This document provides an overview of rural livelihoods and social welfare. It begins by defining key concepts such as livelihood, sustainable livelihood, and vulnerability context. It then discusses livelihood assets, strategies, and outcomes. Livelihood strategies include agricultural intensification/extensification, livelihood diversification, and migration. The goal of livelihood promotion is to create sustainable livelihoods that are resilient to shocks, do not rely on external support, maintain resource productivity, and do not undermine others' livelihoods.

1. COURSE NAME RURAL LIVELIHOOD
AND SOCIAL WELFARE
Prepared by zena Befkadu (Msc )
1

2. CHAPTER ONE
 The concept of livelihood
2

3. THE STUDENT
 At the end of this course, students will be able to:
 Explain major concepts of livelihoods
 To be know and understand the livelihood Asset
 Will define livelihood strategies
 Will be understand and define livelihood
outcome
3

4. 1.1. WHAT IS LIVELIHOOD?
 Livelihood is a set of economic activities, involving self-
employment and/or wage-employment by using one’s endowments
(human and material)
 to generate adequate resources (cash and non-cash) for meeting the
requirements of self and the household usually carried out
repeatedly and as such become a way of life.
 A livelihood comprises
the capabilities ( ability), assets (including both material and
social resources, and store , claim and access ,resources ) and
activities ( Attitude ) required for a means of living

5. CONTINUE
 livelihood as a means of support or subsistence
where subsistence defined as the minimum
 Means of support or subsistence
 The villagers' main livelihood is fishing. obsolete
the quality or state of being lively.
 not just the means to survive to but the capability
to thrive

6. 1.2. WHY PROMOTE LIVELIHOODS?
 In the current decade, more millions of people in the
world seek work every year.
 Thus, to ensure full employment within a decade, more
million new livelihoods will have to be generated every
year.
 Given the magnitude of the problem, and the dearth of
resources for livelihood promotion, the task of promoting
livelihoods for the poor becomes all the more urgent.
 It calls for organizations to use their resources optimally
to achieve maximum scale.

7. CONTINUE ……
 The primary reason to promote livelihoods is the belief in
the essential right of all human beings to equal
opportunity.
 Poor people do not have life choices nor do they have
opportunities.
 Ensuring that a poor household has a stable livelihood
will substantially increase its income, and over a period of
time, asset ownership, self-esteem and social
participation

8. CONTINUE ….
 The second reason for livelihood promotion is to
promote economic growth.
 The ‘bottom of the pyramid’ comprising billion people in
the world, who do not have the purchasing power to buy
even the bare necessities of life – food, clothing and
shelter. But as they get steadier incomes through
livelihood promotion, they become customers of many
goods and services, which then promote growth.

9. CONTINUE…..
 The third reason for promoting livelihoods is to
ensure social and political stability.
 When people are hungry, they tend to take to
violence and crime.
 Thus, we see that there are idealistic, utilitarian and
plain self-interest based arguments for livelihood
promotion.
 But whatever be the reason, we need to worry about
– how to promote livelihoods?

10. 1.3 LIVELIHOODS AS AN INTEGRATING CONCEPT
 The importance of articulating economic, social and
environmental policy dimensions into one decision-making
framework is vital.
 Cohesion across each of the three dimensions is essential,
since the livelihood decision-making domain of each person
is facilitated and /or constrained by interacting factors in all
three.
 Better `triangulation' of these disparate but mutually
supportive aspects of public policy is at the heart of the
sustainable livelihoods concept
 Social Dimension
 Economic Dimension
 Environmental Dimension

11. CONTINU …

12. CONTINUE……
 Two broad principles are at the core of the sustainable
livelihoods approach.
 First and foremost is its integrative power.
 The concept can serve as `an integrating factor that allows
policies to address issues of development, sustainable
resource management and poverty eradication simultaneously.
 Second is its emphasis not just on jobs, but on the complexity
of livelihood systems which need to be both understood and
addressed in the context of families, local households and
communities.

13. CONTINUE …
 The policy objective must be therefore, identify the
livelihood systems, survival strategies and self-help
organizations of people living in poverty, and
working with such organizations to develop
programs for combating poverty ensuring the full
participation of the people concerned

14. 1.4 VULNERABILITY CONTEXT
 What is the vulnerability?
 Refers to exposure to contingencies and stress, and
difficulty in coping with them.
 Vulnerability can be seen as resource-poor households’
exposure to external stresses and shocks which affect
their ability to achieve the kind of livelihood outcomes
they aim at.
 Vulnerability in itself means the state of
defenselessness, insecurity and exposure to risk, shocks
and stress.

15. CONTINUE ….
 The Vulnerability Context frames the external environment in which
people exist.
 People’s livelihoods and the wider availability of assets are
fundamentally affected by critical trends as well as by shocks and
seasonality – over which they have limited or no control.
 Trends
 Population trends
 Resource trends (including conflict)
 National/international economic trends
 Trends in governance (including politics)
 Technological trends

16. CONTINUE ….
 Shocks
 Human health shocks
 Natural shocks
 Economic shocks
 Conflict
 Crop/livestock health shocks
 Seasonality of
 Prices
 Production
 Health
 Employment opportunities

17. CONTINUE….
 Households and individuals will have different and
varying degrees of access to and thus different
portfolios of assets.
 However not only do fewer assets equate to greater
vulnerability, but also lower potential for substitution
between assets and activities makes livelihoods more
vulnerable, especially to shocks.

18. CONTINUE…
 Assets that can readily be liquidated and used to
purchase more appropriate assets provide for greater
livelihood flexibility.
 Substitution within asset categories can also occur. One
notable example relates to the re-allocation of labour
between domestic and outside earning opportunities in
response to changing circumstance.
 With access to different portfolios of diverse assets,
individuals and households will consequently respond in
different ways to given livelihood shocks or trends.

19. CONTINUE…..
 Different types of conflict can have profound adverse
effects on the livelihoods of the poor.
 In areas of civil conflict people suffer from lawlessness and
physical damage.
 Conflicts over access to resources are of increasing
importance as populations expand and resource use
intensifies.
 If unaddressed, such conflicts may further marginalize
already poor groups.

20. CONTINUE …..
 It is common for there to be a vicious circle in action. The
inherent fragility of poor people’s livelihoods makes them
unable to cope with stresses, whether predictable or not.
 It also makes them less able to manipulate or influence
their environment to reduce those stresses; as a result they
become increasingly vulnerable and even when trends
move in the right direction, the poorest are often unable to
benefit because they lack assets and strong institutions
working in their favor.

21. WHAT CAN BE DONE TO ALTER THE VULNERABILITY
CONTEXT? OR COPING STRATEGIES
 How do we reduce vulnerability?
 Implementing building codes.
 Insurance and social protection (risk)
 Emphasizing economic diversity and resilient livelihoods.
 (to help people to become more resilient and better able
to capitalize on its positive aspects) …Core aim to SLA
 It can be achieved through supporting poor people to build
up their assets
 Knowledge and awareness raising.
 Preparedness measures.


22. 1.5 LIVELIHOOD ASSETS

23. 1.7 LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES
 Livelihood strategies refer to the range of combination of
activities that people undertake in order to achieve their
livelihood objectives.
 The types of livelihood options that are available to
people are thought to be influenced by the vulnerability
context, the extent of livelihood assets and the nature of
transforming structures and processes
 Crop production, livestock rearing, tourism and
employment

24. CONTINUE…..
 Within the sustainable livelihoods framework, three
broad clusters of livelihood strategies are identified.
there are
1. agricultural Intensification/extensification
2. Livelihood diversification
3. Migration
.

25. CONTINUE….
 Broadly, these are seen to cover the range of options open to
rural people.
 Either you gain more of your livelihood from agriculture
(including livestock rearing, aquaculture, forestry etc.) through
processes of intensification (more output per unit area through
capital investment or increases in labour inputs) or
extensification (more land under cultivation), or you diversify to
a range of off-farm income earning activities, or you move away
and seek a livelihood, either temporarily or permanently,
elsewhere.
 Or, more commonly, you pursue a combination of strategies
together or in sequence.

26. CONTINUE…..
 Drawing on reviews of the wider literature, the following
distinctions can be seen:
 Agricultural intensification/extensification:– These
strategies mainline continued or increasing dependence on
agriculture, either by intensifying resource use through the
application of greater quantities of labour or capital for a
given land area, or by bringing more land into cultivation or
grazing.

