The social learning theory of aggression suggests that aggression is learned through observation and modeling of others. Children observe aggression being rewarded or punished and are more likely to imitate the resulting behaviors. Low levels of neurotransmitters like serotonin and high levels of dopamine in the brain have also been linked to increased aggression. Hormones such as testosterone and cortisol may influence aggression levels as well. Institutional aggression in prisons can be explained by both deprivation theory, which cites deprivations of goods, autonomy, relationships etc. as causes, and the importation model, which argues that prisoners import their social histories and traits upon entering the system.

1. Aggression

2.  Observation
 Modelling
Social Learning theory

3. Observation - Social Learning Theory
Explanation
 The social learning theory of aggression suggests that we learn via
observation of others (models). Skinners rats highlighted the operant
conditioning theory that behaviour is taught be direct reinforcement. Children
observe and learn through one main way: vicarious learning – Watching others
get rewarded or punished for behaviour and imitating them depending on the
consequences. Children witness examples of aggressive behaviour either at
school, home, television or newspapers. By observing the consequences of
that person, they will go onto choose whether they copy it or not. They may
also learn by Reciprocal determinism – This is when an individuals and
environment interact and impact on each other shaping our behaviour. Similar
to the previous learning process, we allow what we see or hear to help shape
our behaviour unintentionally.
Evidence
Bandura, ross + ross
 Children watched a short film in which the model behaved aggressively
 Out of three groups, the model has various consequences: Model-rewarded,
Model-punished and No-consequence.
 Children were then put in a room of toys and given 10 minutes to play and do
as they pleased.
 The results showed that those in the model-punished group were less
aggressive but was little difference between the other two.
Evaluating studies
 There was no difference between the no-consequence group and rewarded
group indicating that they do not always follow models
Evaluating theory
IDA’s
 Reductionist – Only focusing on the social aspect of behaviour, not how it
could be biological
 Ethical issues – Exposing children from behaviour needs to be regulated to
ensure children are protected from harm
General

4. Modelling – Social learning
theory
Explanation
 The theory also suggests we learn through the process of ‘Modelling’. This
involves 4 main stages. Firstly, attention – person plays attention to the actions
of model. Secondly, retention – Remembering behaviour that was observed.
Thirdly, Motor reproduction – the ability to replicate the behaviour. And finally,
Motivation – must want to show what they have learned.
 Again, there are two variations of the modelling process: Self efficiency –
People are more likely to engage in behaviours if they believe they are
capable of achieving them and Self- regulation – When an individual has their
own ideas of what is appropriate or inappropriate behaviour and chooses to
act accordingly.
Evidence
Bandura, Ross and Ross
 36 boys and 36 girls were placed in a room for 20 minutes to play with toys.
 Before they could play with the toys, a model entered the room and set up
some toys. In the non –aggressive group, the model did this normally, but in
the aggressive group, the model was aggressive to the doll and to other toys.
 Children were left to play with the toys and 70% of those in the non-aggressive
group had an aggressive rating of 0
 Men were also found to be more influential than women
Evaluating studies
 Because only 70% were given 0 in the non-aggressive groups shows that the
other 30% had no reason to be aggressive but were anyway proving it hasn’t
got everything to do with models
Evaluating theory
IDAs
 Gender bias – In Banduras study, men were ore influential as aggressive
models than women proving stereotypes
 Nature vs Nurture – Heavily reliant on nurture and how the environment
shapes us
General
 Can explain individual differences and personalities differ in aggression

5. Deindividuation theory

6. Deindividuation theory
Explanation
 The deindivduation theory is based on the ‘classic crowd’. It is the idea that
people lose their identity in a big crowd of people so feel it is acceptable to act
differently to how they normally would. When anonymity, suggestibility and
contagion are combined, a ‘collective mind’ takes a hold of the individual. It is
a psychological state of mind where a person feels less concerned about
others. This leads to an increase in behaviour which would otherwise not be
allowed according to our social norms. Simple: Anonymity in a crowd causes
the ‘deindivduation’ which gives an excuse to be aggressive. Factors that
influence this could be uniforms, crowds, alcohol or drugs.
Evidence
Zimbardo
 Created a stimulated prison of 24 male participants. Half were assigned to be
guards and the other were prisoners.
 The guards wore reflective glasses, uniform and carried hand cuffs. Whereas
the prisoners wore lose smocks and were only referred to by number.
 The guards created a brutal atmosphere becoming aggressive verbally and
physically.
 Both participants showed classic signs of deindivduation.
Zimbardo
 Four females were asked to give shocks to the ‘learners’ to help them learn.
 Half the participants wore bulky lab coats, addressed as a group and were not
introduced to each other whilst the remaining half wore their normal clothes,
given instructions individually and were introduced to each other before hand.
 Those who were covered up and had their identity stolen gave shocks for
twice as long proving that deindivduation causes people to become more
brutal and aggressive.
Real life examples of deindivduation
 London riots; everyone joined in just for the sake of it

