In mineral science, there are several analytical instruments used for various purpose, viz…
Scanning electron microscopy
X-ray diffraction
Transmission electron microscopy
X-ray fluorescence
Flame atomic absorption spectroscopy
Electron microprobe analysis
Secondary ion mass spectrometry
Atomic force microscopy
GEOLOGICAL THERMOMETERS
DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
Proper understanding of origin of mineral deposits and their classification requires the knowledge of formation-temperatures of these deposits. Certain minerals, present over there, give information’s with regard to temperatures of their formations and of the enclosing deposits and they are known as geological thermometers. These geological thermometers may be classed chiefly into the following groups based on their preciseness:
1. The thermometers that record fairly accurately the specific temperature condition of formation of deposits.
2. The thermometers that provide an upper or a lower temperature, above or below which the deposits do not form
3. The thermometers that provide a range of temperature within which the deposits form; and
4. The thermometers that serve as rough indications of temperatures of formation of mineral deposits.
The presence of two or more of less precise geological thermometers in a deposit narrows the range of temperature of formation for the deposits
Its a theoretical content for Pharmacy graduates, post graduates in pharmacy and Doctor of Pharmacy And also M Sc Instrumentation, UG and PG of Ayurveda medical students, MS etc.
GEOLOGICAL THERMOMETERS
DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
Proper understanding of origin of mineral deposits and their classification requires the knowledge of formation-temperatures of these deposits. Certain minerals, present over there, give information’s with regard to temperatures of their formations and of the enclosing deposits and they are known as geological thermometers. These geological thermometers may be classed chiefly into the following groups based on their preciseness:
1. The thermometers that record fairly accurately the specific temperature condition of formation of deposits.
2. The thermometers that provide an upper or a lower temperature, above or below which the deposits do not form
3. The thermometers that provide a range of temperature within which the deposits form; and
4. The thermometers that serve as rough indications of temperatures of formation of mineral deposits.
The presence of two or more of less precise geological thermometers in a deposit narrows the range of temperature of formation for the deposits
Its a theoretical content for Pharmacy graduates, post graduates in pharmacy and Doctor of Pharmacy And also M Sc Instrumentation, UG and PG of Ayurveda medical students, MS etc.
In cathodoluminescence imaging, an electron beam is used to excite nanostructures and the cathodoluminescence detector is subsequently used to detect the produced light.
Cathodoluminescence emission can be used to explore many fundamental properties of matter. It can be used to study light transport, scattering, electronic structure of a material, resonant phenomena and much more. It thus presents a valuable source of information for fundamental research as well as applied research with a direct link to industry.
The SPARC is a high-performance cathodoluminescence detection system that is designed and produced by Delmic. With this system, Delmic offers a unique solution for cathodoluminescence imaging.
In this presentation, we share the knowledge about the cathodoluminescence technique and point out the key advantages of using cathodoluminescence imaging in different areas.
For questions about cathodoluminescence and the SPARC, please leave a comment below or visit www.delmic.com and send us a message.
In cathodoluminescence imaging, an electron beam is used to excite nanostructures and the cathodoluminescence detector is subsequently used to detect the produced light.
Cathodoluminescence emission can be used to explore many fundamental properties of matter. It can be used to study light transport, scattering, electronic structure of a material, resonant phenomena and much more. It thus presents a valuable source of information for fundamental research as well as applied research with a direct link to industry.
The SPARC is a high-performance cathodoluminescence detection system that is designed and produced by Delmic. With this system, Delmic offers a unique solution for cathodoluminescence imaging.
In this presentation, we share the knowledge about the cathodoluminescence technique and point out the key advantages of using cathodoluminescence imaging in different areas.
For questions about cathodoluminescence and the SPARC, please leave a comment below or visit www.delmic.com and send us a message.
Perovskite: introduction, classification, structure of perovskite, method to synthesis, characterization by XRD and UV- vis spectroscopy , lambert beer's law, material properties and advantage and application.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
2. ANALYTICAL
INSTRUMENTS
In mineral science, there are several analytical
instruments used for various purpose, viz…
Scanning electron microscopy
X-ray diffraction
Transmission electron microscopy
X-ray fluorescence
Flame atomic absorption spectroscopy
Electron microprobe analysis
Secondary ion mass spectrometry
Atomic force microscopy 2
3. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY (SEM)
The scanning electron microscope has an electron
optical column in which a finely focused electron beam
can be scanned over a specified area of the specimen.
3
4. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF SCANNING
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY (SEM)
Accelerated electrons in an SEM carry significant
amounts of kinetic energy, and this energy is
dissipated as a variety of signals produced by
electron-sample interactions when the incident
electrons are decelerated in the solid sample. These
signals include secondary electrons (that produce
SEM images), backscattered electrons (BSE),
diffracted backscattered electrons (EBSD) that are
used to determine crystal structures and
orientations of minerals.
4
5. SCHEMATIC DRAWING OF FINELY FOCUS ELECTRON
BEAM IMPINGING ON A MATERIAL SURFACE :
5
6. APPLICATIONS OF SEM
The SEM is routinely used to –
To generate high-resolution images of shapes of objects.
