasm (which seems to involve similar feelings and brain activity in males and females), and resolution, followed in males by a refractory period, during which renewed arousal and orgasm are not possible. The sex hormones direct the physical development of male and female sex characteristics and, especially in nonhuman animals, activate sexual behavior. Although testosterone and the estrogens (such as estradiol) are present in both sexes, males have a higher level of testosterone and females a higher level of estrogen. In humans, the hormones influence sexual behaviors more loosely, especially once sufficient hormone levels are present. In later life, as sex hormones decline, the frequency of sexual fantasies and intercourse also declines.
- External stimuli, such as sexually explicit materials, can trigger arousal in both men and women, although the activated brain areas differ somewhat. Because men have a more active amygdala when viewing sexual images and are more likely to see more images of women enjoying forcible sex, men tend to accept the backwards notion that women enjoy rape. Sexually coercive material tends to increase viewers’ acceptance of rape and violence toward women. Images of sexually attractive men and women may lead people to devalue their own partners and relationships. Our imaginations also influence sexual motivation. About 95 percent of both men and women say they have had sexual fantasies. Fantasizing about sex does not indicate a sexual problem or dissatisfaction. If anything, sexually active people have more sexual fantasies.
- Sexual orientation is our enduring sexual attraction toward members of either our own sex (homo- sexual) or the other sex (heterosexual). Studies in both Europe and the United States suggest that about 3 or 4 percent of men and 1 or 2 percent of women are homosexual. Estimates derived from the sex of unmarried partners reported in the 2000 U.S. Census suggest that 2.5 percent of the population is gay or lesbian. Such studies also tell us that sexual orientation is enduring. Women’s sexual orientation tends to be less strongly felt and potentially more fluid and changing than men’s. Women are somewhat more likely than men to feel and act on bisexual attractions.
- There is no evidence that environmental influences determine sexual orientation. No links have been found between homosexuality and a child’s relationships with parents, father-absent homes, fear or hatred of people of the other gender, levels of sex hormones currently in the blood, or childhood sexual experience. On the other hand, biological influences are evident in studies of same-sex relations in several hundred species, straight-gay differences in body and brain character- istics, genetic studies of family members and twins, and the effect of exposure to certain hormones during critical periods of prenatal development
- Fraternal Birth Order Effect Fraternal Birth Order Effect Men who have older brothers are also somewhat more likely to be gay, about one-third more likely for each additional older brother. The reason for this phenomenon—called the fraternal birth-order effect—is unclear. Because the physiological evidence is preliminary and controversial, some scientists remain skeptical. Rather than specifying sexual orientation, they suggest, biological factors may predispose a temperament that influences sexuality “in the context of individual learning and experience.”
- Fraternal Birth Order Effect Fraternal Birth Order Effect Men who have older brothers are also somewhat more likely to be gay, about one-third more likely for each additional older brother. The reason for this phenomenon—called the fraternal birth-order effect—is unclear. Because the physiological evidence is preliminary and controversial, some scientists remain skeptical. Rather than specifying sexual orientation, they suggest, biological factors may predispose a temperament that influences sexuality “in the context of individual learning and experience.”
- The anterior commissure works with the posterior commissure to link the two cerebral hemispheres of the brain and also interconnects the amygdalas and temporal lobes, contributing to the role of memory, emotion, speech and hearing. It also is involved in olfaction, instinct, and sexual behavior.
- Resolution Unrepresentantive study (mostly whites), volunteer bias Programs to change people from gay to straight are largely uncessful
- Social bonds boosted our ancestors’ survival rate. Adults who formed attachments were more like- ly to come together to reproduce and to stay together to nurture their offspring to maturity. Cooperation in groups also enhanced survival. People who feel supported by close relationships live with better health and at lower risk for psychological disorder and premature death. When relationships form, we often feel joy. Most people mention—before anything else—close relation- ships as making life meaningful. Even our self-esteem is a gauge of how valued and accepted we feel.
- Attachments can keep people in abusive relationships as the fear of being alone may seem worse than the pain of emotional or physical abuse. When something threatens our social ties, negative emotions overwhelm us. When ostracized, people may engage in self-defeating or antisocial behaviors and underperform on aptitude tests. Ostracism elicits increased activity in the brain’s anterior cingulate cortex, which is also activated by physical pain.