27. CONTINUE….
 Whether, households pursue these strategies depend on
agro ecological potential and the implications for labour
and capital.
 Technical developments in agriculture may also operate
as a key determinant.
 The availability and the extent to which it is undertaken
by the household, will determine in major part the need
for, and the household resources available to, off-farm
livelihood diversification.
Off farm activitie means farmer
practice with out agricultural activity
Examples of off-farm income and
enterprise include
 extension services,
 processing,
 packaging,
 storage,
 transportation distribution, and
retail sale.
 trading
 salary from off farm job

28. CONTINUE
 Gain more of your livelihood from agriculture (including
livestock rearing, aquaculture, forestry etc.)
 Intensification = more output per unit area through
capital investment or increases in labour inputs
 Extensification = more land under cultivation

29. CONTINUE…
2. Livelihood diversification:
 Diversification here may be to broaden the range of on-
farm activities (e.g. adding value to primary products by
processing or semi-processing them), or to diversify off-
farm activities by taking up new jobs.
 It may be undertaken by choice for accumulation or
reinvestment purposes, or of necessity either to cope
with temporary adversity or as a more permanent
adaptation to the failure of other livelihood options.

30. CONTINUE…
 The former motivation might be associated with a wide
income-earning portfolio to offset all future types of shocks
or stress, whereas the latter would more likely be a
narrower, rehearsed response to a particular type of
common shocks or stress.
 Diversification therefore may involve developing a wide
income earning portfolio to cover all types of shocks or
stress jointly or the strategy may involve focusing on
developing responses to handle a particular type of
common shocks or stress through well developed coping
mechanisms.
on-farm activities consist of farming and
agricultural production, including casual and
seasonal labor.
Viewed through a value chain lens, on-farm
work occurs at the “beginning” of the value
chain.
Off-farm income encompasses all
agriculture-related activities that occur
beyond the farm

31. CONTINUED LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES
3. Migration
Migration may be voluntary or involuntary.
 As a critical strategy to secure off-farm employment (i.e.
needs driven), it may rely on and/or stimulate economic and
social links between areas of origin and destination
 Kinship structures, social and cultural norms may strongly
influence who migrates.
 Migration will have implications for the asset status of those
left behind, for the role of women and for on-farm investments
in productivity.

32. CONTINUE ….
 key issue in the analysis of livelihood strategies is the
scale at which an assessment takes place.
 Livelihood strategies, for example, can be described at
an individual, household and village level, as well as at
regional or even national levels. But there are
differences evident between scale levels in terms of the
net livelihood effects

33. 1.8 LIVELIHOOD OUTCOMES
 Livelihood outcomes are the achievements of livelihood
strategies, such as
 More income (e.g. cash),
 Increased well-being (e.g. non material goods, like
self-esteem, health status, access to services, sense
of inclusion),
 Reduced vulnerability (e.g. better resilience through
increase in asset status),
 Improved food security (e.g. increase in financial
capital in order to buy food) and
 A more sustainable use of natural resources (e.g.
appropriate property rights).

34. CONTINUE…
 Outcomes help us to understand the 'output' of the
current configuration of factors within the livelihood
framework; they demonstrate what motivates
stakeholders to act as they do and what their
priorities are.
General a livelihood outcome
 Health
 Food security
 Infrastructure
 Income
 Relationship of trust
 Sustainable use of natural
resourse

35. RURAL LIVELIHOODS: A FRAMEWORK FOR
ANALYSIS
 The livelihood framework is a tool that helps to define
the scope of and provide the analytical basis for
livelihoods analysis, by identifying the main factors
affecting livelihoods and the relationships between them;
 To help those concerned with supporting the livelihoods
of poor people to understand and manage their
complexity

36. CONTINUED …..
 To become a shared point of reference for all concerned
with supporting livelihoods, enabling the
complementarities of contributions and he trade-offs
between outcomes to be assessed
 To provide a basis for identifying appropriate objectives
and interventions to support livelihoods

37. CONTINUED
 The diagram also shows that the actions of people,
households and communities themselves have an
influence on these external forces
 Livelihood analysis refers to finding out the degree to which
the pattern of life differs from one social class to another
social class in terms of size of the family, type of house,
technology adoption pattern, size of land holding, annual
income, sources of income, food habits, expenditure
pattern, appreciation, type .

38. CONTINUED

39.  2. The Concept, Principles and Objectives of
Sustainable Livelihoods
Chapter Two

40. 2.1. WHAT IS SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD?
 The sustainable livelihood is a way of linking
socioeconomic and ecological considerations in a
cohesive, policy-relevant structure.
 Sustainable livelihoods could serve as ‘an
integrating factor that allows policies to address
 Development,
 sustainable resource management, and
 poverty eradication simultaneously.

41. CONTINUE
 A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and
recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or
enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in
the future, while not undermining natural resource
bases.
 SL is the process by which the source of living of an
individual is secured for now and future use.

42. CONTINUE
 A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets including both
material and social resources, and activities acquired for a
means of living. Livelihoods are sustainable when they:
1. are resilient in the face of external shocks and stresses;
2. are not dependent upon external support (or if they are,
this support itself should be economically and
institutionally sustainable);
3. maintain the long-term productivity of natural resources;
and
4. Do not undermine the livelihoods of, or compromise the
livelihood options open to others.

43. 2.2. SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD AND THE CONCEPTS OF
CAPABILITY, EQUITY, AND SUSTAINABILITY
 Capabilities, equity, and sustainability combine in the
concept of sustainable livelihoods.
 A livelihood in its simplest sense is a means of gaining a
living.
 Capability in its literal meaning is those things which enable
a person to function as normal human being and hence are
essential for human flourishing. Capabilities are both an end
and a means of livelihood.

44. CONTINU
 A livelihood provides the support for enhancement and
exercise of capabilities (an end) and capabilities (a means)
enable a livelihood to be gained.
 Capability are the substantive freedoms a person enjoys to
lead the kind of life he has reason to value.
 Amartya Sen's capability theory approach is a theoretical
framework that involves two core normative
statements/claim.

45. CONTINUE
 First, the assumption that freedom to achieve well-
being is of primary moral importance.
 And second, that freedom to achieve well-being
must be understood in terms of people with
capabilities

46. CONTINUE
 The capabilities approach goes directly to the quality of
life that people can actually achieve.
 This quality of life is analyzed in terms of the central
concepts of “functioning” and “capability”.
 Sen argues that the correct approach to assessing how
well people are doing is their ability to live a life that we
have reason to value, not their wealth of resources or
subjective well-being

47. CONTINUED
 Equity is both an end and a means: any minimum
definition of equity must include adequate and decent
livelihoods for all (an end), and equity in asset and access
are preconditions (means) for gaining adequate and
decent livelihoods.
 Equity refers to social justice or fairness, and is one of
the central pillars of many health, education and livelihood
programs

48. CONTINUE
 Sustainability, too, is both end and means: sustainable
stewardship of resource is a value (or end) in itself.
 It provides conditions (a means) for livelihood to be
sustainable for future generation
 Another way of conceptualizing the many dimensions of
sustainability is to distinguish between environmental,
economic, social and institutional aspects of sustainable
systems. Sustainability has many dimensions, all of which
are important to the sustainable livelihoods approach

49.  Sustainability has many dimensions, all of which are
important to the sustainable livelihoods approach.
 Environmental sustainability is achieved when the
productivity of life-supporting natural resources is
conserved or enhanced for use by future generations.
 Economic sustainability is achieved when a given
level of expenditure can be maintained over time. In
the context of the livelihoods of the poor, economic
sustainability is achieved if a baseline level of
economic welfare can be achieved and sustained.

50.  Social sustainability is achieved when social
exclusion is minimized and social equity
maximized.
 Institutional sustainability is achieved when
prevailing structures and processes have the
capacity to continue to perform their functions
over the long term

51. 2.3. SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD APPROACH PRINCIPLES
AND POVERTY REDUCTION
 The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach is a broader
concept than the Framework.
 The Framework is a way of understanding what a
livelihood is.
 The SLA is a broader concept of how we need to
intervene in order to promote poverty eradication.
 It is thus very relevant in designing interventions.