7. Deindividuation theory
Evaluating studies
 In the female Zimbardo's studies, only one gender is used which subsequently
means it cannot be applied to the opposite gender.
 The simulated prison study was in a real life environment so has high
ecological validity.
Evaluating theory
IDAs
 Deterministic – we don’t all conform and act aggressive in a crowd, individual
differences.
 Reductionist – Heavily focused on the behavioural approach
 Nature vs Nurture – Focused on nurture and environment
General
 Real life examples as stated previously are evidence of deindivduation

8.  Importation model
 Deprivation theory
Institutional aggression

9. Deprivation theory -Institutional aggression
Explanation:
Human aggression in general could be interpersonal or institutional. Interpersonal
is direct actions against a specific individual whereas institutional aggression may
occur within groups. For example, the army, prisons or mental institutions. The
deprivation theory looks into factors regarding why there is aggression in prisons.
These could be sexual, boredom, picked on for crime or racial.
Evidence:
Sykes
 Outlined 5 main deprivations which prisoners experience:
 1) G –Deprivation of Goods and services – Have no personal possessions,
feel like they are living in poverty
 2) A – Deprivation of Autonomy – Now power or control, leading to a feeling of
helplessness, this equals aggression
 3) H – Deprivation of Heterosexual relationships – Denied female
companionship decreasing self worth and increasing anger
 4) L – Deprivation of Liberty – Prisoner isn't trusted in the free world and is
rejected by society leading to feelings of anger
 5) S – Deprivation of Security – Prisoners fear for their safety and become
aggressive too stop others being aggressive towards them
Evaluating studies:
 Hard to gain an accurate knowledge of what prisoners feel unless they have
actually been one themselves.
Evaluating theory:
IDA’s
 Reductionist – Only applies to prison behaviour, may not be applied to other
institution's
 Nature vs nurture – Nature – explains personality traits, nurture – environment
(institution) shapes us
 Gender bias – tends to be male research e.g – male prison
General
 Can explain the type A personality

10. Importation model -Institutional
aggression
Explanation:
 Prisoners bring their own social histories and traits with them into prison which
influences their adaption to the prison environment. In the prison system,
depending on the type of crime you have committed, you are unintentionally
placed into subcultures. Interpersonal violence in prisons is not a product of
the institution but the characteristics of individuals who enter such intuitions.
Values and attitudes of the criminals segregate them into their categories.
Evidence:
Irwin and Cressey
 The criminal subculture – Follow the norms of a thief e.g- no betrayal and
being trustworthy
 The convict subculture – Been raised in the prison system and seek status
(most aggressive)
 The straight subculture – One-time offenders, share values with the officers
and guards
Evaluating studies:
 Not everyone fits into these 3 categories and may create their own subculture.
Evaluating theory:
IDA’s
 Deterministic – In assuming we all decide to join a subculture when
sometimes we like to be alone
 Reductionist – Only certain types of criminals involved, ignores all varieties for
why people are in prison
General
 Real world application – high ecological validity

11.  Serotonin & Dopamine
 Testosterone & Cortisol
Neural and hormonal
aggression

12. Serotonin & dopamine– neural
aggression
Explanation:
 Neurotransmitters are chemicals that enable impulses within the brain to be
transmitted from one area to another.
 Low levels of serotonin are supposed to be related to higher levels of
aggression. Serotonin is associated with our emotional stimuli, so if we are
happy, we have a high level of serotonin and vice versa, hence why when we
are sad, we can become angry and aggressive. The treatment of aggressive
behaviour uses serotonin drugs to increase the mood of a patient in order to
reduce aggressiveness.
 Higher levels of dopamine are also associated with aggressive behaviour.
Dopamine is seen as the pleasure centre. When the levels of dopamine
increase, the pleasure centre works in a faulty way and change the way we
interpret rewards. Though the link between these is not as well established as
that of serotonin, there has been research into dopamine drugs which have
been proven to help reduce aggressive behaviour.
Evidence:
Mann et al
 Drugs which reduced serotonin increased measures of hostility and
aggression in males
Lauine
 Giving amphetamines (increase dopamine) increases aggression
Evaluating studies:
 All based on the treatment of drugs as oppose to a behavioural therapy
Evaluating theory:
IDA’s
 Reductionist – Heavily based on biological and neurotransmitters which
cannot fully explain aggression
 Nature vs nurture – No nurture considered, all nature and biology
General
 Limited evidence for dopamine, serotonin has more links with aggressive
behaviour

