The document provides an overview of wireless data communications technologies including wide area cellular services, wireless LANs, and satellite integrated wireless services. It summarizes key aspects of these technologies such as cellular network principles, GSM network architecture, GPRS and EDGE integration, wireless LAN standards, and issues with early implementations of WAP and Bluetooth. It also discusses drivers for the evolution to 3G networks and applications platforms for cellular networks.
This document discusses various topics in networking and telecommunications including cellular networks, half and full duplex communication, circuit switched networks, radio communication, HTTP, FTP, NAT, DNS, SMTP, and DSL. It provides definitions and examples for each topic with links to additional online resources for further information.
This document provides an overview of Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) technology. It discusses how WCDMA evolved from existing GSM and CDMA technologies to provide higher data rates and capacity. Key aspects of WCDMA include efficient power control, soft handover between cells, and the ability to allocate capacity between voice and data services. The document describes the basic architecture of a WCDMA network including the radio access network components like Node B base stations and radio network controllers.
Modem = modulator + demodulator.
A modem is a device or program that enables a computer to transmit data over, for example, telephone or cable lines. Computer information is stored digitally, whereas information transmitted over telephone lines is transmitted in the form of analog waves.
1) GSM is the most widely used mobile standard in the world, used by over 2 billion people across 212 countries. It started in the 1980s and provides higher quality digital voice calls at low cost.
2) EDGE is an upgrade to GPRS that allows for higher data transmission rates on existing GSM networks. By using more advanced modulation techniques, EDGE can achieve data rates up to four times faster than GPRS.
3) EDGE provides benefits like minimal network upgrades, global roaming compatibility, and enabling new multimedia services on existing GSM infrastructure at a lower cost than moving directly to 3G.
The document discusses using the Atoll radio planning software to design a UMTS mobile network to provide coverage for the town of Seville, Spain. Atoll allows modeling network traffic based on user profiles and services. It also incorporates detailed maps of Seville for terrain and land use data needed for radio propagation modeling and network optimization. The document defines user profiles for adolescents and young people with different expected usage patterns for voice, MMS, internet access, and video calling services.
The document provides information about mobile telecommunication systems and GSM architecture. It discusses:
1) Cellular systems divide geographic areas into smaller regions called cells served by base stations to allow frequency reuse and increase capacity.
2) GSM is a second generation cellular standard developed for digital voice and data services using TDMA. It has global roaming capabilities and supports SMS, voice calls, and data services.
3) The GSM architecture consists of a radio subsystem with mobile stations and base stations, a network and switching subsystem, and an operation subsystem. The radio subsystem handles wireless transmission using TDMA while the network subsystem contains MSCs, HLRs, and switches.
WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access) is a 3G mobile technology that uses CDMA to allow multiple users to access a wide 5MHz radio channel simultaneously. Key features of WCDMA include fast power control to manage interference between users, and soft/softer handover which allows a mobile to connect to multiple base stations for better call quality as the user moves between cells. WCDMA was developed to provide higher data speeds and capacity over wireless networks compared to 2G technologies like GSM.
This document provides an overview of the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM). It discusses how GSM uses a combination of Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) and Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) to maximize channel usage. It also describes the key components of GSM including the mobile station, base station subsystem, network switching subsystem, and operation and support subsystem. Additionally, it covers functions like frequency reuse, handovers, short message service, speech coding, and call routing in GSM networks.
This document discusses various topics in networking and telecommunications including cellular networks, half and full duplex communication, circuit switched networks, radio communication, HTTP, FTP, NAT, DNS, SMTP, and DSL. It provides definitions and examples for each topic with links to additional online resources for further information.
This document provides an overview of Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) technology. It discusses how WCDMA evolved from existing GSM and CDMA technologies to provide higher data rates and capacity. Key aspects of WCDMA include efficient power control, soft handover between cells, and the ability to allocate capacity between voice and data services. The document describes the basic architecture of a WCDMA network including the radio access network components like Node B base stations and radio network controllers.
Modem = modulator + demodulator.
A modem is a device or program that enables a computer to transmit data over, for example, telephone or cable lines. Computer information is stored digitally, whereas information transmitted over telephone lines is transmitted in the form of analog waves.
1) GSM is the most widely used mobile standard in the world, used by over 2 billion people across 212 countries. It started in the 1980s and provides higher quality digital voice calls at low cost.
2) EDGE is an upgrade to GPRS that allows for higher data transmission rates on existing GSM networks. By using more advanced modulation techniques, EDGE can achieve data rates up to four times faster than GPRS.
3) EDGE provides benefits like minimal network upgrades, global roaming compatibility, and enabling new multimedia services on existing GSM infrastructure at a lower cost than moving directly to 3G.
The document discusses using the Atoll radio planning software to design a UMTS mobile network to provide coverage for the town of Seville, Spain. Atoll allows modeling network traffic based on user profiles and services. It also incorporates detailed maps of Seville for terrain and land use data needed for radio propagation modeling and network optimization. The document defines user profiles for adolescents and young people with different expected usage patterns for voice, MMS, internet access, and video calling services.
The document provides information about mobile telecommunication systems and GSM architecture. It discusses:
1) Cellular systems divide geographic areas into smaller regions called cells served by base stations to allow frequency reuse and increase capacity.
2) GSM is a second generation cellular standard developed for digital voice and data services using TDMA. It has global roaming capabilities and supports SMS, voice calls, and data services.
3) The GSM architecture consists of a radio subsystem with mobile stations and base stations, a network and switching subsystem, and an operation subsystem. The radio subsystem handles wireless transmission using TDMA while the network subsystem contains MSCs, HLRs, and switches.
WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access) is a 3G mobile technology that uses CDMA to allow multiple users to access a wide 5MHz radio channel simultaneously. Key features of WCDMA include fast power control to manage interference between users, and soft/softer handover which allows a mobile to connect to multiple base stations for better call quality as the user moves between cells. WCDMA was developed to provide higher data speeds and capacity over wireless networks compared to 2G technologies like GSM.
This document provides an overview of the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM). It discusses how GSM uses a combination of Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) and Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) to maximize channel usage. It also describes the key components of GSM including the mobile station, base station subsystem, network switching subsystem, and operation and support subsystem. Additionally, it covers functions like frequency reuse, handovers, short message service, speech coding, and call routing in GSM networks.