52.  The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework is still
the most widely recognized and used SL
framework.
 Different development agencies have produced
variations with differing degrees of emphasis on
different components of SLF, but all the models
essentially share the same principles, components
and interrelationships between the components

53.  Sustainable livelihood Approach (SLA) has seven guiding
principles, which are flexible and adaptable to diverse
local conditions.
 The guiding principles are the following.
1. People centered =a livelihoods approach puts people at
the center of development.
2. Holistic =people adopts many strategies to secure their
livelihoods and that many actors are involved

54. 3. Dynamic:- SLA seeks to understand the dynamic
nature of livelihoods and what influences them.
4. Builds on strength:- SLA builds on people’s perceived
strengths and opportunities.
5. Promote micro-macro links:
6. Encourage broad partnership
7. Aim for sustainability: - sustainability is important if
poverty reduction is to be lasting

55.  There are four key dimensions to sustainability:
1. Economic
2. Institutional,
3. Social
4. Environmental sustainability.
 All are important and a balance must be found
between them

56. 2.4. THE SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD APPROACHES
(SLA)
 The sustainable livelihoods approach is a holistic
approach that tries to capture, and provide a
means of understanding, the fundamental causes
and dimensions of poverty without collapsing the
focus onto just a few factors (e.g. economic issues,
food security and etc)
 The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) is a
method of analyzing and changing the lives of people
experiencing poverty and disadvantage.

57. CONTINUE
 It is a participatory approach based on the recognition
that all people have abilities and assets that can be
developed to help them improve their lives.


58. 2.5. THE SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD FRAMEWORK: AN
ANALYTICAL TOOL TO IMPLEMENT SLA
 The sustainable livelihoods approach provides a framework
to help understand the main factors that affect poor people’s
livelihoods, and the relationships between these factors,
and this in turn facilitates the planning and implementation
of more effective development interventions
 By centering our thinking is around people rather than the
technical inputs.
 Development might deliver to them so that the chances of
achieving sustainable impacts on poverty reduction are
significantly improved.

59. CONTINUE
 The sustainable livelihood approach:
 Identifies existing assets and strategies available to poor
women and men and uses these as a starting point;
 Helps keep the focus on poor people and their varied
livelihood assets, strategies and outcomes
 Recognizes differences based on sex, gender, age,
ethnicity, power and poverty status;
 Builds on strengths as a means to addressing needs and
constraints;

60. CONTINUE
 Makes explicit the links between policy and institutional
issues, and micro level realities; and
 Helps in understanding how individual, possibly sector-
specific, development programmes and projects fit into
the wider livelihoods agenda and objectives.

61. CONTINUE
 SL analysis (the application of the SL approach) is likely
to identify a number of different options for supporting
livelihoods.
 But development programmes and projects should not
attempt to tackle all aspects of livelihoods
 A key lesson from SL analysis is that holistic analysis is
important but that does not imply that multi-sectoral and
multi-level interventions are necessarily appropriate

62. 2.5.1 ANALYZING ASSETS
 Analyzing Human Capital
 Analyzing physical Capital
 Analyzing Finical Capital
 Analyzing Social Capital

63. 2.6. PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE RURAL
LIVELIHOOD
 Planning for what combination of interventions is most
important in a particular site presents some major
challenges.
 Planning for and implementing a sustainable livelihoods
approach is therefore necessarily iterative and dynamic
 sustainable livelihood among the variety of
stakeholders must therefore be a first task in any
intervention process.

64. CHAPTER 3
3. Livelihoods Analysis Approach

65. 3.1. Framework analysis of Sustainable livelihoods
 The sustainable livelihoods framework presents
the main factors that affect people's livelihoods,
and typical relationships between these.
 It can be used in both planning new development
activities and assessing the contribution to
livelihood sustainability made by existing activities.

66. CONTINUE
 The framework shows how, in different contexts,
sustainable livelihoods are achieved through access to a
range of livelihood resources (natural, economic, human
and social capitals) which are combined in the pursuit of
different livelihood strategies (agricultural intensification
or extensification, livelihood diversification and
migration).

67.  Central to the framework is the analysis of the
range of formal and informal organizational and
institutional factors that influence sustainable
livelihood outcomes.

68. CONTINUE
 Livelihood analysis refers to finding out the degree to
which the pattern of life differs from one social class to
another social class in terms of size of the family, type of
house, technology adoption pattern, size of land holding,
annual income, sources of income, food habits,
expenditure pattern, indebtedness, type.

69. CONTINUE
Fig. The DFID Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) (Source: redrawn from DFID
1999).

70. 3.2. Combing resource
 In the livelihoods approach, resources are referred to as
'assets' or 'capitals' and are often categorized between five
or more different asset types owned or accessed by family
members: human capital (skills, education, health), physical
capital (produced investment goods), financial capital
(money, savings, loan ).
 Different resources combining from Agriculture and none
Agriculture resource for livelihood and use analysis it

71. 3.3. Institution and organization
 An organization is an assemblage of people who unite to
undertake a common goal, led by a person or a group there on.
 An institution is described a form of organization, which is set up
for an educational, religious, social or professional cause .
 Examples of institutions include Church, marriage, family,
Parliament etc.
 Examples of organizations include the Army, businesses,
charity organizations, schools, etc.

72.  Institution refers to both abstract and concrete
entities.
 Organization refers to a physical entity.

73. 

74.  Discuss Operational implication of Livelihoods
Analysis Approach

75. 3.5. Agriculture and Rural livelihoods
 Agriculture = the science or practice of farming, including
cultivation of the soil for the growing of crops and the
rearing of animals to provide food, wool, and other
products.
 Best definition of Agriculture is the art and science of
cultivating the soil, growing crops and raising livestock. It
includes the preparation of plant and animal products for
people to use and
 their distribution to market. Agriculture provides most of the
world’s food and fabrics.

76.  Rural livelihood = Rural livelihoods are a broad concept, which
stretches across a number of domains and disciplines to capture
the different ways in which ecological systems, socio-
economic systems, and their governance contribute to
determine income generation and distribution in rural areas.

77. CONTINUE
 In the rural areas, predominant source of livelihood is
agriculture. Agriculture is the cornerstone of human
survival.
 Farmer use skills and knowledge of natural resources
to grow food and support their livelihood.

78.  Agriculture is the mainstay of livelihoods for the
majority of the households. Salaried job, skilled non-
farm job, and remittances are more remunerative
livelihood sources; however only a few households adopt
these activities due to lack of education, assets,
investment capital, and skills

79. CHAPTER 4
Rural Social welfare and
Development

80. 4.1. What is social welfare and development?
 The Department of Social Welfare and Development
(DSWD) is mandated by law to develop, administer and
implement comprehensive social welfare programs
designed to uplift the living conditions and empower the
disadvantaged children, youth, women, older persons,
person with disabilities, families in crisis or at-risk.

81. CONTINUE
 Social welfare is
 The condition or well-being of a society.
 It can be considered as a state or condition of human.
 Well-being that exists when social problems are managed,
when human needs are met and when social opportunities
are maximized. Social welfare includes
• healthcare,
• empowerment,
• housing and other programs geared towards assisting
the poor, unemployed and marginalized in society.

82. CONTINUE
 Such programs include Medicaid, AFDC (Aid for families
with dependent children), WIC (women, infants and
children) programs, veteran programs and others.
 Social welfare as amoral concept reflecting the value
preferences as social policy, as program and services, as
income transfer and as study of functions outsides market
forces to meet human needs.

83. CONTINUE
 Social welfare is also a nations system of programs,
benefits, and services that help people meet those social,
economic, educational health needs that are fundamental to
the maintenance of society.

84. Social welfare
Psychology Sociology
Psychiatry
Political sciences
Cultural
Anthropology
Economics

85. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
 Social development is about improving the well-being of
every individual in society so they can reach their full
potential.
 The success of society is linked to the well-being of each
and every citizen.
 Social development means investing or advancing in
people.

86. CONTINUED
 Social development means finger pointing of the ability to
behave in accordance with social with expectation

87. WHY IS SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT?
 Healthy social development can help your child:
 Develop language skills.
 An ability to interact with other children allows for more opportunities to
practice and learn speech and language skills. ...
 Build self-esteem.
 Strengthen learning skills.
 Resolve conflicts.
 Establish positive attitude
 Its important of Social development is about improving the well-being of every
individual in society so they can reach their full potential.
 The success of society is linked to the well-being of each and every citizen.
 Social development means investing in people

88. WHAT ARE ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT?
 Overall, societal development is human, society, culture,
politic, administration, and economic development.

89. 4.2. Discourses of social problems/ philosophical roots underlying
welfare practice
 Discourse, which includes the knowledge, myths and received ideas
as well as language, circulating within the professional world of the
social worker.
 There are a number of examples to illustrate these themes in social
work debate.
 Discourses delineate what can be said within a given set
of ideas so that critical practice is exercised when we try
to look at what is excluded by a particular discourse in
order to alternative viewpoints.

90. CONTINUE
 Social discourse - ማህበራዊ ንግግር- includes casual
conversation between people when they go out.
 Other forms of social communication and discourse are not
related to technology.
 There are many examples of this, from the “town hall
meeting” of modern politics, to interactive public events
related to communities, corporations, or both.

