Facts, environment, tourism, resource and the treaty, all about Antarctica. A comprehensive description of the environmental component of the white continent. Can be taught from Year 9 to Year 13, in Geography, Social Studies, Global Perspectives or Environmental Science. Subject taught in Geography Year 9 at Pukekohe Christian School by the geography teacher Mr. Dumitrache. PCS is a Cambridge school from Auckland, New Zealand. Please send me a message if you want to download this Power Point presentation for educational purposes.

1. FACTS – ENVIRONMENT – TOURISM – RESOURCES – TREATY

2. FACTS
• Antarctica is Earth's
southernmost continent,
containing the geographic
South Pole.
• It is situated in the Antarctic
region of the Southern
Hemisphere, almost entirely
south of the Antarctic Circle,
and is surrounded by the
Southern Ocean.
• At 14.0 million square kilometres,
it is the fifth-largest continent in
area after Asia, Africa, North
America, and South America.
• For comparison, Antarctica is
nearly twice the size of Australia.
• About 98% of Antarctica is
covered by ice that averages 1.9
kilometres in thickness.

3. FACTS
• Antarctica is the coldest, driest, and
windiest continent, and has the
highest average elevation of all the
continents.
• Antarctica is considered a desert,
with annual precipitation of only
200mm along the coast.
• The temperature in Antarctica has
reached −89°C.
• There are no permanent human
residents, but up to 5,000 people
reside throughout the year at the
research stations scattered across
the continent.
• Organisms native to Antarctica
include many types of algae, bacteria,
fungi, plants, and certain animals,
such as penguins, seals and bears.
• Vegetation, where it occurs, is tundra.

5. • Vinson Massif, the highest peak in Antarctica at
4,892 m, is located in Ellsworth Mountains.
• Antarctica contains many other mountains, on both
the main continent and the surrounding islands.
• Mount Erebus on Ross Island is the world's
southernmost active volcano.
• Another well-known volcano is found on Deception
Island, which is famous for a giant eruption in 1970.

7. ANTARCTICA AS A RESOURCE
Antarctica may be
viewed as a
resource. It is
important as a
region of:
• Wilderness
• A store of fresh
water
• A world weather
pattern
• The only
continent where
mineral resources
have yet to be
exploited
• Home to many
species of birds
and marine life

9. THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF ANTARCTICA• The actual
economic value of
the Antarctic
resource is difficult
to estimate.
• As only 1% of
Antarctica is ice-
free, this ice-free
region is the only
part explored for
deposits of
minerals.
• The ice-free
regions of
Antarctica are
located around the
coast.
• The map of
Antarctica shows
the distribution of
these ice free
zones.

10. TOURISM IN ANTARCTICA • Flights are
still not very
popular but
the trend for
both sea and
air-based
tourism is
showing a
significant
increase
over time.
• The cost of
trips to
Antarctica is
very high.
• A 14 day
voyage may
cost over
US$15,000
and a flight
from
US$900.

12. • The fact that they go at
all is quite controversial.
The environment is
easily damaged. To
provide facilities for
tourists issues, such as
the impact on the
wildlife, must be
addressed.
• How can the impact of
accommodation,
heating, disposal of
waste and sewerage be
kept to a minimum?
• The nature of Antarctica
as a last frontier has
made it an attractive
location for many
countries to consider
regarding the
exploitation of its
resources.
TOURISM IN ANTARCTICA

13. MINERAL EXPLORATION IN ANTARCTICA
Mineral
exploitation
and tourism
have been
the most
controversial
proposals for
the use of
Antarctica.
A moratorium
has been
placed on
mineral
exploration
and
exploitation
until 2048.

15. • At the time of the
International
Geophysical Year (IGY)
in 1957, there were 7
nations that claimed
territory in Antarctica.
These were Norway,
France, Australia and
New Zealand (separate
claims) and Britain, Chile
and Argentina, whose
claims overlap.
• Such was the success
of the scientific
cooperation between the
12 participants (Belgium,
Japan, USA, South Africa
and USSR being the
others) that they decided
to come up with an
agreement to ensure that
Antarctica only be used
for peaceful purposes.
SCIENTIFIC COOPERATION

16. THE ANTARCTIC TREATY The Antarctic Treaty was signed in
1959 by the 12 nations and
officially came into force two years
later in 1961.
The Treaty declares that the land
south of 60 degrees South latitude
is a demilitarised zone, prohibits
nuclear explosions and the
disposal of nuclear waste,
guarantees freedom of scientific
research and free exchange of
scientific information and
stipulates that Antarctica should
forever be used exclusively for
peaceful purposes.
It was decided that territorial
claims would neither be recognised
nor refuted but remain inoperative
while the Treaty exists.
There are now twenty decision-
making nations and nineteen
others that have 'acceded' to the
Treaty and attend meetings.