Identify phases based on qualitative chemical analysis
and/or crystalline structure.
SEMs equipped with diffracted backscattered electron
detectors can be used to examine microfabric and
crystallographic orientation in many materials.
6
7. STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF SEM
Strength:-
Most SEM are comparatively easy to operate.
Modern SEMs generate data in digital format which are highly
portable.
For many applications, data acquisition is rapid.
Limitations-
. Samples must be solid and they must fit into the microscope
chamber
An electrically conductive coating must be applied to electrically
insulating samples for study in conventional SEM. 7
8. X-RAY DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUES (XRD)
The first application of an X-ray experiment to
the study of crystalline material in 1912 by
Max Von Lou. There are two different X-ray
diffraction techniques –
i) Single crystal techniques
ii)X-ray powder diffraction techniques
8
9. SINGLE CRYSTAL TECHNIQUES……
What is Single-crystal X-ray Diffraction???
Single-crystal X-ray Diffraction is a non-destructive
analytical technique which provides detailed
information about the internal lattice of crystalline
substances, including unit cell dimensions, bond-lengths,
bond-angles, and details of site-ordering.
9
10. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF SINGLE-CRYSTAL X-RAY
DIFFRACTION
Single crystal X-ray diffraction concern with the interaction of an
X-ray beam with a very small single crystal.
The X-ray beam and the crystalline structure produce that can be
recorded on film or measured by electronic device called X-ray
counter.
The most commonly used single crystal method is precession
method.
The modern approach to data acquisition by “single crystal
diffractometer” .
The most commonly used automated technique in structure analysis
is four circle diffractometer. 10
11. APPLICATIONS
Specific applications of single-crystal diffraction include:
For precise determination of a unit cell, including cell
dimensions and positions of atoms within the lattice.
New mineral identification, crystal solution and
refinement.
Determination of crystal-chemical vs. environmental
control on mineral chemistry etc.
11
12. STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF SINGLE-CRYSTAL
X-RAY DIFFRACTION
Strengths:-
Non-destructive.
Detailed crystal structure, including unit cell dimensions, bond-lengths,
bond-angles and site-ordering information
Limitations
Must have a single, stable sample, generally between 50—250
microns in size.
Optically clear sample.
Data collection generally requires between 24 and 72 hours 12
13. X-RAY POWDER DIFFRACTION (XRD)
X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) is a rapid analytical
technique primarily used for phase identification of a
crystalline material.
13
14. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF X-RAY POWDER
DIFFRACTION (XRD)
The sample of powder diffrractometer analysis spread uniformly
over a surface of a glass slide. The instrument is so constructed that
the sample, when clamped in place, rotates in the path of a
collimated X-ray beam, an X-ray detector, mounted on a arm
rotates about it to pick up the diffracted X-ray signals. X-ray
detector maintains the appropriate geometrical relationship to
receive each diffraction separately. Once the diffractometer tracing
is obtained and various diffraction peaks have been tabulated in
sequence of decreasing interplanar spacing together with their
relative intensities.
14
16. APPLICATIONS
X-ray powder diffraction is most widely used for:-
Characterization of crystalline materials
Identification of fine-grained minerals that are
difficult to determine optically.
Measurement of sample purity.
16
17. STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF X-RAY POWDER
DIFFRACTION (XRD)?
Strength :-
Powerful and rapid (< 20 min) technique for
identification of an unknown mineral.
Minimal sample preparation is required.
Limitation :-
Requires tenths of a gram of material which must be
ground into a powder.
For mixed materials, detection limit is ~ 2% of sample
For unit cell determinations, indexing of patterns for
non-isometric crystal systems is complicated.
17
18. X-RAY FLUORESCENCE(XRF)
An X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer is an x-ray
instrument used for routine, relatively non-destructive
chemical analyses of rocks, minerals, sediments and fluids.
18
19. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF X-RAY FLUORESCENCE
(XRF)
An XRF spectrometer works if a sample is illuminated by
an intense X-ray beam, known as the incident beam, some
of the energy is scattered, but some is also absorbed within
the sample in a manner that depends on its chemistry.
When the primary X-ray beam illuminates the sample,
excited sample in turn emits X-rays along a spectrum of
wavelengths characteristic of the types of atoms present in
the sample. Various types of detector are used to measure
the intensity of the emitted beam. The intensity of the
energy measured by these detectors is proportional to the
abundance of the element in the sample. 19
21. APPLICATION
X-Ray fluorescence is used in a wide range of
applications, including:-
Research in igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic petrology
Mining (e.g., measuring the grade of ore)
Metallurgy (e.g., quality control)
21
22. STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS……..
Strengths:-
Bulk chemical analyses of major elements (Si, Ti, Al, Fe,
Mn, Mg, Ca, Na, K, P) in rock and sediment.
Limitations:-
XRF analyses cannot distinguish variations among isotopes
of an element.