91. CONTINUE
 It philosophical root in the second, broader, sense social
welfare has to do with all the members and institutions of a
society.
 This sense derives from the concerns of moral and political
philosophers about the structure of society and the production
and distribution of basic values (such as wealth, power, liberty,
equality and happiness).
 Social problems are part of the climate of opinion in society
which centers on expressed needs for public policies and
anticipated requirements for social.

92. 4.3. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVES OF SOCIAL WELFARE
 Economic perspective of social welfare = Welfare economics
is the study of how the allocation of resources and goods
affects social welfare.
 This relates directly to the study of economic efficiency and
income distribution, as well as how these two factors affect the
overall well-being of people in the economy.

93. CONTINUE
 Social perspectives of social welfare = Three theoretical
perspectives guide sociological thinking on social
problems: functionalist theory, conflict theory, and
symbolic interactionist theory.
 These perspectives look at the same social problems, but
they do so in different ways

94. 4.4. The goals and principles of social welfare
 Social welfare development strategies and activities are all
undertaken by governments, businesses, and civil society to
improve the quality of human life through policies and
programs that oriented to social services, social healing,
social protection and empowerment

95. THE GOAL OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
 The realization of more balanced approaches to social and
economic development
 The assignment of the highest priority to the fullest possible
human development
 The fullest possible participation of people everywhere in
determining both the means and outcomes of development
 the elimination of absolute poverty everywhere in the world

96. CONTINUE
 The realization of new social arrangements that accelerate the
pace of development and assure the satisfaction of basic needs
of people everywhere
 The transformation of societies toward more humanistic values
based on social justice, the promotion of peace, and the
attainment of the fullest possible human development
 However, development of social welfare still has strategic
significance for regional development.

97. CONTINUE
 There are at least four important functions of social welfare
development
1. Reinforce the role of state officials in implementing the
mandates ‘obligation of the state’
 (state obligation) to protect its citizens in the face of risks of
social-economic unexpected (illness, natural disasters,
crises) and meet their basic needs in order to improve the
standard of living better and quality.

98. CONTINUE
2. Realize the ideals of social justice in practice:-
 Development of social welfare which is based on
principles of solidarity, and social solidarity is basically a
means of redistribution of wealth of a region of strong
income groups to low-income communities
3. Encouraging economic growth:- social welfare
development contributed to the preparation of the
workforce, social stability, resilience, and social order, which
in essence is an important prerequisite for economic
growth.

99. CONTINUE FUNCTION OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
4. Improving Human Development Index (HDI):- the
focus is on the development of social welfare and human
development of human resources quality through
education and public health need.

100. 4.5. CONCEPTS AND MEASUREMENT OF SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
 What is the concept of social Development?
 Social development is about improving the well-being
of every individual in society so they can reach their
full potential.
 The success of society is linked to the well-being of
each and every citizen. Social development means
investing in people

101. CONTINUE
 As with economic development, it is necessary to be able to
measure the degree or level of social development in a
particular area or society at a given point in time, so that one
can make comparisons between areas or societies and
record changes over time.
 In order to do this, one must select appropriate social
indicators - that is, things that can be measured in order to
give a good indication of the degree or level of social
development.

102. CONTINUE
 When selecting appropriate social indicators, there are three
main requirements which need to be considered
1. Social indicators:- the indicators should provide an
adequate reflection of the type of social development one is
trying to measure.
 This means that they should cover all relevant aspects of
social development (social characteristics, quality of life, social
services, social justice) and that they should reflect what is
generally agreed as being a positive change in these
characteristics.

103. CONTINUE
2. Availability and collection of data:- it must be possible
to obtain the data needed to actually measure the variables
selected as indicators, either from secondary sources (ie.
data already collected and available for use) or by cost-
effective data collection exercises. This is often a major
problem

104. CONTINUE
 The problems are particularly great at district level,
especially if one requires information for a particular project
or programme, rather than merely to give a general
impression of the level of social development.
 Any secondary data available is likely to have been
collected for national planning purposes, and thus to be of
limited value for this particular project or programme, and
one seldom has the resources necessary to carry out a
comprehensive data collection exercise of one's own

105. CONTINUE
3. Data to enable comparisons:- the data must be
available in a form which enables comparisons to be made
between different areas or societies and over time. This
means that the data must be expressed in a comparative or
'scalable' form.

106. CONTINUE
 This is easy to do when the data is in quantitative (ie.
numerical) form, but it is more difficult when, as is often
the case with social data, it is qualitative in nature.
 In the latter case, one can either use some sort of
qualitative scale (eg. 'high', 'medium', 'low'; 'very good',
'good', 'fair', 'poor', 'very poor') or give brief written
descriptions which indicate the main points of similarity
and/or difference.

107. CONTINUE
 It also means that the data must be collected at regular
intervals, so that comparisons can be made over time,
and that it must be disaggregated (or broken down) on
the basis of the areas or groups that one wishes to
compare

108. CHOICE OF FEW KEY INDICATORS
 Because of the problems of obtaining accurate,
comprehensive data, one often has to rely on a few key
indicators of social development, for which information is
readily available and which are correlated with other factors
which it is not possible to measure
 For example, per capita income, infant mortality, life
expectancy at birth and adult literacy are generally
recognized as useful key indicators of the general quality of
life. Sometimes a number of key indicators are combined to
form a composite index.

109. CONTINUE
 Notwithstanding the importance of per capita national
income in assessing a country’s development, the factors
outside the monetary sphere are neglected by such a
measure.
 The ranks of countries according to their per capita,
national income also contracts with a ‘common sense’
ranking of their development.
 It was critical against the use of per capita national income
for measuring standards and levels of living. This position
has generally been endorsed by others.

110. CONTINUE
 Development, particularly the social development,
embodies enhancement of desired aspects of
human life.
 It is in this context important to note that different
authors used different measurements to social
development.

111. CONTINUE
1. The physical quality of life index (PQLI) combined three
physical indicators (life expectancy at birth, infant mortality
and adult literacy) for a cross-country comparison.
2. HDI:- UNDP has introduced human development index
(HDI) for a large number of countries in 1990 and has been
bringing out HDI every year since then.

112. CONTINUE
 HDI is based on three indicators, namely, life expectancy
at birth, educational attainment, as measured by a
combination of adult literacy and the combined first,
second- and third-level gross enrolment ratio; and standard
of living measured by real GDP per capita (PPP). HDI is by
far the most popular measure of development.

113. CONTINUE
3. Social Development Index
 The proposed social development index takes a drastic view to the
extent to remove GDP per capita index, though it is expressed in PPP
terms.
 There are three reasons for replacing GDP index from our proposal.
The first reason is that even though it is counted as PPP measure of
GDP, the income measure is not at all relevant for the purpose of
international comparison of capability, freedom, and ‘development’
index. People do not go to other countries.
 Individuals do not go to the US, to China, or to Kenya to buy their
daily necessities. The second reason is

114. CONTINUE
 that there are lots more things than money for flourishing
human capability, and that the scope of the opportunity of
other things (non- monetary) would be wider in low income
countries, in particular. That may depend on the degree of
marketing and commercialization of the economy. The third
reason is that money in itself may be regarded as the
source of trouble beyond certain amount of holding

115. CONTINUE
 In this respect, GDP per capita express in PPP is nothing to
do with capability, individuals’ sense of achievement, human
relationship, relative position in the society, participation in
the social activities, concerns to other people, particularly to
those whose living condition faces various hardships.
 There are additional dimensions; poverty reduction, equality,
and sustainable environment.

116. CONTINUE
 By adding these three dimensions, it is designed to make
the index to reflect the social opportunity, nature of the
society in which individuals live, and the social
environment under, which people actualize their real
functioning.

117. CONTINUE
 Thus, new social development index has the
following six dimensions:
A long and healthy life
(2) Knowledge
(3) A decent standard of living
(4) Poverty reduction
(5) Equality
(6) Environment

118. CONTINUE
 For the construction of SDI, the simple average of the six
indicators from each dimension is taken.
 Six dimensional indices are explained next;
 Life expectancy index is simply life expectancy at birth,
same as in HDI, to represent the dimension 1 (A long and
healthy life).
 Education index is composed of adult literacy rate and
gross enrolment ratio, this is the same as in HDI too, to
represent the dimension 2 (Knowledge).

119. CONTINUE
 For a decent standard of living, the percentage of
children underweight for age, under age 5, is adopted in
place of GDP per capita index.
 The percentage is taken from the indicator used in HPI-1,
but the formula is reversed in the sense it is subtracted
from number 1.
 It is taken as that a society cannot be said having a decent
standard of living so long as it has high percentage of
children under weight.