13. Testosterone & cortisol - hormonal
aggression
Explanation:
 Testosterone is normally associated with males and levels of aggression. It
acts to sensitive neural circuits in the brain causing changes in levels of
aggression. It appears in young males when they hit puberty and continues in
young – middle aged men. Higher levels of testosterone is associated with
increased aggression.
 Cortisol mediates other hormones e.g- testosterone because it increases
anxiety and the likelihood of social withdrawal. High levels of cortisol inhibits
testosterone therefore increases aggressive. However, on its own, low levels
will increase aggression.
Evidence:
Dabbs et al
 Salivary testosterone levels were able to differentiate between violent and
non-violent crime
Virkuunen
 Low levels of cortisol in habitual violent offenders
Evaluating studies:
 All using biological tests which are more valid
Evaluating theory:
IDA’s
 Gender bias – testosterone levels are mainly found and tested in men
 Determinstic – As humans we have a choice to be aggressive
 Nature vs Nurture – Ignores nurture, strongly focused on biology and
hormones
General
 Culture bias it tends too be in the western culture

14.  Jealously
 Infidelity
Evolutionary aggression

15. Jealously - Evolutionary
aggression
Explanation:
 Evolutionary aggression is based on the idea that different reproductive
challenges faced by our ancestors led to sex differences, including sexual
jealously. We have therefore adapted to several strategies to deter their
female partners from committing adultery. They do not want to loose their
mating partner and use male retention strategies which could lead to
aggression. These range from violence to vigilance but are both fuelled by
male sexual jealously, an adaption evolved to deal with the threat of parental
uncertainty.
 Evidence:
Daly and wilson
 58/214 cases of murder was motivated by sexual jealously.
Evaluating studies:
 On such a sensitive topic, its hard to gain accurate results as people don’t
want to talk about it
Evaluating theory:
IDA’s
 Reductionist – heavily based on our ancestors, we have developed and do not
resemble that much of an early human or animal
General

16. Infidelity - Institutional aggression
Explanation:
 The idea of cuckoldery is the idea that a male doesn’t want to raise a child that
isn't there own so will try to deter other males to ensure there is no infidelity. In
order to pass on their genes, they need to ensure their partner is loyal and
doesn’t carry another's child apart from their own. Strategies such as direct
guarding are put in place to ensure the female does not cheat. Some
examples of the direct guarding could be checking their partners facebook
messages, their phone or locking them in a room and not letting them see their
friends. This could explain domestic violence in couples and why men get so
paranoid over women. These strategies are put in place to prevent these
problems.
Evidence:
Miller
 55% of battered wives claimed jealously as a reason for their husbands
behaviour often based on suspicion and fear.
Evaluating studies:
 No scientific measure, it shows a correlation not cause of being aggressive
and violent behaviour.
Evaluating theory:
IDA’s
 Nature vs nurture – Can explain both; Nurture- our environment makes us
think only to ensure reproduction of our genes whereas nature is suggesting it
is the evolutionary theory of genes and how we have developed since that
makes us behave this way
General
 Cannot explain individual differences and why some men are less aggressive
than others

17.  Twin studies
 Adoption studies
 Gene MAOA
Genetics

18. Twin studies – genetics
Explanation:
 Monozygotic twins share 100% of the same genes whereas dizygotic twins
share 50% of the same genes. It should therefore be a high concordance rates
between monozygotic twins. This is because, if the twins have all the same
genes, then they should both equally be as likely as the other to have the
same levels of aggression. This would prove that it is due to genes and no
alternative factors that aggression is genetic.
Evidence:
Rutter
 Dizygotic twins had a concordance rate between 13-22%
 Monozygotic twins had a concordance rate between 26-31%
Evaluating studies:
 The results of the study show that with such low figures, its unlikely that
aggression is genetic.
Evaluating theory:
IDA’s
 Nature vs nurture-Theory is built upon the idea of nature and that genetics
makes us aggressive when rutters study identified that it was no-where near
all genetics so a nurture aspect must be true
General
 Though there are figures to prove that genetics may be a good explanation,
the numbers are so low that alternative factors must also be influencing
aggression levels
 Individual differences – Though the monozygotic twins are biologically the
same, their personalities may be different and it might just be that one twin is a
bit more feisty than the other