- QUESTION: What does “discipline out performs talent” mean? AFTER THE VIDEO (MARSHMALLOW TEST): Why do you think kids who wait have higher achievement later in life?
- VIDEOS: Scary Video (start emotions) Lie Detection & Body Language Fake Smile vs. Real Smile (Ekman) 60 Minutes of Happiness
- An emotion is a response of the whole organism that involves an interplay among (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience. Emotion includes physical, behavioral, and subjective (cognitive) elements.
- The James-Lange theory states that our experience of an emotion is a consequence of our physiological response to a stimulus; we are afraid because our heart pounds (say, in response to an approaching stranger).
- The James-Lange theory states that our experience of an emotion is a consequence of our physiological response to a stimulus; we are afraid because our heart pounds (say, in response to an approaching stranger).
- The Cannon-Bard theory, on the other hand, proposes that the physiologi- cal response and our emotional experience occur simultaneously. Heart pounding and fear occur at the same time—one does not cause the other.
- The Cannon-Bard theory, on the other hand, proposes that the physiologi- cal response and our emotional experience occur simultaneously. Heart pounding and fear occur at the same time—one does not cause the other.
- chachter and Singer’s two-factor theory of emotion focuses on the interplay of thinking and feeling, not on the timing of feelings. This theory states that to experience emotion, one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.
- chachter and Singer’s two-factor theory of emotion focuses on the interplay of thinking and feeling, not on the timing of feelings. This theory states that to experience emotion, one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.
- C- Two Factor
- The autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls arousal. In an emergency, the sympathetic nervous system automatically mobilizes the body for fight or flight, directing the adrenal glands to release hormones that increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar level. Other physical changes include tensed muscles, dry mouth, dilated pupils, slowed digestion, and increased sweating. The parasympathetic nervous system calms the body after a crisis has passed, although arousal dimin- ishes gradually.
- In many situations, arousal is adaptive. For example, when taking an test, moderate arousal is best. In general, too little arousal can be disruptive; too much can tax the body. Similar physiological arousal occurs during fear, anger, and sexual arousal. Nonetheless, these emotions feel different. And, despite similar arousal, sometimes our facial expressions differ dur- ing these three states. For example, people may appear “paralyzed” with fear or “ready to explode” with anger.
- The polygraph measures several physiological indicators of emotion—for example, changes in breathing, cardiovascular activity, and perspiration. Research suggests it errs about one-third of the time, too often to justify its widespread use in business and government. It more often labels the innocent guilty than the guilty innocent. A more effective approach is the guilty knowledge test. Several research teams are exploring new ways to detect deception.
- The polygraph measures several physiological indicators of emotion—for example, changes in breathing, cardiovascular activity, and perspiration. Research suggests it errs about one-third of the time, too often to justify its widespread use in business and government. It more often labels the innocent guilty than the guilty innocent. A more effective approach is the guilty knowledge test. Several research teams are exploring new ways to detect deception.
- Fear and rage are sometimes accompanied by differing finger temperatures and hormone secretions. Emotions may also stimulate different facial muscles. During fear, brow muscles tense. During joy, muscles in the cheek and under the eye pull into a smile. Emotions differ much more in the brain circuits they use. For example, brain scans show increased activity in the amygdala during fear. Finally, emotions activate different areas of the brain’s cortex. The right prefrontal cor- tex becomes more electrically active as people experience negative emotions, such as disgust. The left frontal lobe shows more activity with positive emotions.
- The spillover effect occurs when arousal from one event affects our response to other events. Dozens of experiments show that a stirred-up state can be experienced as different emotions depending on how we interpret and label it. Arousal fuels emotion and cognition channels it.
- Sometimes we experience unlabeled emotion. Sensory input can take the low road, following a pathway that leads via the thalamus to the amygdala, bypassing the cortex and triggering a rapid reaction that is outside our conscious awareness. Other, more complex emotions, including hatred and love, require interpretation and so take the high road, being routed along the slower route to the cortex for analysis. Automatic emotion and the importance of conscious thinking in emotion illustrate our two-track minds.
