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Aggression
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- 2. Social Learning Theory– Behavioural Approach Learn from direct experience or vicarious experience (from observing others) Direct – operant conditioning Vicarious – social learning theory More likely to act aggressively if we see aggressive behaviour being rewarded Social Psychological Explanations Social Learning Theory Deindividuation Institutional Aggression
- 3. Aggressive behaviour isinfluenced by Previous experience of behaviour Likelihood of behaviour being rewarded Success of behaviour in past Cognitive, social and environmental factors Is the person they are imitating a role model? SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY IS ALL ABOUT POSTIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENTS Social Learning Theory
- 4. Social Learning Theory- Research Bandura – Bobo Doll Experiment • 66 nursery school children into 3 groups • Watching a film where an adult acted aggressively on Bobo doll • Group 1 – Aggressive model received no reward or punishment • Group 2 – Aggressive model was rewarded • Group 3 – Aggressive model was punished • Then taken to a room with Bobo doll and actions were recorded Findings Group 1 & 2 – Acted aggressively Group 2 – Most aggressive Group 3 – Least aggressive Evaluation Supports social learning theory Small sample size Culturally bias – USA Lacks ecological validity Ethical issues – behaviour wasn’t reversed
- 5. Supported by research– Huesmann suggested children learn behaviour from TV Explains why people act aggressively in different environments Explains why some cultures are more aggressive Wolfgang – ‘culture of violence’ theory Child soldiers Takes into account cognitive influences and free will Ignores biological factors Relies on lab experiments conducted on children and animals – can’t be generalised Evaluation
- 6. People tend notto act aggressively as it goes against social norms In some situations social norms become weakened causing deindividuation e.g. in a large group Process when a person loses sense of identity – may result in aggressive behaviour Deindividuation
- 7. Commonly occurs if: Ina group Wearing masks etc. Factors that cause the aggression Anonymity – less chance of being caught Shift the blame to others Reduced responsibility Increased arousal Deindividuation
- 8. Deindividuation - Research CaseStudies Ku Klux Klan Group that supported the suppression of black people in USA Hid their identity with masks Nazi Germany Used to explain why many people ignored the Holocaust Mann – Baiting Crowd • Analysed suicides in USA • Found in 10/21 cases crowd had taunted person to jump • Occurred mainly at night • More common if jumper was at a greater distance from the crowd • Increased anonymity Evaluation Small sample size Culturally biased Historically biased
- 9. Deindividuation – Research Zimbardo ZimbardoPrison Study • Recreated prison in Stanford Uni • Participants were allocated prisoner or prison guard • Prisoners were dehumanised – made to wear smocks and given numbers rather than names • Guards became deindividuised – wore uniform and mirrored glasses • Study was stopped six days in due to level of aggression Evaluation Showed effects of deindividuation and dehumanisation as all participants passed psychological tests before starting exp. Gender biased Culturally biased Ethical issues Other factors may have influenced results which were highlighted in BBC prison study as they got different results i.e. Zimbardo acted as prison superintendent Halloween Study Found children acted more aggressively once putting on Halloween costume
- 10. Researched into effectsof changed appearance on aggression in war Looked at 23 societies 12/13 societies that changed appearances before war were more brutal compared than societies that did not Deindividuation - Research Watson
- 11. A large amountof research to support it Deindividuation doesn’t always cause anti-social behaviour, may cause pro-social behaviour Deterministic – suggests that as soon as we are in these groups we have no free will Reductionist – simplifies the complex behaviour of humans Can’t explain all aggressive behaviour Deindividuation – Evaluation
- 12. Aggressive behaviour thatexists within institutions Prisons Schools/Colleges – Hazing Military Institutional Aggression
- 13. The inmates ratherthat the institution cause the aggression Bring their values and beliefs into the prison Irwin and Cressey identified 3 groups of inmates helping support the theory 1. Criminal or Thief Subculture – When in prison they still value traits such as trust and not betraying others 2. Convict Subculture – tend to come from deprived areas where crimes are high. Most likely to be aggressive 3. Conventional Subculture – One off offenders who were not part of criminal subculture before going into the prison, identifies more with prison officers Prisons Importation Model
- 14. Kane and Janus Foundnon-whites and younger men were more likely to act aggressively Because… More likely to live in a subculture of violence and deprivation before entering prison Aggression may be valued Keller and Wang Prison violence most commonly occurs in prisons that hold maximum security inmates Prisons – Importation Model
