This document provides an overview of the key approaches to artificial intelligence, including neural networks, parallel computation, and top-down expert systems. It discusses how neural networks attempt to mimic the human brain by constructing electronic circuits that function like neurons. Pioneering work by McCulloch and Pitts in the 1940s linked neural processing to binary logic and laid the foundations for computer-simulated neural networks. Expert systems take a top-down approach, using stored information and rules to interpret data and solve problems in specific domains.

1. Chapter 1: An introduction to Artificial Intelligence<br />What exactly is Artificial Intelligence? Artificial Intelligence is the study of how to make computer do things which, at the moment, people do better. This definition is of course somewhat ephemeral because of its reference to the current state of computer science. And it fails to include some areas of potentially very large impact, namely problems that cannot now be solved well by either computer or people. But it provides a good outline of what constitutes Artificial Intelligence, and it avoids the philosophical issues that dominate attempts to define the meaning of either artificial or intelligence.<br />31753917315Artificial Intelligence is the area of engineering focusing on creating machines that can engage on behaviours that human considers intelligence. The ability to create intelligent machines has intrigued humans since ancient time and today with the advent of computer and 50 years of research into AI programing techniques, the dream of smart machines is becoming reality. Researchers are creating systems which can mimic human thoughts, understand speech, beat the best human chess player, and countless other feats never before possible. The military is applying AI logic to its hi-tech systems, and in the near future Artificial Intelligence may impact our lives.<br />-1814195549275John McCarthy00John McCarthyJohn McCarthy, who coined the term ‘Artificial Intelligence’ in 1956, at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, defines it as \"
the science and engineering of making intelligent machines” <br />Artificial Intelligence can be said a crossbreeding of a lot of fields:<br />PhilosophyLogic, methods of reasoning, mind as physical system, foundations of learning, language, rationality.MathematicsFormal representation and proof, algorithms, computation, (un)decidability, (in)tractabilityStatisticsModeling uncertainty, learning from dataEconomicsUtility, decision theory, rational economic agentsNeuroscienceNeurons as information processing unitPsychology How do people behave, perceive, process cognitive information, represent knowledgeComputer Engineering Building fast computersControl Theory Design systems that maximize an objective function over timeLinguisticsKnowledge representation, grammars<br />683260492760Artificial Intelligence00Artificial Intelligencecenter2617470Artificial Intelligence is a broad topic, consisting of different field from machine vision to expert system.<br />In order to classify machines as “thinking”, it is necessary to define intelligence. To what degree intelligence consists of, for example, solving complex problems, or making generalization and relationship? And what about perception and comprehension? Researches into the areas of learning of language, and of sensory perception have aided scientist in building intelligent machines. One of the most challenging approaches experts facing is building systems that mimic the behavior of human brain, made up of billions of neurons, and arguably the most complex matter in the universe. Perhaps the best way to gauze the intelligence is British computer scientist Alan Turing’s test. He stated that a computer would deserve to be called intelligent if it could deceive a human into believing that it was a human.<br />3801110-1905A computer would need the followings to pass Turing test:<br />Natural language processing: to communicate with examiner.<br />Knowledge representation: to store and retrieve information provided before or during interrogation.<br />3869055226060Alan Turing00Alan TuringAutomated reasoning: to use the stored information to answer questions and to draw new conclusions.<br />Machine learning: to adapt to new circumstances and to detect and extrapolate patterns.<br />Vision (for Total Turing test): to recognize the examiner’s actions and various objects presented by the examiner.<br />Motor control (total test): to act upon objects as requested.<br />Other senses (total test): such as audition, smell, touch, etc.<br />-19157951711960George Boole00George Boole-6354349115Artificial Intelligence has come a long way from its early roots, driven by dedicated researchers. The beginning of AI reaches back before electronics, to philosophers and mathematicians such as Boole and other theorizing on principles that were used as the foundation of AI logic. AI really began to intrigue researchers with the invention of computer in 1943. The technology was finally available, or so it seemed, to simulate intelligent behavior. Over the next five decades, despite many stumbling blocks, AI has grown from a dozen researchers to thousands of engineers and specialists; and from programs capable of playing checkers, to system designed to diagnose disease.<br />Chapter 2: The history of Artificial Intelligence<br />Evidence of Artificial Intelligence folklore can be traced back to ancient Egypt, but with the development of electronic computer in 1941, the technology finally become available to create machine intelligence. The term Artificial Intelligence was first coined in 1956, at Dartmouth conference, and since then Artificial Intelligence has expanded because of the theories and principles developed by its dedicated researchers. From its birth 4 decades ago, there have been a variety of AI programs, and they have impacted other technological developments.<br />Here the brief history of AI is given:<br />1943McCulloch & Pitts: Boolean circuit model of brain1950Turing's \"
Computing Machinery and Intelligence\"
1956Dartmouth meeting: \"
Artificial Intelligence\"
adopted1950sEarly AI programs, including Samuel's checkers program, Newell & Simon's Logic Theorist, Gelernter's Geometry Engine1965Robinson's complete algorithm for logical reasoning1966-73AI discovers computational complexity, neural network research almost disappears1969-79Early development of knowledge-based systems1980AI becomes an industry 1986Neural networks return to popularity1987AI becomes a science 1995The emergence of intelligent agents<br />Pre-history of AI:<br />Through history, people thought of mythic “artificial” robots

2. golden robots of Hephaestus and Pygmalion's Galatea

3. alchemical means of placing mind into matter

4. More specific, tangible advances

5. 5th century B.C.

6. Aristotle invented syllogistic logic, the first formal deductive reasoning system.

7. 13th century.

8. Talking heads were said to have been created (Roger Bacon and Albert the Great).

9. Ramon Lull, Spanish theologian, invented machines for discovering nonmathematical truths through combinatory.

10. 15th century

11. Invention of printing using moveable type. Gutenberg Bible printed (1456).

12. 15th-16th century

13. Clocks, the first modern measuring machines, were first produced using lathes.

14. 16th century

15. Clockmakers extended their craft to creating mechanical animals and other novelties.

16. 17th century - The revolution of thinking about thinking

17. Descartes proposed that bodies of animals are nothing more than complex machines (strong AI).

18. Variations and elaborations of Cartesian mechanism.

19. Hobbes published The Leviathan, containing a material and combinatorial theory of thinking.

20. Pascal created the first mechanical digital calculating machine (1642).

21. Leibniz improved Pascal's machine to do multiplication & division (1673) and envisioned a universal calculus of reasoning by which arguments could be decided mechanically.

22. 18th century – Mechanical toys6508751602740Vaucanson’s Duck Von Kempelen’s phonymechanical chess player00Vaucanson’s Duck Von Kempelen’s phonymechanical chess player<br />19th century – Frankenstein’s birth

23. George Boole developed a binary algebra representing (some) "laws of thought," published in The Laws of Thought.