- All of us communicate nonverbally as well as verbally. For example, a firm handshake immediate- ly conveys an outgoing, expressive personality. With a gaze, an averted glance, or a stare, we can communicate intimacy, submission, or dominance. Most people can detect nonverbal cues, and we are especially sensitive to nonverbal threats. Experience contributes to our sensitivity to cues, as studies of abused children demonstrate. Our brains are rather amazing detectors of subtle expressions. For example, a mere 10-second clip of a teacher’s voice or face enabled viewers to assess whether the teacher liked and admired the child he or she was addressing. Research indicates that we read fear and anger mostly from the eyes, happiness from the mouth. Introverts are better emotion-detectors than extraverts, although extraverts are easier to read. The absence of gestures, facial expressions, and tones of voice in e-mails deprives us of an important source of information. Women generally surpass men at reading people’s emotional cues. Women’s nonverbal sensitivity gives them an edge in spotting lies. Their skill at decoding others’ emotions may also contribute to their greater emotional responsiveness in both positive and negative situations. When surveyed, women are far more likely than men to describe themselves as empathic. Women also tend to experience emotional events more deeply with greater brain activation in areas sensitive to emo- tion.
- The facial feedback effect indicates that expressions amplify our emotions by activating muscles associated with specific states, and the muscles signal the body to respond as though we were experiencing those states. For example, students induced to make a frowning expression reported feeling a little angry. Students induced to smile felt happier and found cartoons funnier. Similarly, the behavior feedback phenomenon shows that if we move our body as we would when experienc- ing some emotion (shuffling along with downcast eyes, as when sad), we are likely to feel that emotion to some degree. Acting as another acts helps us feel what another feels.
- Carroll Izard’s investigations identified 10 basic emotions: joy, interest-excitement, surprise, sad- ness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt. Although other researchers argue for addi- tional emotions, Izard contends that other emotions are combinations of these 10. When psycholo- gists have asked people to report their experiences of different emotions, all seem to place emo- tions along the dimensions of pleasant/positive versus unpleasant/negative (the emotion’s valence) and high-versus-low arousal. On the valence and arousal dimensions, terrified is more frightened than afraid, and delighted is happier than happy.
- Fear is often an adaptive response. Fear of enemies binds people together, and fear of injury pro- tects us from harm. What we learn through experience best explains the variety of human fears. Through conditioning (associating emotions with specific situations) and observation (watching others display fear in response to certain events or surroundings), the short list of naturally painful and frightening events multiplies into a long list of human fears. We seem biologically prepared to learn some fears faster than others. We quickly learn to fear snakes, spiders, and cliffs, but we are less predisposed to fear cars, electricity, bombs, and global climate change. A key to fear-learning lies in the amygdala, a limbic system neural center deep in the brain. If people suffer amygdala damage, they may consciously remember a threatening event but show no emotional effect of it. Individual differences in fearfulness are partly genetic. Some fears fall outside the average range. These phobias are intense fears of specific objects or situations.
- People report that anger is often a response to friends’ or loved ones’ misdeeds and is especially common when those acts seem willful, unjustified, and avoidable. Blameless annoyances such as foul odors, high temperatures, or a traffic jam can also make us angry. Although “blowing off steam” may temporarily calm an angry person, it may also amplify under- lying hostility, and it may provoke retaliation.
- The catharsis hypothesis maintains that “releasing” aggressive energy through action or fantasy reduces anger. Research has not supported the cathar- sis hypothesis. Angry outbursts may be reinforcing and therefore habit forming. In contrast, anger expressed as a nonaccusing statement of feeling can benefit relationships by leading to reconcilia- tion rather than retaliation. When reconciliation fails, forgiveness can reduce one’s anger and its physical symptoms.
- The catharsis hypothesis maintains that “releasing” aggressive energy through action or fantasy reduces anger. Research has not supported the cathar- sis hypothesis. Angry outbursts may be reinforcing and therefore habit forming. In contrast, anger expressed as a nonaccusing statement of feeling can benefit relationships by leading to reconcilia- tion rather than retaliation. When reconciliation fails, forgiveness can reduce one’s anger and its physical symptoms.