- 15. The institution causesthe aggression rather then the inmates Aggression is caused because of the frustration of being deprived Sykes identified five main deprivations 1. Liberty – Prisoners are not free as they are not trusted in society 2. Power – constantly being told what they have to do 3. Heterosexual Relationships - inmates lose self worth as they are being denied relationships. Fear of rape by other prisoners 4. Goods and Services – deprived of materialistic things which may result in feeling of failure 5. Security – can be in danger as other inmates are aggressive Prisons – Deprivation Model
- 16. The institution causesthe aggression Provides the situation where someone may act aggressively – provides the heat If you apply enough heat to a situation inmates will act aggressively If one inmate acts aggressively other may then join in Prisons – Popcorn Model
- 17. Research evidence tosupport all theories Can explain the level of aggression that occurred at Abu Ghraib – aggressive towards people that we have dehumanised Importation model fails to explain how prisons could decrease aggression Deprivation model fails to explain sudden prison riots However Attica prison riot was caused due to poor living conditions within the institution – may be due to a gradual build up Prisons - Evaluation
- 18. In USA fraternitiespledges have to do dares to gain membership - Can be harmless HOWEVER… 1 person dies each year from hazing Matthew Carrington – Died from water intoxication after being forced to drink continuously from a five gallon jug Hazing
- 19. Reasons it occurs Tryto create a common bond between ‘brothers’ Trying to be a ‘real man’ Tradition Commitment to group Largely influenced by alcohol Also common in the military to prove to new soldiers they can face the challenges in the army Hazing in Russian military lead to the amputation of a soldiers leg after making him sit on ice for 4 hours Hazing
- 20. Neurotransmitters Two neurotransmitters linkedto aggression Dopamine – high levels Serotonin – low levels Biological Explanation of Aggression Hormones Neurotransmitters Genetics
- 21. Low levels ofserotonin in prefrontal cortex Increase in aggression Decrease in ability to control impulsive responses Neurotransmitters Serotonin Mann et al Artificially decreased levels of serotonin Found an increase in aggression but only in men Method – self report Evaluation Done on humans so can be generalised Lacks ecological validity Demand characteristics as method was self report
- 22. High levels ofdopamine increases aggression Unclear if the aggression is caused because of dopamine levels or if people act aggressively to get a dopamine kick Neurotransmitters Dopamine Buitelaar Found that by using dopamine antagonists level of aggression decreased
- 23. Able to explainwhy people act aggressively when drunk – drinking alcohol decreases serotonin levels A lot of research that supports it – Ferrari’s study on fighting rats Findings of MAOA support that high levels of dopamine cause aggression Fails to support the theory that low levels of serotonin cause aggression Unclear whether it is low levels of serotonin or a low serotonin metabolism causing aggression Difficult to establish a link between dopamine and aggression due to experimental difficulties Evaluation - Neurotransmitters
- 24. Two hormones linkedto aggression Testosterone – high levels Cortisol – low levels Hormones
- 25. Found in bothmen and women – higher levels in men Levels of testosterone peak in young adult males Explains why it tends to be younger males that act aggressively Decreases as you get older Testosterone makes it more likely to act aggressively Environmental factors have a massive influence Hormones Testosterone Archer et al Carried out meta analysis Found a weak positive correlation between aggression and testosterone
- 26. Kouri et al Doubleblind procedure Neither participants or researcher knew who had what dose Participants – young males Group 1 – given doses of testosterone Group 2 – given doses of placebo Those who had been given testosterone showed an increase in dominant behaviour Evaluation Double blind study – reduces chance of demand characteristics Shows a link between aggression and dominance/aggression Ethical issues – effects were not reversed Hormones Testosterone
- 27. Hormone produced byadrenal medulla – important in the reaction to stress Low levels of cortisol = high levels of aggression Low ANS arousal is unpleasant so acting aggressively is a way of provoking a release in cortisol Cortisol inhibits aggressive behaviour Hormones Cortisol McBurnett – Longitudinal study Researched young boys that had low levels of cortisol and behavioural problems Found • Started doing antisocial behaviours at an earlier age • Demonstrated 3x more aggressive symptoms than normal
- 28. Large amount ofresearch to support the links between both hormones and increase in aggression Link is strong in sport for those athletes who take testosterone supplements Research on testosterone can be inconsistent – Bain et al found no difference in testosterone levels between criminals that had committed violent crimes and criminals that committed non-violet crimes Contradictory research when looking at levels of cortisol Evaluation - Hormones
- 29. Suggests that aggressionis influenced by genetic factors The majority of research is found by: Twin studies Adoption studies Analysis of human genome Genetic Factors