18. • By the middle of the 1980s, the
possibility that improving
technology might one day allow
for extensive oil and mineral
exploration of the continent was
becoming a reality.
• There was conflict between the
Antarctic Treaty nations as they
tried to negotiate a formal
agreement to regulate any future
exploitation of minerals on the
Antarctic continent. In 1988, a
draft agreement was proposed.
• There were many concerns about
the draft as it stood, mainly
because environmental
safeguards and controls were not
specified and there was little
provision for which nation would
be held responsible should any
accident occur.
CONCERNS ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENT

19. ENVIRONMENTAL SAFEGUARDS • Over a period of about 18
months there was a
process of ongoing
political lobbying and
discussion between
diplomats and government
representatives from the
influential treaty nations.
• During the negotiations,
Australia, NZ, Chile,
Argentina and Norway
argued for stringent
environmental safeguards.
• The more 'pro-mining'
nations were Japan, the
US, France, the UK and
West Germany.
• No country could have
prevented mining in 'their
territory' and no liability
was to be defined in the
documents.

20. • In Australia, Federal Cabinet debated throughout
early 1989 as to whether or not we should sign
the Treaty. Senator Richardson (then Minister for
the Environment) and Senator Evans (the then
Foreign Affairs Minister) argued that we should
sign because they believed that mining was
inevitable and at least then we would have some
say in ensuring safeguards were implemented.
• By April 1989, Australia was the only nation yet to
sign, that is, 15 out of the needed 16 had already
done so. In France, pressure from anti-mining
green groups was mounting and a Jacques
Cousteau petition persuaded the French
Parliament to call for a renegotiation.
• The Americans tried to pressure Bob Hawke, who
had always been anti-mining, into signing but he
(having the final decision in the Government)
eventually decided against it. Greenpeace
Australia and the Australian Conservation
Foundation had a lot to do with his decision.
MINING AND ANTI-MINING LOBBY

22. AUSTRALIA REFUSING TO SIGN • In May 1989, Bob
Hawke announced
that Australia was
opposed to mining in
Antarctica and that
consequently,
Australia refused to
sign the convention
as it stood.
• He believed that
stronger protection
was both desirable
and possible and
proposed to obtain
consensus among
other 'consultative
parties' on the
establishment of a
comprehensive
regime to protect the
Antarctic environment
and its ecosystems.

23. Environmental
groups around the
world tried to
pressure
governments into
declaring
Antarctica a world
park. France and
Australia revived
an idea that had
originally been
proposed by green
groups in New
Zealand a few years
earlier, that is, a
World Park to be
administered by the
United Nations.
HOPES TO CREATE A WORLD PARK

25. NEGOCIATING THE FUTURE • In February 1990, New
Zealand set aside its
original ratification of the
Minerals Convention. By
November 1990, the UK
had reportedly also
changed their position and
the Americans were
wavering. By December
1990, a new clause had
been written into the
original convention calling
for a fifty year moratorium
on mining.
• However, the nations
proposing the ban;
Australia, France, Belgium
and Italy supported by
New Zealand and six other
nations, were still not
confident of gaining
approval from Britain and
America.

27. • In April 1991, all nations were
ready to sign the protocol
and still the US held out
against pressure from the
other Treaty Nations.
• In late June 1991 they
surprised everyone by
agreeing to the anti-mining
accord.
• Eventually, on 4th October
1991, after a number of
governments had altered
their original position, a new
protocol was agreed upon
which would effectively place
a moratorium on any mineral
exploration for 50 years.
• Various modifications can be
made at any time, however, if
all parties agree.
THE MORATORIUM WAS AGREED IN 1991

28. MADRID PROTOCOL WAS SIGNED IN 1998 • Because of
legislative delays,
however, the
Protocol on
Environment
Protection, or the
Madrid Protocol,
was not ratified
until the December
15, 1997 when
Japan became the
last of the 26
Antarctic Treaty
consultative parties
needed for the new
protocol to be
enforced.
• It automatically
passed into
international law 30
days later on
January 14, 1998.

29. • The protocol's rules govern
travel to Antarctica, control
waste disposal and entry to
protected areas and require
environmental assessments
of all proposed activities.
• The resolution has yet to be
put to the test by countries
flouting any of the
regulations.
• In any case, it will only be a
resolution for the next fifty
years at best.
• In the years preceding 2048,
it is likely that technology
will have advanced to a point
where immediate minerals
exploitation will become a
more distinct possibility.
THE FUTURE