120. CONTINUE
 The data for the first three indices are taken from human
poverty index.
 Human Poverty Index-1 (HPI-1) is applied to
developing countries especially designed to indicate
human deprivation in developing countries. Probability at
birth of not surviving to age 40 is used for the dimension
of a long and health life.
 Adult illiteracy rate is used for the dimension of
knowledge.

121. CONTINUE
 Percentage of population without sustainable
access to an improved water source and
percentage of children under weight for age are
together used for the dimension of a decent
standard of living, as representing deprivation in a
decent standard of living.

122. CONTINUE
 For poverty reduction, low absolute poverty is
desirable.
 So, the indicator is constructed by subtracting the
percentage of people whose livelihood is less than $1 a
day fro, number 1.
 For equality, (1 – Gini Index) is used because the higher
the Gini coefficient the bigger the dispersion or inequality
in the society.

123. CONTINUE
 For the sixth and the last dimension (environment), the
percentage of urban population with access to improved
sanitation is used in the SDI formula
 Finally, all these 6 dimension indices, as shown in the
number between 0 and 1, are taken to simple average,
which means that each index has 1/6 equal weight in SDI.
 This weight system may be controversial because each
society values different dimensions quite differently

124. CONTINUE
 In addition to the reason of no strong weighting system
available internationally, the fact that the first three currently
HDI related dimensions and the last three rather society
related dimension have equal weights of one half each
seems rather reasonable.

125. 4.5.1 Characteristics of social development
 Some of the characteristics of social development are, thus, socialization
 the ability to take interest in others
 to share
 to co-operate
 to work as a member of a group
 to develop certain group loyalties,
 to develop friendships
 to interact,
 to compete,
 to enter into healthy combat with others
 to develop social.

126. 4.5.2. Social Protection issues
 Social protection can be defined as policies and programs
that help individuals and societies to manage risk and
volatility, protect them from poverty and inequality, and
help them to access economic opportunity.
 Examples include: health insurance exemptions, reduced
medical fees; education fee waivers; food subsidies; housing
subsidies and allowances; utility and electricity subsidies and
allowances; agricultural inputs subsidies; and transportation
benefits.

127. SOCIAL DIFFERENCES AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS
 Social difference means difference in a set of people due to
difference in their race, religion, language or culture. But
these differences are more than an accident of nature.
 A person does not choose his community where he would
be born.
 He just happens to be born in a particular community

128. CONTINUE
 Social differences refer to situations where people are
discriminated on the basis of social, economic and racial
inequality.
 In other words, one class, group or culture is given preference
over another on the basis of their social, economic, cultural or
racial inequality.
 A social problem is any condition or behavior that has
negative consequences for large numbers of people and
that is generally recognized as a condition or behavior that
needs to be addressed. This definition has both an objective
component and a subjective component.

129. CONTINUE
 A social problem is any condition or behavior that has
negative consequences for large numbers of people
and that is generally recognized as a condition or
behavior that needs to be addressed. This definition has
both an objective component and a subjective component.
 Social problems are dis functional phenomena relating to a
group of individuals within a society. Crime, poverty, teen
pregnancy, racism, etc.

130. CONTINUE
 A social problem has objective and subjective
realities.
 A social condition does not have to be personally
experienced by every individual to be considered a
social problem. The objective reality of a social problem
comes from acknowledging that a particular social
condition exists.

131. CONTINUE
 Example of social problem Poverty, unemployment,
unequal opportunity, racism, and malnutrition are
examples of social problems.
 So are substandard housing, employment discrimination,
and child abuse and neglect.
 Crime and substance abuse are also examples of social
problems

133. 

134. MAPPING SOCIAL PROBLEMS
 Social mapping is a visual method of showing the
relative location of households and the distribution
of different people (such as male, female, adult,
child, landed, landless, literate, and illiterate)
together with the social structure, groups and
organizations of an area.

135. CONTINUE
 What is social mapping and it’s important?
 Social mapping is making visible what has been invisible for a
very long time (i.e. the cultural and indigenous landscapes).
 It helps us understand histories and our sense of connection
with them, and provides perspectives on the future.

136. CONTINUE
 Type of social mapping
 Social mapping is the most popular method in participatory
action research.
 The focus is on the depiction of living conditions and the
nature of housing and social infrastructure: roads,
drainage system, schools, railway tracks, religious
buildings, post office, well, community hall etc.

137. DESCRIBING SOCIETAL RESPONSES TO SOCIAL PROBLEMS
 Ways of Solving Social Problems in the Society
 Guidance and Counseling
 Good Governance
 Creation of jobs and other Social Infrastructure
 Enforcement of Film Censorship and National Agency for Food
and Drug Administration Control (NAFDAC) Rules
 Adequate Punishment for Defaulters

138. Social Justice for Marginalized and Disadvantaged Groups: Issues
and Challenges for Social Policies in Ethiopia
 Marginalized groups are those sections of the society which
have remained ignored in the past due to several social and
economic causes.
 The chief groups among these include the scheduled castes, the
scheduled tribes, other backward classes and the minorities.
 The low social status of marginalized communities usually
translates into low economic status.
 They are less educated, have less access to facilities such as
schools, hospitals, housing, piped water and electric supply.

139.  There are Five Principles of Social Justice,
viz. Access, Equity, Diversity, Participation, and
Human Rights.


140.  The Policy focuses on 4 main areas (1) social safety
net; (2) livelihood and employment schemes; (3)
social insurance; and (4) addressing inequalities of
access to basic services.
 The human rights and humanitarian situation in Ethiopia
deteriorated further in 2021, with civilians impacted by a
devastating conflict in Tigray, security force abuses,
attacks by armed groups, and deadly ethnic
violence in other regions.

141. Social development planning in rural areas
 What is social Development Planning?
 Social Development planning is a process that involves local
governments and community members working together to
address social issues and build healthy communities.
Integrated with other types of planning, social planning focuses
on the people themselves in a community planning context.

142. CONTINUE
 What is the important of social development planning?
 A Social Development Plan is a comprehensive plan that
focuses on enhancing the quality of life for the citizens
of a community and helps provide a direction for
future decisions in the key areas identifies by its
community members.

143. The social dimension of sustainable development
 Sustainable development aims to provide a long-term
vision for the society.
 Activities to meet present needs may still have short-term
horizons, but they must in addition always include a long
term perspective.
 Sustainable development is an integrated concept
involving all human actions down to the local level, and:

144. CONTINUE
 Aims to improve the quality of life of both current and
future generations, while safeguarding the earth’s
capacity to support life in all its diversity;
 Is based on democracy, the rule of law and respect for
fundamental rights including freedom, equal opportunities
and cultural diversity;
 Promotes high levels of employment in an economy
whose strength is based on education, innovation, social
and territorial cohesion and the protection of human
health and the environment.

145. CONTINUE
 The many elements of sustainable development
are often organized into three dimensions or pillars:
environmental, economic and social.
 There are different approaches to how they relate
to each other, whether they are pillars on the same
level or three closely linked dimensions of
sustainable development.

146. CONTINUE
1. the environment is the necessary basis for
sustainable development
2. the economy is the tool to achieve sustainable
development
3. the good life for all (the social dimension) is the
target of sustainable development

147. CONTINUE
 The very essence of the sustainable development idea
is to shift the focus from the present needs to also
include the future generations as well.
 A sufficiently good life for all humans, within present
and future generations, is therefore the target of
sustainable development

148. CONTINUE
 The social dimension is also important because
sustainable development can only be achieved by
people who feel that they have a fair share of wealth,
safety and influence.
 The underlying assumption is not individual gain, but
the provision for, and involvement in equitable growth for
all in the society.

149.  Therefore the social dimension of sustainable
development includes support of the civil society, its
involvement in solving various types of issues and its
participation in decision processes on different levels.
 The social dimension also includes the fight against
poverty through employment, support to sustainable
livelihoods, antidiscrimination work, and social security for
all.

150.  CHAPTER FIVE
Poverty, Wellbeing and Social Equity

151. WHAT IS THE CONCEPT OF POVERTY?
 What is the concept of poverty?
 Poverty, the state of one who lacks a usual or socially
acceptable amount of money or material possessions.
 Poverty is said to exist when people lack the means to
satisfy their basic needs.

152. CONTINUE
 Three major points of view may be distinguished in the way
poverty is defined in these definitions:
1) being poor is lacking some basic necessities
2) being poor is having less than others in society, and
3) being poor is feeling you do not have enough to get
along

153. TYPE OF POVERTY
 There are two types of poverty: absolute poverty and
relative poverty.
 Both of these kinds of poverty are concerned with money
and consumption.
 Poverty is mostly seen in rural regions and among young
people; 80 percent of the extreme poor and 75 percent of
the moderate poor reside in rural areas.