Capacity planning(CP) determines operational expenditure, capital expenditure and long-term performance of the system hence it is the most important phase in the life cycle of a cellular system. For the past three decades, capacity planning problems have studied for all generations of the cellular system. So, to increase the capacity of the network in future we focus on small cells of cell structure. Cellular network includes the variety of different cell sizes and types, heterogeneous networks, control, and data plane split architectures, coordinated multipoint, massive multiple inputs multiple outputs.
The objective of this presentation is to focus on traditional deployment reviews and identify future opportunities, challenges, and trends in detail. More specifically we investigate the future capacity planning by reviewing the CP process including its objective input and output parameter to an optimization process and the CP phases.
Global system for mobile communication Introduction, GSM architecture, GSM interfaces, Signal processing in GSM,
Frame structure of GSM, Channels used in GSM
Basic of 3 g technologies (digi lab_project).pptx [repaired]Shahrin Ahammad
The document provides an overview of 3G standards and the radio access network architecture. It discusses the reasons for switching from 2G to 3G technologies, including higher data rates and improved security. It then describes the components of the UMTS network architecture, including user equipment, Node B base stations, radio network controllers, mobile switching centers, and connections to external networks. The document also compares 2G and 3G network structures.
UNIT III
MOBILE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
GSM-architecture-Location tracking and call setup- Mobility management- Handover-Security-GSM SMS –International roaming for GSM- call recording functions-subscriber and service data mgt –-Mobile Number portability -VoIP service for Mobile Networks –GPRS –Architecture-GPRS procedures-attach and detach procedures-PDP context procedure-combined RA/LA update procedures-Billing
The document discusses signaling fundamentals in a base station subsystem (BSS). It describes the A, Abis, and Um interfaces between the BSS components. The A interface uses SS7 protocol layers including the physical layer, MTP, SCCP and BSSAP. The BSSAP layer supports BSSMAP messages for connectionless and connection-oriented signaling between the BSS and MSC.
3G technologies provide improved digital voice and higher bandwidth data services over 2G. The key 3G standards are WCDMA, CDMA2000, and TD-SCDMA. WCDMA addresses issues like handover and power control. 4G will offer even higher data rates and bandwidth below 5GHz, along with lower costs per bit than 3G.
The document discusses Short Message Service (SMS) and its strengths and architecture. It describes how SMS uses signaling channels to transmit short messages of up to 160 characters globally. SMS is stateless, asynchronous, and always connected. The document outlines the SMS architecture including Short Message Mobile Terminated (SMMT) and Short Message Mobile Originated (SMMO) processes. It also discusses how SMS can be used as an information bearer and for value-added services and location-based services.
The document provides an overview of GSM, GPRS, UMTS, HSDPA and HSUPA protocols and call flows. It describes the architecture, interfaces and protocols of each generation at the physical, data link and network layers. Key protocols discussed include LAPD, RR, MM, CM, SNDCP, GTP, RLC, MAC, RRC. Call flows for basic call origination, authentication, data transfer and detach procedures are illustrated for each network. The document also introduces HSDPA and HSUPA enhancements to UMTS such as new channels, scheduling functionality and H-ARQ protocol.
UNIT II
WIRELESS NETWORKS
Wireless LAN – IEEE 802.11 Standards – Architecture – Services – Mobile Ad hoc Networks- WiFi and WiMAX - Wireless Local Loop
This document discusses General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), a mobile data service available on GSM networks. It introduces GPRS network architecture including new nodes like Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) and Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN). The document describes how GPRS supports packet switched data transmission over GSM networks, allowing mobile users to access internet and corporate networks. It covers topics like GPRS protocols, quality of service, mobility management, and routing of data packets between mobile devices and external networks.
The document discusses 4G mobile communications standards including WiMAX and LTE. It provides information on:
- IEEE 802.22 which uses white spaces in TV frequencies for wireless regional area networks.
- Requirements for 4G standards defined by ITU including peak speeds of 1Gbps.
- How early versions of Mobile WiMAX and LTE did not meet the full 4G requirements but were still branded as 4G.
- Mobile WiMAX Release 2 and LTE Advanced promising speeds of 1Gbps in 2013.
MTNL was established in 1986 by the Government of India to improve telecom services in Delhi and Mumbai. It has over 4.74 million customers and a 13% market share in India. MTNL uses technologies like ADSL, DSLAMs, and optical fiber networks to provide broadband internet access over existing copper telephone lines. Key components of the network include DSLAMs at telephone exchanges to aggregate customer connections, broadband remote access servers to connect to internet providers, and Radius servers for authentication and billing.
Design and analysis 5G mobile network model to enhancement high-density subsc...journalBEEI
To obtain a high data rate that is commensurate with the growing demand for internet services, the fifth generation (5G) cellular networks will use the bandwidth beyond 6 GHz, called millimeters waves (mm-waves), to obtain a higher. The first phase (phase I) of the 5G network design for high user density, where the optimized microcells are deployed at carrier frequency 700 MHz with 20 MHz bandwidth. The second phase (phase II) of the design consists of the deployment of microcells which are operating at 3.6 GHz with 100 MHz bandwidth; this phase is planned to cover 200000 users within the province. The third phase (phase III) of the design is represented by the deployment of picocells, which are planned to operate at 26 GHz frequency and bandwidth 500 MHz; this phase is planned to cover 3,500,000 users within the province. Two types of modulation are adopted for the network (orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) and 256 quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)); the overall performance of the network is studied with regards to the percentage of coverage, power overlapping ratio, frequency interference, and quality of service (QoS).
The document provides information about mobile platforms and applications. It discusses mobile device operating systems, their special constraints and requirements. It describes commercial mobile operating systems like iOS, Android, Blackberry and Windows Phone. It covers mobile commerce structure and pros and cons. It discusses mobile payment systems and related security issues. It focuses on different mobile platforms, their application development kits and features of the Android operating system. Specifically, it provides details about the Android architecture including its software stack, application components and SDK.
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) improves on existing cellular data services by using a packet switched network rather than a circuit switched one. This allows for more efficient use of network resources and bandwidth. GPRS allows multiple users to share the same physical channel and users are billed based on the amount of data transferred rather than connection time. Maximum transfer rates are improved to 171.2 kbps.