19. Adoption studies -
Genetics
Explanation:
 Adoption studies untangle the contribution of the environment and genetic
aggression. If there is a positive correlation found between aggressive
behaviour in adopted children and their biological parents then the genetic
explanation is strong. However if a correlation is found between adopted
child's aggression and the new family, then it shows that the environment
plays the biggest role.
Evidence:
Hutchings et al
 Studied criminal records of all Danish children outside their biological family
between 1924-1947
 It was found that having a criminal biological father increases criminality
chances in the child
 There is a higher chance is both the biological and adoptive father is criminal
Evaluating studies:
 Low demographics – only used Danish participants
 Out-dated study
Evaluating theory:
IDA’s
 Nature vs Nurture – both are considered – Nature and genes play a role but so
does the adoptive father (environment)
General
 Fails to acknowledge the difference between violent and non-violent crime
meaning its harder to label those that are truly aggressive, not just committing
any crime

20. MAOA gene - Genetics
Explanation:
 The MAOA gene regulates the metabolism of serotonin in the brain. Low
levels of serotonin are associated with aggressive feelings. Having too little of
this gene leads to the brain being flooded with so much serotonin leading to
lowered sensitivity to those neurotransmitters. This means that anyone with
too little of the MAOA gene is at risk of being criminal for violent crime.
Evidence:
Moffat et al
 Conducted a longditutional study of 422 males in New Zealand
 Their criminal convictions were studied
 His findings found that there was a link between the MAOA gene and violent
crime
Evaluating studies:
 Longditutional studies suffer from attrition
 Androcentric – only used males
Evaluating theory:
IDA’s
 Gender bias – males tend to be more aggressive than females so a lot of
research is done into males aggression but little is known about female
aggression
General
 There are other factors which contribute to aggressive behaviour – gene-
environment interaction

21.  Sports
 Warfare
Group Display

22. Sports – Group display
Explanation:
 In some team sports, aggression is linked with victory as displaying
aggression threatens/intimidates the other team putting them off leaving more
chance of your team to win. According to the evolutionary theory, higher status
brings increased opportunities for survival. Applying this to sports, a
successful sport team will be rewarded with resources e.g- money bonuses
which makes them more attractive as a mate. A team are more likely to win at
their home ground/territory. Victory brings status to fans. Fans provide
exposure, fame and more money, these are opportunities for better mates and
leads to increased survival.
 Xenophobia is a fear of strangers.
Evidence:
Maxwell & Viscek
 Questioned 144 rugby union players about aggression in their games. Those
high in professions placed more emphasis on winning and therefore used
more aggression
Evaluating studies:
 One sport was examined, some sports are not as competitive
Evaluating theory:
IDA’s
 Reductionist – Fails to consider the role of biology and cognitive factors
General
 Deindivduation can further explain aggression in bigger crowds/sports teams
as there is an increase in anonymity
 Sporting group displays e.g- the haka, are more for commercial reasons than
traditional practises

23. Warfare – Group Display
Explanation:
 It is difficult to see why organisms such as humans who were selected to
survive would engage in something like war at such personal costs. The
evolutionary suggestion may suggest that males act like this because of their
usefulness in battles. If a male performs well in these battles and acts brave,
they are rewarded as they win the female, status and reproductive fitness.
Evidence:
Changnon
 Yanomamo tribe in the Amazon rainforest
 There were frequent battles over women
 The success in battle lead to a higher status and had more wives and children
 Young men who didn’t kill were rarely married
Evaluating studies:
 One tribe that has different norms to western society doesn’t explain
aggression in our culture
Evaluating theory:
IDA’s
 Gender bias- Heavily focused on the ‘alpha male’ role on men and doesn’t
explain womens aggression
General
 War only occurred when we shifted from nomadic living to one site. Therefore,
whens there conflict, we can no longer run away so have to use war to deal
with the problems. This showing aggressive displays are not biological, just an
environmental change.