154. CONTINUE
 Absolute poverty Condition where household income is insufficient to
afford basic necessity of life (Food, Shelter, clothing).
 Criteria not change by economic growth.
 When people do not have enough money or resource to meet their basic
human need such as lacking of food, shelter and cloth.
 Relative Poverty When household receive 50 % less income than
average median income.
 Criteria well change with economic growth.
 When people don’t have enough money or resource to live up to normal
standard in a society often defined as living below the median (mid-
point income).

155. CONTINUE


156. WHAT IS THE MEASUREMENT OF POVERTY?
 This way of measuring poverty includes the consideration
that expenditure on food in households is a constant
proportion of total expenditure.
 The poverty line is fixed by multiplying the value of the
basic food products by the reverse of the proportion
that food expenditure signifies for total expenditure.

157.  Poverty is measured in the United States
by comparing a person's or family's income to a set
poverty threshold or minimum amount of income
needed to cover basic needs.
 People whose income falls under their threshold
are considered poor.

158. IMPORTANT CONCEPT ( TERMINOLOGY) IN THE
MEASUREMENT OF
 Incidence of poverty , head count index , poverty
ratio

159. CONTINUE


160. CONTINUE
 The U.S. Census Bureau is the government agency in
charge of measuring poverty.
 Four approaches to the definition and measurement of
poverty are reviewed in this paper: the monetary,
capability, social exclusion and participatory
approaches.
 The theoretical underpinnings of the various measures
and problems of operationalizing them are pointed out.

161. 5.2. Poverty as the effect of economic or political causes
 Poverty creates many economic costs in terms of the
opportunity cost of lost output, the cost of welfare provision, and
the private and external costs associated with exclusion from
normal economic activity.
 These costs include the costs of unemployment, crime, and poor
health.
 Issues like hunger, illness, and poor sanitation are all causes
and effects of poverty.
 That is to say, that not having food means being poor, but being
poor also means being unable to afford food or clean water

162.  The effects of poverty are often interrelated so that one
problem rarely occurs alone. But first, we need to
understand what poverty is – and what causes it.
 Lack of access to clean water and nutritious food.
 Lack of access to basic healthcare.
 Inequality or social injustice.
 Lack of education.
 Poor basic infrastructure.
 Climate change.
 Lack of government support

163. CONTINUE


164. 5.3. Wellbeing and its measurement
 Concepts of well being
 Many different terms used to refer to whatever is
assessed in an evaluation of a person’s life situation
or ‘being’.
 In short, it is a description of the state of individuals’
life situation.
 An array of different terms has appeared in the
literature to label this situation

165. CONTINUE
 Along with well-being, the most common ones include the
quality of life, living standards and human development.
 Others include welfare, social welfare, well-living, utility, life
satisfaction, prosperity, needs fulfillment, development,
empowerment, capability expansion, poverty, human
poverty and, more recently, happiness

166. CONTINUE
 Some have distinct meanings, but there is usually
a high degree of overlap in underlying meanings.
 To define what well-being means a
multidimensional definition has to be used.
 At least in principle, these dimensions should
consider simultaneously

167. CONTINUE
 Material living standards (income, consumption and wealth);
• Health
• Education
• Personal activities including work: political voice and governance,
social connections and relationships
• Environment (present and future conditions)
• Insecurity, of an economic as well as a physical nature.
• All these dimensions shape people’s well-being, and yet many of
them are missed by conventional income measures.

168. CONTINUE
 Others include welfare, social welfare, well-living, utility,
life satisfaction, prosperity, needs fulfillment,
development, empowerment, capability expansion,
poverty, human poverty and, more recently, happiness.
 Some have distinct meanings, but there is usually a high
degree of overlap in underlying meanings.

169. 5.1.2. MEASURES OF WELL BEING
 In general, wellbeing measures can be classified into two
broad categories:
1. Objective measures:- This category measures wellbeing
through certain observable facts such as economic, social
and environmental statistics.
 People’s wellbeing is assessed indirectly using cardinal-
basic measures.
1. Objective
2. Subjective measure

170. I. OBJECTIVE MEASURES: ONE-DIMENSIONAL
WELLBEING
 GDP as a Measure of Utility
 While it is often asserted that economists are primarily
concerned with GDP levels and growth, it is important to
step back a little and remember that what matters most as
an “objective function” is people’s wellbeing.
 A fundamental assumption of standard economic analysis is
that people’s wellbeing increases with consumption (of food,
clothing, housing, entertainment, and many other goods and
services).

171. CONTINUE
 It is primarily due to this assumption that GDP (all that is
produced, and therefore either consumed or invested by a
country in a year) is so often taken as the yardstick of wellbeing
and progress.
 The fact that GDP is the sum of consumption and investment
should, by itself, give an indication that GDP may not be the
ideal yardstick of wellbeing.
 If large increases in GDP take the form of growth in investment
rather than consumption, then GDP itself does not necessarily
mean improved wellbeing.

172. CONTINUE
 In more technical language, consumption is the
most important (often, the only) argument in the
utility function used by economists in order to
capture the extent to which consumption translates
into the wellbeing of an individual.
 The distinction between consumption and utility
may seem like a technicality, but it is important for
reasons that will become apparent later.

173. CONTINUE
 Is it valid to assume that more consumption leads to
more utility? More systematic evidence on the limitations
of using GDP as a yardstick for wellbeing come from
more direct indicators of quality of life.
 Some of these indicators are objective (increases in
nutrition or life expectancy increase quality of life, while
increases in crime rates or congestion decrease it),
others subjective (self-reported status of wellbeing by
people in surveys of happiness, life satisfaction, or
prevalence of positive moods).

174. CONTINUE
 GDP Measurement Flaws
 GDP has several measurement flaws.
 Some activities that are included in the GDP estimates
are difficult to calculate government services.
 As these services are given to consumers at a
subsidized price, their output cannot be valued at market
prices.

175. B. OBJECTIVE MEASURES: MULTIDIMENSIONAL
WELLBEING
 Despite GDP’s flaws, given that its data is readily
available and reliable, it is still widely used as a proxy for
wellbeing.
 However, there is widespread agreement that wellbeing is
multidimensional,
 that it encompasses all aspects of human life.
 Thus, different approaches have been taken to go
beyond the GDP measure, conceptualizing wellbeing in a
more holistic way

176.  One approach has been to construct objective measures to
complement GDP, offering social and environmental
information beyond the economic stance.
 Since the 1970s many non-economic indicators have been
created to complement GDP.
 Indicators in areas such as education, health and nutrition,
environment and empowerment and participation have been
elaborated to complement GDP.
 However, the quality and availability of this data makes inter-
country comparisons difficult.

177. CONTINUE
 A second approach is to adjust GDP by monetizing
different aspects that are not counted in the GDP
measurement: social and environmental factors. The
problem with some of these adjustments is that it is
difficult to quantify and monetize some of these additional
factors.
 One adjustment to GDP is to allow purchasing power
parity among countries

178. CONTINUE
 Another further adjustment to GDP is to include
differences in income distribution by providing
weighted shares of growth by population groups.

179. CONTINUE
 Another further adjustment to GDP is to include
differences in income distribution by providing weighted
shares of growth by population groups.
 As income per capita is a national average, it does not
provide the real income picture of the different population
subgroups or regions.
 A third more complex adjustment is to take into account
social and environmental factors such as the value of
leisure or the damage of pollution

180. CONTINUE
 Nordhaus and Tobin (1973) elaborated a Measure of Economic
Welfare (MEW) which had three adjustments to GNP:
• they classified GNP expenditures into consumption, investment
and intermediate
• added the services of consumer capital, leisure and household
work and corrected for “disamenities of urbanization
• subtracting for negative externalities such as pollution and
congestion

181. CONTINUE
 A more recent adjustment has been made by the World
Bank with its estimates of wealth and adjusted net saving
(or genuine savings).
 Adjusted net savings measures the savings rate in an
economy after taking into account investments in human
capital, depletion of natural resources and damage caused
by pollution.