- A good mood boosts people’s perceptions of the world and their willingness to help others (the feel-good, do-good phenomenon). Mood-boosting experiences make us more likely to give money, pick up someone’s dropped papers, volunteer time, and do other good deeds. After decades of focusing on negative emotions, psychologists are now actively exploring the causes and conse- quences of well-being (self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life).
- Positive emotion rises over the early to middle part of most days. Although stressful events trigger bad moods, the gloom nearly always lifts by the next day. Times of elation are similarly hard to sustain and, over the long run, our emotional ups and downs tend to balance. Even significant bad events, such as a serious illness, seldom destroy happiness for long. The surprising reality is that we overestimate the duration of emotions and underestimate our capacity to adapt.
- At a basic level, money helps us to avoid misery, but having it is no guarantee of happiness. Sudden increases in wealth such as winning a state lottery only increase happiness in the short term. In the long run, increased affluence hardly affects happiness. For example, during the last four decades, the average U.S. citizen’s buying power almost tripled, yet the average American is no happier. More generally, research indicates that economic growth in affluent countries has not boosted morale or social well-being. Ironically, those who strive hardest for wealth tend to experi- ence lower well-being. What matters more is how we feel about what we have.
- The adaptation-level phenomenon describes our tendency to judge various stimuli relative to those we have previously experienced. If our income or social prestige increases, we may feel ini- tial pleasure. However, we then adapt to this new level of achievement, come to see it as normal, and require something better to give us another surge of happiness. Relative deprivation is the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one com- pares oneself. As people climb the ladder of success, they mostly compare themselves with those who are at or above their current level. This explains why increases in income may do little to increase happiness. High self-esteem, close friendships or a satisfying marriage, and meaningful religious faith are among the predictors of happiness. Age, gender, parenthood, and physical attractiveness are among the factors unrelated to happiness.
- Stress is not just a stimulus or a response; rather, it is the process by which we appraise and cope with environmental events. When perceived as challenges, stressors can arouse and motivate us to conquer problems. When perceived as threats, prolonged stressors can harm us and increase the risk of illness. Walter Cannon observed that, in response to stress, the sympathetic nervous system activates the secretion of stress hormones, triggers increased heart rate and respiration, diverts blood to skeletal muscles, and releases sugar and fat from the body’s stores, all to prepare the body for either fight or flight. In addition to this first (and faster) stress response system, a slower system involves the cerebral cortex stimulating the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland to trigger the release of glu- cocorticoid stress hormones, such as cortisol, from the outer part of the adrenal glands. A more common stress response in women is tend and befriend.
- Mnemonic Arrr…. (like a pirate) In Hans Selye’s general adaptation syndrome (GAS), the body’s adaptive response to stress is composed of three phases. In Phase 1, we experience an alarm reaction due to the sudden activa- tion of our sympathetic nervous system. Heart rate increases and blood is diverted to the skeletal muscles. With our resources mobilized, we then fight the challenge during Phase 2, resistance. Temperature, blood pressure, and respiration remain high, and there is a sudden outpouring of stress hormones. If the stress is persistent, it may eventually deplete our body’s reserves during Phase 3, exhaustion. With exhaustion, we are more vulnerable to illness or even, in extreme cases, collapse and death.
- Stress can increase the risk of coronary heart disease, the leading cause of death in North America. It has been linked with the competitive, hard-driving, and impatient Type A personality. The toxic core of Type A is negative emotions, especially the anger associated with an aggressively reactive temperament. Under stress, the sympathetic nervous system of the Type A person redis- tributes bloodflow to the muscles and away from internal organs, such as the liver, which removes cholesterol and fat from the blood. The resulting excess cholesterol later gets deposited around the heart. The more easygoing Type B personality is less physiologically reactive when harassed or given a difficult challenge and less susceptible to coronary heart disease. Pessimism and depres- sion also can have a toxic effect on a person’s health
- Spill over- She loses, which means she is aroused, so she will experience a heightened emotion after the game in any situation. Catharsis- she loses and throws her bowling ball through her opponents car window. Framing- She says that we finished in 5th place instead of saying last place.