GSM-architecture-Location tracking and call setup- Mobility management- Handover-
Security-GSM SMS –International roaming for GSM- call recording functions-subscriber and
service data mgt –-Mobile Number portability -VoIP service for Mobile Networks – GPRS –
Architecture-GPRS procedures-attach and detach procedures-PDP context procedure-
combined RA/LA update procedures-Billing
This document discusses handover between WCDMA and GSM networks, which allows GSM networks to provide fallback coverage for areas not covered by WCDMA. It describes key challenges like measuring GSM cells while in a WCDMA call, which Ericsson solved using compressed mode. The document outlines cell reselection and handover procedures between the networks, including signaling flows. It establishes that Ericsson has played a leading role in developing and demonstrating the necessary interworking technologies.
The document discusses several advantages of CDMA technology, including frequency reuse, large coverage area, high spectrum capacity, privacy, soft handoff, good voice quality, and smooth migration to 3G. It also provides details on ZTE's involvement with CDMA technology development and key components of a CDMA network such as the BSC, BTS, MSC, VLR, and HLR.
The document discusses the evolution of wireless networks from 2G to 3G. It describes how 3G networks allow a broad range of wireless services to be provided efficiently through technologies like GPRS and EDGE that enhance data capabilities on existing networks. It also explains how completely new radio access technologies like UMTS using WCDMA can be used in new spectrum to optimize support for 3G services. Finally, it provides details on GPRS architecture and interfaces, describing how GPRS allows packet-switched data communications in GSM networks.
Wireless communication allows for freedom from wires and instantaneous communication without physical connections. It provides global coverage for communication that can reach areas where wiring is infeasible or costly. Wireless communication transmits voice and data using radio waves without wires. It uses different frequency channels that can transmit information independently and in parallel. While wireless communication provides mobility and flexibility, it also faces security and physical obstruction issues compared to wired communication.
Human: Thank you for the summary. It effectively captured the key points about wireless communication in just 3 sentences as requested.
Earlier this year, Afghan Wireless Communication Company launched its HD Voice Service solution, which allows for greater clarity in mobile-to-mobile voice communications.
Capacity planning(CP) determines operational expenditure, capital expenditure and long-term performance of the system hence it is the most important phase in the life cycle of a cellular system. For the past three decades, capacity planning problems have studied for all generations of the cellular system. So, to increase the capacity of the network in future we focus on small cells of cell structure. Cellular network includes the variety of different cell sizes and types, heterogeneous networks, control, and data plane split architectures, coordinated multipoint, massive multiple inputs multiple outputs.
The objective of this presentation is to focus on traditional deployment reviews and identify future opportunities, challenges, and trends in detail. More specifically we investigate the future capacity planning by reviewing the CP process including its objective input and output parameter to an optimization process and the CP phases.
Global system for mobile communication Introduction, GSM architecture, GSM interfaces, Signal processing in GSM,
Frame structure of GSM, Channels used in GSM
Basic of 3 g technologies (digi lab_project).pptx [repaired]Shahrin Ahammad
The document provides an overview of 3G standards and the radio access network architecture. It discusses the reasons for switching from 2G to 3G technologies, including higher data rates and improved security. It then describes the components of the UMTS network architecture, including user equipment, Node B base stations, radio network controllers, mobile switching centers, and connections to external networks. The document also compares 2G and 3G network structures.
UNIT III
MOBILE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
GSM-architecture-Location tracking and call setup- Mobility management- Handover-Security-GSM SMS –International roaming for GSM- call recording functions-subscriber and service data mgt –-Mobile Number portability -VoIP service for Mobile Networks –GPRS –Architecture-GPRS procedures-attach and detach procedures-PDP context procedure-combined RA/LA update procedures-Billing
The document discusses signaling fundamentals in a base station subsystem (BSS). It describes the A, Abis, and Um interfaces between the BSS components. The A interface uses SS7 protocol layers including the physical layer, MTP, SCCP and BSSAP. The BSSAP layer supports BSSMAP messages for connectionless and connection-oriented signaling between the BSS and MSC.
3G technologies provide improved digital voice and higher bandwidth data services over 2G. The key 3G standards are WCDMA, CDMA2000, and TD-SCDMA. WCDMA addresses issues like handover and power control. 4G will offer even higher data rates and bandwidth below 5GHz, along with lower costs per bit than 3G.
The document discusses Short Message Service (SMS) and its strengths and architecture. It describes how SMS uses signaling channels to transmit short messages of up to 160 characters globally. SMS is stateless, asynchronous, and always connected. The document outlines the SMS architecture including Short Message Mobile Terminated (SMMT) and Short Message Mobile Originated (SMMO) processes. It also discusses how SMS can be used as an information bearer and for value-added services and location-based services.
The document provides an overview of GSM, GPRS, UMTS, HSDPA and HSUPA protocols and call flows. It describes the architecture, interfaces and protocols of each generation at the physical, data link and network layers. Key protocols discussed include LAPD, RR, MM, CM, SNDCP, GTP, RLC, MAC, RRC. Call flows for basic call origination, authentication, data transfer and detach procedures are illustrated for each network. The document also introduces HSDPA and HSUPA enhancements to UMTS such as new channels, scheduling functionality and H-ARQ protocol.
UNIT II
WIRELESS NETWORKS
Wireless LAN – IEEE 802.11 Standards – Architecture – Services – Mobile Ad hoc Networks- WiFi and WiMAX - Wireless Local Loop
This document discusses General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), a mobile data service available on GSM networks. It introduces GPRS network architecture including new nodes like Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) and Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN). The document describes how GPRS supports packet switched data transmission over GSM networks, allowing mobile users to access internet and corporate networks. It covers topics like GPRS protocols, quality of service, mobility management, and routing of data packets between mobile devices and external networks.
The document discusses 4G mobile communications standards including WiMAX and LTE. It provides information on:
- IEEE 802.22 which uses white spaces in TV frequencies for wireless regional area networks.
- Requirements for 4G standards defined by ITU including peak speeds of 1Gbps.
- How early versions of Mobile WiMAX and LTE did not meet the full 4G requirements but were still branded as 4G.