182. CONTINUE
 Yet a third approach to go beyond GDP is to replace GDP
by constructing composite measures that would capture the
multidimensional aspect of wellbeing.
 These measures are usually constructed using different
components, weighted in some way to form a single index

183. CONTINUE
 One of the first attempts to construct a composite index
of wellbeing is the Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI).
 This index combined infant mortality, life expectancy and
adult literacy

184. CONTINUE
 Another example is the well-known and debated
Human Development Index (HDI) created in 1990,
combining income per capita (in PPP terms), life
expectancy at birth, adult literacy and education
enrollment ratios.
 Although far from a perfect measure of welfare,
some of the HDI’s strengths lie on its simplicity and
transparency

185. CONTINUE
 Furthermore, indices can be subject to manipulation by
politicians, becoming more of “creative accounting”
exercises than objective measures.
 Finally, indices’ ranks tend to “glorify” the same countries
year after year and then are used to “name and shame”

186. II. SUBJECTIVE WELLBEING MEASURES (SWB)
 Another approach to measuring multidimensional wellbeing
is through subjective measures: self-reported happiness
and life satisfaction.
 For many centuries the subject of happiness was the realm
of theologians and philosophers but recently it transcended
into social sciences, first in psychiatry and since 1950 into
mainstream social sciences and economics

187. A. THE MEANING OF SUBJECTIVE WELLBEING
 Subjective wellbeing involves a multidimensional
evaluation of life, including cognitive judgments of life
satisfaction and affective evaluations of emotions and
moods.”
 Some economists use the phrase “subjective wellbeing”
as a synonym for “happiness” but in psychology, happiness
is a narrower concept than SWB

188.  In this approach, SWB is a synonym of “being happy”
whereas concepts such as “satisfaction” and “happiness”
are considered “feeling happy” (a hedonic approach)
Despite these differences, economists have used the
terms “happiness” and “life satisfaction” interchangeably
as measures of subjective wellbeing.

189. CONTINUE
 There is no clear consensus on what “happiness” means.
 Therefore, instead of trying to define happiness from an
outside perspective, economists try to capture it through
other means.
 There are two extreme concepts of happiness (subjective
and objective happiness) and ways to capture them and
one in the middle experience sampling measures.
 Subjective happiness asks people how happy they feel
themselves to be.

190.  They result from surveys where people are asked to self-
report about how happy they feel all things considered. Today
there are several surveys that evaluate happiness.
 One type of question asks “Taken all together, how would you
say things are these days: would you say that you are very
happy, pretty happy or not too happy?”
 The second type of question asks people to rate their life
satisfaction, on a scale from 0 to 10.

191. CONTINUE
 Objective happiness is a physiological approach which
aims to capture happiness through the measurement of
brain waves.
 Yet a third way to capture happiness (experience
sampling measures) is through sampling people’s
moods and emotions several times a day for a
prolonged time

192. 5.4. Rural Poverty in developing countries: the case of
Ethiopia
 While poverty has decreased remarkably in general, poverty is still
a challenge in Ethiopia as over 22 million people are living below
the national poverty line, with 80 percent in rural areas.
 The rate of decrease in recent years is slower in rural areas as
compared to urban areas.
 Agriculture is the backbone of the Ethiopian economy, and the
agricultural sector is dominated by smallholder farming systems.
 The farming systems are facing constraints such as small land
size, lack of resources, and increasing degradation of soil
quality that hamper sustainable crop production and food security

193. 5.5. Social Equity and Poverty Reduction
 Inequality has to be brought to the fore in the discussion on
poverty reduction.
 The traditional thinking was that only rapid growth mattered
and that changes in inequality could make only a minor
difference in outcomes.
 However, there is now increasing recognition that high
inequality within and between countries imposes obstacles
to poverty reduction.
 Inequality is a roadblock to rapid and sustained growth.

194. CONTINUE
 Moreover, a country with a high degree of inequality
requires much higher growth in order to achieve significant
progress in reducing poverty.
 Equity is more than the distribution of income and wealth.
 The distribution of productive assets is important;
conventionally, it is described as physical or financial
capital such as land, productive inputs, savings and credit

195. CONTINUE
 Equity is also about the distribution of human capital
such as health and education.
 Income inequality reflects deeper inequalities in access
to opportunities for health, education and production.
 Equity, therefore, is also about the creation of
opportunities for development of human capital such as
health, education and production

196. CONTINUE
 Improved access to education and better health
enable poor people to contribute more fully to the
growth process and to participate more equitably in
the opportunities which growth creates and the
benefits it offers.
 In short, policies which are good for equity are
good for growth, and good for converting growth
into poverty reduction.

197. CONTINUE
 The positive linkage between equity, growth and poverty
reduction is clearly demonstrated in a study of the
experience of China, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Republic of
Korea, Thailand and Viet Nam in the decades from the
1970s to the 1990s.
 These countries pursued policies that combined growth
with equity through a three-pronged strategy, which
contributed to their rapid progress in income and human
poverty reduction.

198. CONTINUE
 The first strand was public investment in health and education
that served to raise productivity and extend opportunities
among the poor
 The second strand was policies for labour-intensive growth,
with economic expansion closely correlated with the
development of opportunities for employment at rising real
wage levels.
 The third strand was redistributive rural development policies,
which created opportunities for people to respond to market
opportunities.

199. Chapter six
Rural Education and Health

200. 6.1. Social Development and Rural Education
 Social development is element of a high quality of life that
aren’t captured by GDP growth Equity and distribution
(issue of in equality who is included and who is excluded
from benefit of growth.
 Provision of public services (Education, health, and
infrastructure).

201. CONTINUE
 Education is a path to Social Development.
 The development strategy of the Ethiopian government is
based on increasing the productive capacity of the people.
 By doing so the expansion of educational and health
services play a crucial role.
 As such one of the government’s development tasks in
accelerating rural development is to expand these services.

202. 6.2. Role of Rural Education in Society
 Education is central to development.
 It empowers people and strengthens nations.
 It is a powerful “equalizer”, opening doors to all to lift
themselves out of poverty.
 It is critical to the world’s attainment of the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs).

203. CONTINUE
 Two of the eight MDGs pertain to education namely, universal
primary completion and gender parity in primary and secondary
schooling.
 Moreover, education especially girls’ education has a direct
and proven impact on the goals related to child and
reproductive health and environmental sustainability.
 Education also promotes economic growth, national
productivity and innovation, and values of democracy and
social cohesion.

204. 6.3. Challenges of Rural Education
 Many factors contribute to lower educational participation
in rural areas.
 On the demand side, rural children may be less interested
in attending school
 First, the opportunity costs of attending schools are often
higher in rural areas.
 Many rural households are dependent on their children for
help at busy times of the agricultural year such as harvest
time.

205. CONTINUE
 Second, parents in rural areas often have a lower level
of education, and may attach a lower value to schooling.
 Third, even where parents place a value on schooling,
they may be less able to help their children learning.
 Parents in rural areas are less likely to be educated
themselves, and so have less ability to provide support
for their children.

206. CONTINUE
 Further, homes in rural areas are often ill-equipped
to meet the needs of children to study, and often
lack facilities like electricity.
 They are likely to have less parental
encouragement to go to school.

207. CONTINUE
 They are likely to have less parental encouragement to go to
school.
1. Physical distance
 The most direct solution would be to build more schools in
order to shrink ride times, but in reality, rural schools are being
shut down.
 Not only do these walking times hurt grades and after-school
activities, they also make it harder to get extra help.

208. CONTINUED
2. Teacher hiring
 In many urban areas, there is a glut (excess) of talented
teachers but not enough jobs available to employ them.
 In rural areas, though, it can be extremely difficult to
attract great teachers.
 Indeed hiring in general is tougher in rural areas, for
fields extending far beyond education.

209. CONTINUE
3. Spotty Internet access
 People in big cities take broadband Internet access for
granted.
 Not only is it fairly easy to sign up for fast access,
people in cities are frequently spoiled for choice.
 However, is still experiencing of rural residents lacking
access to broadband Internet.
 This can drastically affect education.

210. CONTINUE
4. Poverty
 Nowhere is free of poverty, but rates of unemployment,
malnutrition and poverty are markedly higher in rural areas
than in urban areas.
 Unlike cities, though, where high population density tends to
make poverty more visible, it can be much harder to see in
rural areas, which makes it harder to cope with.
 Poverty is proven to affect educational outcomes, and
frequently leads to increased absenteeism.

211. 6.4. Rural Health Status
 What is rural health?
 Rural health is the health of people living in rural areas, who
generally are located farther from health care facilities and
other services than people living in urban areas.
 Health is influenced by many factors, which may generally be
organized into five broad categories known as determinants of
health: genetics, behavior, environmental and physical
influences, medical care and social factors.
 These five categories are interconnected.