22
23. ELECTRON MICROPROBE ANALYSIS(EMPA)
An electron probe micro-analyzer is a micro beam instrument used
primarily for thein situ non-destructive chemical analysis of minute
solid samples. EPMA is also informally called an electron microprobe,
or just probe. It is fundamentally the same as an SEM, with the added
capability of chemical analysis.
23
24. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRON PROBE
MICRO-ANALYZER (EMPA)
An electron microprobe operates under the principle that if a solid
material is bombarded by an accelerated and focused electron
beam, the incident electron beam has sufficient energy to liberate
both matter and energy from the sample. These electron-sample
interactions mainly liberate heat, but they also yield both
derivative electrons and x-rays. These quantized x-rays are
characteristic of the element. EPMA analysis is considered to be
"non-destructive" so it is possible to re-analyze the same materials
more than one time.
24
25. APPLICATIONS OF EMPA
Quantitative EMPA analysis is the most commonly used
method for chemical analysis of geological materials at
small scale.
EPMA is also widely used for analysis of synthetic
materials such as optical wafers, thin films,
microcircuits, semi-conductors, and superconducting
ceramics.
25
26. STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF ELECTRON
PROBE MICRO-ANALYZER (EPMA)
Strength's:-
An electron probe is the primary tool for chemical analysis of solid
materials at small spatial scales .
Spot chemical analyses can be obtained in situ , which allows the
user to detect even small compositional variations within textural
context or within chemically zoned materials.
Limitations:-
Electron probe unable to detect the lightest elements (H, He and Li).
Probe analysis also cannot distinguish between the different
valence states of Fe. 26
27. TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
(TEM)
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is
a microscopy technique in which a beam of electrons is
transmitted through an ultra-thin specimen, interacting
with the specimen as it passes through.
27
28. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF TEM
A transmissions electron microscope consist of a finely focused
electron beam that impinges on a very thin foil of an object.
Transmission through the object, can be used to display electron
diffraction patterns, and high resolution transmission electron
microscope images. The thin foil is produced by ion bombardment
or sputter-etching method for non conducting materials and
conducting material is done by electrochemical methods. The thin
foil is held n place with a sample holder centered in a electron
beam.
28
29. APPLICATIONS OF TEM
Transmission electron microscope provide information
about symmetry, distance among indexed diffraction
provide information about unit cell size. This in turns
allows for phase identification.
29
30. STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF TEM
Strength:-
The TEM technique is especially powerful in elucidating structural
features that range in size from 100 to 10,000 Ao .
TEM studies allow for phase identification of extremely small
particles or intergrowths of minerals.
Limitation:-
TEMs are large and very expensive.
TEMs require special housing and maintenance.
Images are black and white. 30
31. FLAME ATOMIC ABSORPTION MICROSCOPY
This analytical technique is commonly considered a “wet” analytical
procedure because the original sample must be completely
dissolved in a solution before it can be analysed.
31
32. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF FAA
The energy source in this technique is a light source. When the light
energy is equivalent to the energy required to raise the atom from
its low energy level to high energy levels, it is absorbed and causes
excitation of atom. In order to determine element concentrations by
this method, the atoms must be completely free of any of the
bonding. The amount of light radiation that is measured by
spectrometer is expressed by –
A= log lo
/ l, where A is absorbance, l0 is the
incident light intensity and l the transmitted light intensity.
The incident light intensity is supplied by hollow cathode
lamp. The reduction in intensity is measured by the photomutiplier.
32
33. STRENGTH AND LIMITATION OF FAA
Strength:-
Greater sensitivity and detection limits than other methods.
Direct analysis of some types of liquid samples.
Very small sample size.
Limitation:-
The method cannot be used to detect non-metallic elements.
It also suffers from ionic interference.
33
34. SECONDARY ION MASS SPECTROMETRY(SIMS)
Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) is a technique
used to analyse the composition of solid surfaces
and thin films by sputtering the surface of the specimen
with a focused primary ion beam.
34
35. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF SIMS
The instruments employs a focused beam of ions that impinges on
the solid surface of the sample. These atoms of the surface are
extracted as secondary ions for analysis by mass spectrometer. In
this method particles are ejected in ionized state. The instruments
consists of a source of bombarding primary ions that are focused
onto the specimen sample by lens systems. In most of the
instruments used for mineralogical analysis the extracted
secondary ions focused into a double focusing mass spectrometer
which separates ions on the basis of energy and mass.
35
37. APPLICATIONS OF SIMS
It is commonly applied to the determination of the abundance and
distribution of the rare earth material.
The SIMS technique also allows collecting isotropic composition
for age dating and diffusion studies.
Instrument can be used to determine the concentration of any
chemical element.
37
38. STRENGTH AND LIMITATIONS OF SIMS
Strength :-
This technique offers very high sensitive quantitative elemental
analysis with detection limits in the parts per million to parts per
billion range.
It can analyze most chemical elements from H to U.
Limitations:-
Not all elements in all substrates (matrices) can be
analysed quantitatively.
SIMS instrumentation tends be expensive. 38