- Mobile WiMAX Release 2 and LTE Advanced promising speeds of 1Gbps in 2013.
MTNL was established in 1986 by the Government of India to improve telecom services in Delhi and Mumbai. It has over 4.74 million customers and a 13% market share in India. MTNL uses technologies like ADSL, DSLAMs, and optical fiber networks to provide broadband internet access over existing copper telephone lines. Key components of the network include DSLAMs at telephone exchanges to aggregate customer connections, broadband remote access servers to connect to internet providers, and Radius servers for authentication and billing.
Design and analysis 5G mobile network model to enhancement high-density subsc...journalBEEI
To obtain a high data rate that is commensurate with the growing demand for internet services, the fifth generation (5G) cellular networks will use the bandwidth beyond 6 GHz, called millimeters waves (mm-waves), to obtain a higher. The first phase (phase I) of the 5G network design for high user density, where the optimized microcells are deployed at carrier frequency 700 MHz with 20 MHz bandwidth. The second phase (phase II) of the design consists of the deployment of microcells which are operating at 3.6 GHz with 100 MHz bandwidth; this phase is planned to cover 200000 users within the province. The third phase (phase III) of the design is represented by the deployment of picocells, which are planned to operate at 26 GHz frequency and bandwidth 500 MHz; this phase is planned to cover 3,500,000 users within the province. Two types of modulation are adopted for the network (orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) and 256 quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)); the overall performance of the network is studied with regards to the percentage of coverage, power overlapping ratio, frequency interference, and quality of service (QoS).
The document provides information about mobile platforms and applications. It discusses mobile device operating systems, their special constraints and requirements. It describes commercial mobile operating systems like iOS, Android, Blackberry and Windows Phone. It covers mobile commerce structure and pros and cons. It discusses mobile payment systems and related security issues. It focuses on different mobile platforms, their application development kits and features of the Android operating system. Specifically, it provides details about the Android architecture including its software stack, application components and SDK.
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) improves on existing cellular data services by using a packet switched network rather than a circuit switched one. This allows for more efficient use of network resources and bandwidth. GPRS allows multiple users to share the same physical channel and users are billed based on the amount of data transferred rather than connection time. Maximum transfer rates are improved to 171.2 kbps.
GSM-architecture-Location tracking and call setup- Mobility management- Handover-
Security-GSM SMS –International roaming for GSM- call recording functions-subscriber and
service data mgt –-Mobile Number portability -VoIP service for Mobile Networks – GPRS –
Architecture-GPRS procedures-attach and detach procedures-PDP context procedure-
combined RA/LA update procedures-Billing
This document discusses handover between WCDMA and GSM networks, which allows GSM networks to provide fallback coverage for areas not covered by WCDMA. It describes key challenges like measuring GSM cells while in a WCDMA call, which Ericsson solved using compressed mode. The document outlines cell reselection and handover procedures between the networks, including signaling flows. It establishes that Ericsson has played a leading role in developing and demonstrating the necessary interworking technologies.
The document discusses several advantages of CDMA technology, including frequency reuse, large coverage area, high spectrum capacity, privacy, soft handoff, good voice quality, and smooth migration to 3G. It also provides details on ZTE's involvement with CDMA technology development and key components of a CDMA network such as the BSC, BTS, MSC, VLR, and HLR.
The document discusses the evolution of wireless networks from 2G to 3G. It describes how 3G networks allow a broad range of wireless services to be provided efficiently through technologies like GPRS and EDGE that enhance data capabilities on existing networks. It also explains how completely new radio access technologies like UMTS using WCDMA can be used in new spectrum to optimize support for 3G services. Finally, it provides details on GPRS architecture and interfaces, describing how GPRS allows packet-switched data communications in GSM networks.
Wireless communication allows for freedom from wires and instantaneous communication without physical connections. It provides global coverage for communication that can reach areas where wiring is infeasible or costly. Wireless communication transmits voice and data using radio waves without wires. It uses different frequency channels that can transmit information independently and in parallel. While wireless communication provides mobility and flexibility, it also faces security and physical obstruction issues compared to wired communication.
Human: Thank you for the summary. It effectively captured the key points about wireless communication in just 3 sentences as requested.
Earlier this year, Afghan Wireless Communication Company launched its HD Voice Service solution, which allows for greater clarity in mobile-to-mobile voice communications.
This document provides an overview of mobile computing and CDPD technology. It discusses the existing cellular network architecture including circuit switching and packet switching. It then describes CDPD technology, how it utilizes idle time between voice signals on cellular networks. The CDPD network hierarchy is explained including mobile end users, data base stations, intermediate systems, and the backbone. Applications of mobile computing are listed. Limitations and the future of mobile computing are also discussed.
SS7 is an international telecommunications standard that defines how network elements in a public switched telephone network exchange information over a digital signaling network. It uses out-of-band signaling where control information travels on a separate dedicated channel rather than within the same channel as the call. This allows calls to be set up more efficiently and enables special services like call forwarding. The SS7 network consists of signaling points like SSPs, STPs and SCPs that exchange messages to set up and manage calls and services between network elements.
Common channel Signalling System No 7 pptSrashti Vyas
SS7 is an architecture that supports call establishment, billing, routing, and information exchange on the public switched telephone network through out-of-band signaling. It uses separate dedicated signaling links rather than voice trunks to set up connections. The SS7 network consists of signaling points including service switching points, signaling transfer points, and service control points that interface with databases to route signaling messages and provide services like prepaid calling and local number portability.
Broadband-ISDN (B-ISDN) is an extension of ISDN that provides broadband capabilities over digital networks. B-ISDN uses asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) and supports transmission speeds greater than 1.544 Mbps. It provides fully integrated services including high-speed data, audio, and full-motion video. The goal of B-ISDN is to achieve complete integration of services from low-bit rate bursty signals to high-bit rate continuous real-time signals.
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) allows digital transmission of voice, video and data over telephone circuits. It offers faster call setup and data transfer rates compared to modems. ISDN devices include terminal adapters, terminal equipment and network terminators that connect customer equipment to the telephone network. ISDN uses reference points and channels to transmit data. Basic Rate Interface provides 2 64 Kbps channels and 1 16 Kbps channel for a total of 144 Kbps bandwidth. Primary Rate Interface provides more channels for higher bandwidth up to 1.544 Mbps.