212. CHALLENGES OF RURAL HEALTH
1. Workforce Shortages
 Healthcare workforce shortages have an impact on access to
care in rural communities.
 One measure of healthcare access is having a usual source
of care
 Having an adequate health workforce is necessary to
providing that usual source of care. Some health researchers
have argued that determining access by simply measuring
provider availability is not adequate to fully understand
healthcare access

213. 2. DISTANCE AND TRANSPORTATION
 People in rural areas are more likely to have to travel
long distances to access healthcare services, particularly
specialist services.
 This can be a significant burden in terms of both time
and money.
 In addition, the lack of reliable transportation is a barrier
to care.

214. CONTINUED
 In urban areas, public transit is generally an option for
patients to get to medical appointments; however,
these transportation services are often lacking in rural
areas.
 Rural communities also have more elderly residents
who have chronic conditions requiring multiple visits to
outpatient healthcare facilities.

215. 3. POOR HEALTH LITERACY
 Health literacy, which impacts a patient's ability to understand
health information and instructions from their healthcare providers,
is also a barrier to accessing healthcare.
 This is a particular concern in rural communities, where lower
educational levels and higher incidents of poverty often impact
residents.
 generally in rural area Access to Healthcare is limited by -
Dysfunctional Physical Infrastructure -Lack of adequate human
capital -Poor healthcare financing, Buildings in a dilapidated
condition
 • Lack of proper roads . Lack of electricity • Lack of drugs and
essential supplies • Non-functional equipment.

216. Tackling Rural Health Problems (የገጠር የጤና ችግሮችን
መፍታት)
 Government could also initiate schemes to ensure
fulfillment of basic necessities.
 Higher budgetary provisions for rural education could help
to overcome the problem of illiteracy in these areas.
 Education could help in changing conservative mindset of
rural people.
 Increasing access to health care in rural areas is through
tele health.
 Tele health can include video conferencing and etc.

217. 6.7. Rural Health in Ethiopia
 For the 82% of the population living in rural
areas, screening and treatment of NCDs is severely lacking,
resulting in needless death and suffering.
 Rural healthcare has been noted as a particular problem in Ethiopia.
 Generally in Ethiopia health care is very poor.
 More than half the world's population lives in rural areas;
however, we have limited evidence about how to
strengthen rural healthcare services.

218. 6.8. WATER, HYGIENE AND SANITATION
 Safe drinking-water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH)
are crucial to human health and well-being.
 Safe WASH is not only a prerequisite to health, but
contributes to livelihoods, school attendance and dignity and
helps to create resilient communities living in healthy
environments.
 Ethiopia is one of the countries in the world with the
worst of all water quality problems. It has the lowest water
supply and sanitation coverage in Sub-Saharan countries
with only 42% and 28% for water supply and sanitation,
respectively

219. CONTINUE
 Hygiene
Core Community Hygiene and Sanitation Practices Include:
Keeping dishes and utensils clean and off the ground.
 Using a toilet to keep faces separate from people.
 Sweeping the home and keeping rubbish off the floor to
prevent environmental contamination.
 Keeping livestock separate from the home

220. CONTINUE
 Sanitation
Basic sanitation is defined as having access to facilities for
the safe disposal of human waste (feces and urine), as well
as having the ability to maintain hygienic conditions,
through services such as garbage collection,
industrial/hazardous waste management, and wastewater
treatment and disposal.

221. CONTINUE
 Sanitation refers to public health conditions related to
clean drinking water and adequate treatment and
disposal of human excreta and sewage.
 A sanitation system includes the capture, storage,
transport, treatment and disposal or reuse of human
excreta and wastewater.

222. Rural water supply: problems, challenges and prospects in Ethiopia
 Supplying enough potable water to the rural population is
one of the primary development tasks that should be
carried out in order to ensure health services based on
prevention an, thereby, create healthy and productive
citizens.
 Ensuring supply of drinking water means reducing
significantly health related expenditures, in addition to the
promotion of the general happiness and wellbeing of the
population derived from being healthy, and the
improvement of the standard of living of the people.

223. CONTINUE
 Further, the availability of the clean water helps to promote
personal and domestic hygiene, to expand various types of
local service rendering institutions and in general to foster
regional and local development.
 Also, availability of clean water at close quarters greatly
reduces the work burden on women.
 The supply of clean water to the rural population should be
high on the list of government development priorities

224. CONTINUE
Chapter seven
Rural Livelihoods in Ethiopia

225. 7.1. Poverty and Vulnerability
 Rural livelihood in Ethiopia and elsewhere in developing
countries can have similar characteristics; to mention these:
 Based on subsistence farm household Unchanged mode
of life and work; the mix of activities and way of life and
production systems are not dynamic/not changing;
 Very high proportion, almost all labor force engaged in
agriculture; No diversified economy.

226. CONTINUE
 Individuals or households engaged in only one job (mixed-
farming or pastoralism);
 Limited stream of income (only from farming or animal raising)
Land based cultures are predominant
 Food insecurity at the household level; Poverty as a dominant
feature of life
 Malnutrition; High birth and death rate

227. 7.2. Livelihood strategies and Food insecurity
 The major causes of food insecurity in Ethiopia basically
are (include): land degradation and soil loss; recurrent
drought; population pressure; subsistence agricultural
practices; and land tenure system.
 As Grain constitutes the major staple food for the majority
of Ethiopians, grain production therefore, indicates the level
of food security in the country.

228. CONTINUE
 According to renowned researchers, the prerequisites for
sustainable agricultural development are: appropriate
policies; appropriate technologies; rural infrastructure; and
management of the environment.

229. Sedentary Farming
 Cultivation of crops on the same piece of land is called as
sedentary farming. It is opposite to primitive farming where after
every 3-4 years the land was left and new land was prepared for
cultivation.
 Sedentary primitive agriculture is confined to plateaus and high
land areas in the tropics and to small, scattered patches in tropical
lowlands.
 In the hot humid lowlands.
 The farmers, in the areas of dense population, have become
sedentary and have permanently settled near ponds, lakes and
streams.

230. CONTINUE
 Farmers have draft animals so as to relieve the strain on
human muscle.
 Obstacles standing in the way of developing agriculture are
the interior location of most of the areas, poor transport
facilities and dry season.
 In the low latitude highlands.
 In the subtropical plateaus and temperate highlands of the
tropics, in Americas, Africa, Southeast Asia, sedentary
farming is practiced

231. CONTINUE
 Farmers grow their own foodstuffs on small plots near the
commercial plantation areas. Plateau and highlands often support
a larger population.
 The climate is comfortable on the highlands. Diseases are not
common.
 Naturally the farmers have developed sedentary farming.
 The kinds of crops vary with altitude.
 Cereals and roots are staples.
 Temperate vegetable like tomatoes, beans and peas are also
grown.

232. 7.4. Pastoralism
 Pastoralism is the branch of agriculture concerned with the
raising of livestock
 It is animal husbandry: the care, tending and use of animals
such as camels, goats, cattle, yaks,and sheep.
 "Pastoralism" generally has a mobile aspect, moving the
herds in search of fresh pasture and water (in contrast to
pastoral farming, in which non-nomadic farmers grow crops
and improve pastures for their livestock).
 Pastoralism is found in many variations throughout the
world.

233. CONTINUE
 Composition of herds, management practices, social
organization and all other aspects of pastoralism vary
between areas and between social groups.
 Many traditional practices have also had to adapt to the
changing circumstance of the modern world, including
climatic conditions affecting the availability of grasses.
 Ranches of the United States and sheep stations and cattle
stations of Australia are seen by some as modern
variations.

234. 7.5. Infrastructure and service provision in rural areas
 What is Infrastructure?
 Infrastructure refers to the assets that support an
economy, such as road, water supply, power supply,
communication facilities, school/education services, flood
management, recreational, and other assets.
 Infrastructure is the network of assets "where the system
as a whole is intended to be maintained indefinitely at a
specified standard of service by the continuing
replacement and refurbishment of its components."

235. CONTINUED
 Infrastructure may refer to information technology, informal
and formal channels of communication, software
development tools, political and social networks, or beliefs
held by members of particular groups.
 Economically, infrastructure could be seen to be the
structural elements of an economy which allow for
production of goods and services without themselves being
part of the production process, e.g. roads allow the
transport of raw materials and finished products.

236. CONTINUED
 The reduction in the public infrastructure investment could be
attributable to the following reasons:
 in earlier investments in infrastructure, failed cases outnumbered
successful cases, especially in rural areas;
 Disappointingly low participation in infrastructure investments by
the private sector;
 fiscal adjustment programs; and
 Decentralization resulting in mismatches between resources and
needs.

237. CHALLENGES OF RURAL INFRASTRUCTURE IN ETHIOPIA
 Institutional problems: include policy, guidelines, procedure
and organizational or structural set up issues that can exist
from the national to local level in a given country
 Financial constraints: In developing countries, financial
problems make the base of other problems