Developed by ITU-T, ISDN is a set of protocols that combines digital telephony and data transport services to digitise the telephone network to permit the transmission of audio, video and text over existing telephone line. ISDN is an effort to standardise subscriber services, provide user or network interface and facilitate the inter-networking capabilities of existing voice and data networks. The goal of ISDN is to form a wide area network that provides universal end-to-end connectivity over digital media by integrating separate transmission services into one without adding new links or subscriber links.
Wireless and mobile communication transmits voice and data using electromagnetic waves. It uses frequencies between 300 kHz to 300 GHz, with different technologies operating at different frequency bands. Wireless communication allows transmission of information between moving stations, enabling applications such as mobile phones and wireless networking.
This document discusses the history, advantages, need, implementation, current devices and future of wireless communication. It covers the evolution of wireless technologies from early cellular phones to modern Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, explaining how wireless networks have become essential due to their convenience and mobility compared to wired connections. The future of wireless communication looks to advance connectivity through emerging technologies.
SS7 (Signaling System 7) is a set of telephony signaling protocols that are used to set up most of the world's public switched telephone network (PSTN) telephone calls. It uses a separate channel for signaling information rather than transmitting call setup and control data over the same channel as the actual voice circuit. The SS7 protocol stack has multiple layers including the MTP, SCCP and TCAP layers to transport signaling messages and route calls between network elements. Common SS7 protocols include ISUP, MAP, TCAP and CAP.
Wireless technology allows for the transfer of information between two points not physically connected by wires. It includes technologies like radio frequency communication, microwave communication, infrared communication, cellular networks, WiFi, and Bluetooth. Some important developments in wireless technology history include Alexander Graham Bell and Charles Sumner Tainter inventing the photophone in 1880, the first wireless telephone, and Heinrich Hertz demonstrating electromagnetic waves in 1888, proving James Clerk Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. Modern applications of wireless technology include mobile phones, wireless internet access, and wireless energy transfer.
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) provides digital transmission of voice, video and data over telephone lines at high speeds. It uses dedicated digital channels that allow for faster call setup and multiple devices to share a single line. ISDN interfaces include Basic Rate Interface (BRI) and Primary Rate Interface (PRI) and supports transmission speeds up to 1920 kbps, offering advantages over analog networks.
The document provides information on the evolution of wireless networks from 1G to 3G. It discusses the key components and architecture of cellular systems including base stations, mobile switching centers and their connection to the public switched telephone network. It also compares the differences between wireless and wired networks, and describes some of the limitations of early wireless networking. Finally, it covers topics like traffic routing, circuit switching, packet switching and the X.25 protocol.
The document discusses 4G mobile communications technologies WiMAX and LTE. It provides an overview of the IEEE 802.22 standard for wireless regional area networks using vacant TV channels. It also discusses the history and development of 4G standards, requirements for IMT-Advanced 4G, and early commercial versions of Mobile WiMAX and LTE that provided speeds less than 1 Gbit/s. It compares key aspects of 3G and 4G mobile networks.
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) is a 3G mobile communication standard that provides improved speed and capacity over 2G networks. UMTS uses WCDMA technology to provide voice and data services over a 5MHz channel at speeds up to 2Mbps. For higher speeds, HSPA technologies were introduced as 3.5G. 4G networks such as LTE promise speeds over 100Mbps using OFDMA and other technologies with an all-IP architecture. Small cells using micro and pico base stations are needed to boost 4G capacity and coverage, especially at high frequencies.
1) The document discusses the basics and evolution of cellular technology, including the architecture and functionality of GSM, 3G, and future goals for 2010 and beyond.
2) It describes key aspects of GSM such as frequency bands, architecture including the base station subsystem and network switching subsystem, and support for data services through GPRS.
3) The document also covers UMTS and 3G technologies including WCDMA, HSDPA, frequency bands, and the evolution of cellular services towards 4G networks as envisioned by the NGMN with targets for seamless mobility and high data rates.
Cellular Mobile Communication discusses 3G and 4G mobile technologies. 3G allows integration of voice, data, and video up to 2 megabits per second. 4G is the next generation of high-speed mobile networks that will replace 3G using technologies like LTE and WiMAX. 4G uses technologies like OFDM and UWB to provide data rates up to 20mbps for mobile speeds up to 200km/hr in frequency bands of 2-8GHz. The document also outlines the key components of 3G networks including the core network, UTRAN, user equipment, Node B, RNC, BTS, BSC, MSC, GMSC, HLR, VLR, AUC, SMSC
The document provides information on GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) including:
- GSM was developed to standardize cellular networks in Europe and provide compatibility between systems.
- It uses TDMA and FDMA to allow multiple users to access the radio spectrum at the same time. Carriers are divided into time slots and frequency channels.
- The key components of GSM are the mobile station (phone), base station subsystem including base transceiver stations and base station controllers, switching subsystem including HLR, VLR and MSC, and operation subsystem for network management.
This document discusses 3G mobile networks and the Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS). It describes the technologies used in UMTS including Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) and the network architecture. The core network elements like the Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) and Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) are explained. It also covers the radio access network components including the Node B base station and Radio Network Controller (RNC). The document provides an overview of 3G networks and the key technologies that enable mobility and packet-based services.
Electronic communication refers to the transfer of data, signals, sounds, images or intelligence via electronic devices. There are two main types: wire communication (e.g. telephone networks, internet) and wireless communication (e.g. radio, mobile phones, WiFi, Bluetooth). Wireless communication provides advantages like lower cost, flexibility and convenience compared to wired options. Existing wireless technologies discussed include GSM, GPRS, EDGE, Bluetooth, WiFi, Zigbee, DAB, DVB and 3G/4G mobile networks.
My PptIntroduction to 3G, GSM, GPRS, EDGE NetworkARVIND SARDAR
The document provides an introduction to 3G mobile networks including GSM, GPRS and EDGE. It discusses the evolution from 1G to 2G to 3G networks, with 2G introducing GSM and 2.5G being GPRS. 3G aimed to support higher data speeds. GPRS offered speeds up to 114kbps, EDGE up to 384kbps, and UMTS/HSDPA up to 14Mbps. It then describes the key components and architecture of GSM and GPRS networks.
The document discusses wireless communication technologies and networks. It provides an overview of the evolution of wireless systems from 1G to 5G, describing their key characteristics and standards. It also discusses different types of wireless networks including wireless PAN, LAN, MAN and WAN. Finally, it provides some details on communication technologies and internet usage statistics in India.
UMTS is the 3G cellular standard proposed by ETSI to evolve GSM and GPRS networks. It uses WCDMA as its air interface and includes the following key aspects:
- A complete system architecture with standardized interfaces to allow interoperability between vendors.
- A UTRAN subsystem comprising Node B base stations and RNC controllers to handle radio functionality using WCDMA.
- A core network subsystem including elements like MSC, SGSN, GGSN to support both circuit switched and packet switched services.
- WCDMA uses CDMA with variable spreading factors to provide different data rates. It employs channelization codes, scrambling codes and modulation like QPSK.
WCDMA uses direct sequence spread spectrum technology where user data is multiplied by pseudo-random codes to spread it across a wide bandwidth. This processing gain allows multiple users to transmit simultaneously while maintaining sufficient signal to interference ratios. Power control is used to ensure each user transmits with the minimum necessary power level to reduce interference. Admission control and power control work together to manage system capacity and maintain quality of service as user numbers and noise levels change.
The document provides information about cable modems and cable television networks. It discusses how cable modems work by transmitting data signals over cable TV networks at much higher speeds than traditional modems. The document also outlines the features and architecture of cable data systems, including how they utilize protocols like IP, TCP, UDP, and Ethernet to transmit data and support various internet applications. It notes that cable modems are becoming more integrated with other networking and wireless technologies to provide broadband access in homes.
This document provides an overview of telecommunication systems and technologies used in India. It discusses the introduction of electronic switching devices and the evolution to digital switching. It describes the key components of a telecom exchange including the main distribution frame, power section, PCM room, and switch room. It also provides explanations of broadband services, GPRS architecture, optical fiber, and GSM network architecture.
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- Traditional mobile networks used one powerful transmitter, while cellular networks use many low-power transmitters divided into cells to increase capacity and allow handoffs between transmitters.
- Modern networks divide both rural and urban areas into cells using specific deployment guidelines.
- Mobile networks employ different multiple access techniques including FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA to allow multiple users to access the network simultaneously.
Cellular networks have evolved from 0G to 5G over several generations of technology. 1G networks in the early 1980s used analog transmission for primarily voice calls. 2G digital networks in the late 1980s enabled services like text messages. 3G networks in the 2000s supported broadband multimedia with speeds up to 2Mbps. 4G networks since 2010 provide faster "anytime, anywhere" services using IP. Research into 5G beyond 2020 aims for speeds over 10Gbps and connectivity of billions of devices. Each generation brought major improvements in speed and capabilities.
The document discusses the evolution from 3G to 4G mobile networks through LTE. It describes key technologies like OFDMA and SC-FDMA being used in LTE to improve spectral efficiency and support higher data rates. It also summarizes the simplified LTE network architecture with fewer nodes and direct connections between the evolved NodeB and core network elements like the mobility management entity and serving gateway. A timeline is provided showing expected peak data rates increasing from initial 3G networks to over 100 Mbps with LTE and eventually 1 Gbps with continued LTE evolution.
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1. An Overview of Wireless Data Communications Wide Area Cellular Services Wireless LANs Satellite Integrated Wireless Services Richard Perlman Lucent Technologies [email_address]
31. 3G Systems Overview 3G Migration SOURCE: CDMA Development Group (CDG) CDG Migration Diagram
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34. Standards Evolution to 3G Worldwide Japan Europe/Parts of Asia Americas/Parts of Asia Instead of solving the 2G network differences via 3G, we will continue to have W-CDMA and cdma2000 as separate networks. Both will be “optional implementation modes” in one 3G standard specification. Basic 3G phones will support one or the other. “Global phones” will be able to roam from one to the other. cdma2000 1st Gen TACS NMT/TACS/Other AMPS 2nd Gen PDC GSM TDMA CDMA 3rd Gen EDGE cdma2000 W-CDMA/UMTS
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39. Evolution of messaging Rich Call Browsing Messaging Versatility of Content and User Benefits Time Text SMS Text & Graphics Picture Messaging Digital image input Multimedia Message Service New content types Mobile Multimedia
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41. SMS growth in Europe 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% Mobile Penetration SMSs/subs/month Finland Norway Germany Italy Portugal Greece UK France Sweden Spain
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45. New Phones Have MMS, WAP, Java (GSM) or BREW (CDMA) – 400 million plus in 2003
The Groups relate the speed and sophistication of the fax machine. The standards were developed by the ITU-T (International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Standardization Sector) in order that fax machines from different manufactures could communicate. Group 3 fax is the most common type of fax machine transmitting on A4 paper. The machine scanning format is digital and operates at rates between 9.6Kbps and 14.4Kbps. Asynchronous A method of transmitting data whereby each byte is clocked separately. One start bit is added to the beginning, and one or more stop bits to the end, of each character. Asynchronous transmission is the most rudimentary form of data communication, as the originating and recipient machines do not have to be in sync. It is commonly used for low speed transmission, as with a PC’s serial port. Synchronous Transmission Digital transmission in which the time interval between any two similar significant instants in the overall bit stream is always an integral number of unit intervals
USSD - offers an open cimmunication link for use between network and operatot and user for operator defined services operator barring restrictions of different services, vall types by the operator
The Mobile Station (MS) consists of the Mobile Equipment (ME) and the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). · The Mobile Equipment (ME), commonly referred to as a terminal or handset, comes in two varieties: fixed and portable. A fixed MS is usually installed in a vehicle while portable MSs are normally carried by subscribers. Due to size limitations and power requirements, fixed MSs were originally predominant though this situation has changed dramatically in recent years as the portable MS is by now almost ubiquitous and even regarded as a fashion accessory. The ME is uniquely identified by its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number, which is primarily used for security purposes. · A Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) is a smart card that is inserted into the ME to provide personal mobility. Each SIM card contains an International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) number that uniquely identifies the subscriber to the network thereby allowing access to subscribed services. To prevent unauthorised access, the SIM card can be protected using a Personal Identification Number (PIN). Only emergency calls can be made from a terminal without a SIM card. While the SIM card currently facilitates a number of services including the standard Short Message Service (SMS), advances in smart card technologies will ensure that the SIM card becomes a cornerstone for any new services deployed in the future.
The Base Station Subsystem is composed of two parts: the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) and the Base Station Controller (BSC). The Base Transceiver Station (BTS), or simply the Base Station, is the interface for the MS to the network. It handles all communications with the MS via the air interface (technically referred to as the Um interface in the GSM specifications). Essentially, the transmitting power of a BTS defines the cell size i.e. its coverage area. In large urban areas, the number of BTSs deployed is large so the corresponding cell size is small. In contrast, there is usually a far smaller number deployed in rural areas so the cell size can be quite large. The Base Station Controller (BSC) manages the radio resources for multiple BTSs, the number of which varies but could be up to several hundred. As well as the allocation and release of radio channels, the BSC is responsible for handover management when the MS roams into an area covered by another BSC. Similar to all other interfaces in GSM, the interface between the BSC and a BTS is standardised and is referred to as the Abis interface.
The Mobile Switching Centre (MSC) performs almost identical functions to that of a normal switching node in a fixed network. In addition, it provides the functionality needed to handle mobile subscribers including registration, authentication, location updating etc. Depending on size, a GSM network may contain a number of MSCs or just one. All GSM networks must connect to fixed networks at some point. This interconnection always takes place through an MSC in which case the MSC is called a Gateway MSC (GMSC). The interface between the MSC and a BSC is called the A interface
The Home Location Register (HLR) contains all the administrative information for each subscriber registered in the corresponding GSM network. This includes both the IMSI number and actual phone number as well as details of a subscriber’s permitted supplementary services e.g. call forwarding. The current location i.e. which Visitor Location Register (VLR) the subscriber is currently registered with, is also stored in the HLR as, without this, the MSC could not route any calls to the subscriber. Logically, there is one HLR for each GSM network, although it can be implemented as a distributed database.
Three new types of terminal have been defined in the GPRS standard: . Class A terminals, which support simultaneous circuit-switched and packet-switched traffic. For example, a subscriber can initiate or receive a voice call without interrupting data transmission or reception activity. . Class B terminals, which supports simultaneous connections to GSM and GPRS but cannot support both types of traffic at the same time. If a GPRS data call is in progress and an incoming voice call is received, the data call is suspended for the duration of the voice call. However, when the voice call is terminated, the GPRS data call will resume. . Class C terminals, which can handle either data or voice calls but can only be connected to either GSM or GPRS at any given time. The GPRS MS itself has two components: a Mobile Terminal (MT) which consists of a handset and SIM card, and a Terminal Equipment (TE) component which is typically a laptop or a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA).
The most important changes take place in the NSS with the introduction of two new nodes for the handling of packet data: . The Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) is responsible for handling packet data traffic in a geographic area. It monitors GPRS users, performs security procedures and handles access control. An SGSN may be regarded as doing for packet-switched data services what the MSC does for normal circuit-switched services. . The Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) provides the internetworking functionality for external packet data networks e.g. the Internet. It can act as an access server and is responsible for routing incoming data traffic to the correct SGSN. To facilitate communication between different networks, it can translate between various different signalling protocols and data formats. The introduction of these nodes required that several new interfaces be defined to handle interactions between them and other NSS components. For example, the Gb interface is required between the BSC and the SGSN while queries are sent to the HLR by the SGSN over the Gr interface. To support GPRS subscribers, the HLR database must be upgraded to include details about which data services the subscriber is registered for.
While the implementation of GPRS will improve GSM network data capacities substantially, the individual subscriber experience may vary quite considerably. The theoretical maximum speed of 171.2 kb/s (eight timeslots by 21.4 kb/s) will never be achieved in a real network, as in practice, the available data rate will ultimately depend on the network configuration, which is defined by the network operator. Another factor that will influence the subscriber’s experience is what class of handset the operator supports. Even though GPRS specifies three classes, a particular network operator may only support one. Nevertheless, the situation will have improved considerably. Set-up time will be less than a second while data transfers will be less susceptible to errors and delays. The "always-on" nature of GPRS means that emails can be received without making an explicit connection. Also, the charging rate will favour the consumer who will be billed based on the amount of data transported by the network rather than on the amount of time connected to the network.
At present, GPRS is being rolled out in Europe whereas in Japan full 3G tests are being conducted with full deployment almost imminent. EDGE is currently being evaluated by various network operators with a view to deploying it as an interim step to 3G. However it is unlikely that EDGE will be deployed widely if operators believe that implementing a full 3G solution may be more economical. Recalling that the deployment of 3G requires new spectrum, it may be that those operators who fail to obtain 3G licences will use EDGE. Indeed this was one of the motivations for the development of EDGE originally.
Replacing the existing GSM air interface is the final and most important step in the evolution of GSM to UMTS i.e. 3G. Recall that one of the criteria for a system to be IMT2000 compliant is that it implements an air interface standard defined by the ITU. In the case of UMTS, the communication over the air interface, or UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA) as it is technically known, is achieved using W-CDMA and TD-CDMA. The access parts of the network, called the UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN), are based on ATM and it is here that the major changes in upgrading will occur, which of course will also be reflected on the handsets (figure 4).
UMTS BSS The UMTS equivalent of the BSS, the Radio Network Subsystem (RNS) introduces two new network elements: Node B is responsible for radio transmission between subscribers. It may be regarded as fulfilling the same role as the BTS in standard GSM. The Radio Network Controller (RNC) supports a number of Node Bs and may be regarded as the UMTS BSC equivalent. A UTRAN will support a set of RNSs. Obviously, the introduction of new nodes into the networks means a corresponding increase in interface standards e.g. the Iur interface between two RNCs.
"2.5G customers" refer to those customers who have joined the service plans for 2.5G services (including GPRS and IS-95B services) or used the 2.5G services
The importance of standardisation is crucial. For example, SMS has not experienced such a success in the US and Japan where the operators have competing technologies that are not interoperable. MMS is THE ONLY standardised messaging technology for 3G and that's what guarantees its success as an evolution from the SMS success. MMS is standardised by 3GPP and the WAP forum. SMS has acted as a bridge between voice and data traffic. It has changed the users' perception about the mobile phone: they are beginning to see it as a communication and information media rather than just a telephone. --- Given the converging market and technology space, what is the right way to develop successful new services? To identify and build on a natural application migration path... The first crucial step in MMS market development is getting consumers accustomed to using their mobile phones for purposes other than voice communication, i.e. making current SMS applications more commonly used. Focusing on creating awareness and acceptance for the concept of SMS as well as on educating the market on how specific services work. SMS messaging = mobile email =' Gmail' => discretion, efficiency, fun; anytime, anywhere. MMS = 'enhanced SMS', with full content versatility => fun, sharing, rational utility. Nokia's migration path in multimedia messaging builds on the well-established SMS paradigm by adding new functionality and new content types in consumer-understandable steps. This will reduce the barriers for MMS adoption, leading to rapid take-up and high penetration, paving the way towards personal mobile multimedia. Picture Messaging: Combines the ease of use of SMS with the enjoyment of expressing oneself with pictures. Spec is now available at www.forum.nokia.com - no longer proprietary. Digital image input: Enables the electronic postcard based on instant photographs and text. Multimedia Message Service (MMS) and Mobile Multimedia: A complete end-to-end solution for person-to-person mobile messaging, from terminal to terminal, terminal to internet, internet to terminal. With full content versatility, including images, audio, video, data, text. Delivers a location independent, total communication experience - combined with ease of use that is a simple, logical extension of SMS and Picture Messaging.
And we believe the WAP content will continue to expand, much in a similar fashion as the popularity of text messaging and SMS based services has exploded. The exponential growth typically starts when the 20-40% mobile phone penetration window has been reached, as is evident from these figures from various European markets.
Just some of the phones available now or soon Samsung SGH-S100 (not T100, which is available now) Siemens SX45 (coming now) Nokia 7210 (expected mid October) Ericsson P800 (unknown, should be out now) Motorola A388 (unknown when available) Nokia 3650 (Unknown, Symbian Series 60) Nokia 3410 (Price: 1500 NOK, can get it for NOK 90 with subscription) Siemens M50 Siemens (6 phones) C55, MT50, SL42, M50, SL45i, SX45 Nokia (7 phones) 3410 (On picture), 3510i (Color Series 30!), 3650 (On picture – Series 60), 6310i (World phone), 6610 (Series 40), 7210 (On picture – Series 40), 9210 + 9210i Communicator (Series 80) Samsung SGH-S100 Motorola (8 phones) A820 (?) (September), Accompli 008, Accompli 009, A388, T280i, T720, V60i, V66i Sony Ericsson (2 phones) P800, Z700
WiFi (Wireless Fidelity) [HL02] is the popular name for the WLANs based on the IEEE 802.11b standard [ICS99]. As well as being deployed in businesses and homes, WiFi is also being deployed in open areas to create what are termed "hotspots". It is hoped within the industry that WiFi will bring broadband Internet access to the general population. WiFi has a range of about 50 meters and supports a theoretical throughput of 11Mb/s. In practice, 7 Mb/s is a more realistic figure. WiFi operates in the unlicensed 2.4 GHz spectrum. Unfortunately, thick walls can reduce both the range and the throughput considerably. However, by using high gain external antennae, and under line-of-sight conditions, WiFi offers a very attractive alternative to leased lines or conventional microwave systems. A newer version of the protocol – 801.11a offer throughputs of up to 54Mb/s and operate in the 5GHz band. However, it may be less useful in offices and buildings as walls absorb the higher frequencies more than the 2.4GHz signals of 802.11b.
Two problems continue to affect WiFi in an adverse manner. WiFi is essentially an insecure system principally because it was not designed with robust security as a priority. However, this issue continues to receive urgent attention within the WiFi community. The second problem concerns interference. As it operates in unlicensed spectrum, it could find itself competing with other products. For example, a microwave oven operating in the neighbourhood and at a similar frequency would cause problems, as could another business’s WLAN. As WiFi installations are relatively rare, such issues are not of concern today. However, should WiFi be deployed as its advocates wish, such issues will become increasingly important and the need for solutions more urgent.
Bluetooth [URL15] is a universal radio interface that enables portable electronic devices connect and communicate wirelessly via short-range ad-hoc networks [Haa98]. One of the objectives of Bluetooth is to eliminate the need for the cabling and connectors that plagues modern computing systems. For example, if somebody received an email on their Bluetooth-enabled mobile phone and a hard copy was required, they could approach a Bluetooth-enabled printer and print the message directly without resorting to installing device drivers or connecting via a LAN etc. To enable visions like this, Ericsson, Nokia, Toshiba, IBM and Intel formed the Bluetooth SIG in 1998 with the specific objective of defining a suitable specification. This specification would then be used by various companies to implement their own products thereby ensuring interoperability.
From a technical perspective, Bluetooth operates in the international 2.4 GHz frequency band with a gross data rate of 1Mbit/s. The nominal range of a Bluetooth device is 10 meters. Two or more Bluetooth devices can form a piconet. To regulate traffic between devices, one must become a master – usually the device that establishes the piconet. The others are termed slaves. A group of piconets is termed a scatternet. A device may be a member of a number of piconets at the same time. One of the advantages of the piconet-scatternet architecture is that it can increase both the range and the data throughput of individual devices.
One of the primary objectives of satellite telephony is to extend access to people in remote areas where terrestrial fixed line and cellular services do not exist. By regarding a satellite as a base station in orbit, the principles behind satellite telephony are very similar to those underpinning cellular communications. However, subscribers to a satellite service enjoy global roaming, a feature not yet available to their terrestrial cellular counterparts. Satellite telephony systems can be classified according to the height of their orbits (table 2). The success of satellite based telephony systems has been varied. While the technology is proven, nevertheless, there have been some high profile spectacular commercial failures. Both Iridium and ICO were rescued from bankruptcy. Naturally, the reasons given vary. However it is thought that events on the ground, namely the success of 2G networks contributed. For example, Iridium was conceived in the early 1990s, but by the time it was deployed (almost a decade later), it could not compete competitively with GSM. However, its revised business model is geared towards serving industrial and institutional subscribers rather than the personal communications market.