- 30. Aggression is highlycorrelated in MZ twins McGuffin Concordance rate of 87% of aggressive behaviour in MZ twins Concordance rate of 72% of aggressive behaviour in DZ twins Evaluation Successfully shows the influence of genetic factors Ecologically valid Twins would have been raised together so it’s unclear whether it’s genetics or environmental influences Genetic Factors Twin Studies Mason and Frick Meta – analysis Concluded that 50% of differences between anti social and non-anti social behaviour is down to genetics
- 31. If an adoptedchild demonstrates aggressive traits that their biological parents had then it must be genetics If results are that they demonstrate traits of their adoptive parents then it must be environmental influences Danish Study Reviewed 14,000 adoption cases Found strong correlation between criminal convictions of biological parents against criminal convictions of their adopted sons Evaluation Massive sample size Supports genetic theory Is only correlational Genetic Factors Adoption Studies
- 32. Rhee and Waldman2002 Meta analysis On 51 twin and adoption studies Findings 4o% of antisocial behaviour was genetics 60% of antisocial behaviour was environmental Evaluation Shows links with genetics and environmental influences Used different types of methods to collect data throughout study having an impact on the results – not valid Genetic Factors Twin and Adoption Studies
- 33. Button et al– found that the hereditability of aggression was stronger in girls than in boys Rare to get MZ or DZ twins that were brought up separately from one another, unknown if aggression is due to genetics or environment Unclear whether aggression in adoption studies is due to genetics or from the feeling of rejection Evaluation – Genetic Factors
- 34. An aggressive gene Candidategenes are: DRD4 & DRD3 – dopamine receptors If damaged may cause aggression Meta-analysis found link between DR and ADHD MAOA – enzyme which digests serotonin and dopamine Brunner et al Family in the Netherlands in which most of the males were extremely violent Traced it back to the 1800’s and found that many other males in family had been aggressive They all had low level of MAOA Genetic Factors Genetics
- 35. High amount ofresearch to support that aggression is influences by biological factors Deterministic – claims that we have no choice in being aggressive so could be used to get away with crime Ignores other factors that could have an influence Researched by lab studies – lacks ecological validity Animal studies – ethical issues Evaluation of Biological
- 36. Aggression is anadaptive response to help us survive and produce healthy offspring Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression Natural Selection Characteristics that enhance survival are passed on Characteristics of those that don’t reproduce are not passed on Sexual Selection May be some characteristics that are passed on that hinder our ability to survive i.e. peacocks tail weighs it down so can’t run away from predators However it increases chance of finding a mate to produce offspring
- 37. Men have evolvedmate retention strategies to keep their mates – so they can pass on their genetics Mate guarding Prevents mate from talking or being near other males Looking through personal belongings – phones Domestic abuse Needs to avoid being cuckolded – bringing up another males offspring without knowing Infidelity and Jealousy Daly and Wilson
- 38. Large sample ofmen and women in relationships from the USA (men and women were not together) Men completed MRI Found males used 2 mate retention strategies Intersexual negative inducements (shouting at her) Direct guarding Found males who used emotional manipulation were more likely to be aggressive Women answered questions about partners mate retention strategies Confirmed findings from previous study on the males Infidelity and Jealousy Shackelford Evaluation Large sample size Only correlational – cannot identify cause and effect Only done on young participants Culturally biased
- 39. Unlike females, formales there is a level of uncertainty regarding whether offspring is biologically theirs or another mans Camilleri – Cuckoldry Risk Hypothesis When risk of cuckoldry is high chance of sexual coercion increases Lalumiere et al Supports Camilleri as found men are more likely to carry out rape to decrease parental uncertainty Examples in animals… Lions often kill the cubs of other males Chimps often kill rival males Infidelity and Jealousy Cuckoldry
- 40. Research supports thatsexual jealousy is often a major factor involved in domestic violence Studies by Camilleri support the idea that men who rape their partners often believe that they are being unfaithful Supported by events in wildlife Theory can be used to spot early signs of when domestic violence may occur, preventing it from happening Deterministic – suggests the behaviour is adaptive therefore can be used as an excuse for rape Evaluation – Infidelity and Jealousy
- 41. Murder must havebeen beneficial at some point in our evolutionary history Preventing harm Maintaining reputation Protection of resources Women find men who are more dominant more attractive – may be why aggression occurs Evolution of Murder Buss and Duntley
- 42. Daly and Wilson Foundthat men and women murder for different things Men kill out of sexual rivalry Women kill out of self defence Found that men were more aggressive in their early 20’s at the peak of the reproductive competition Could be due to testosterone Evolution of Murder Gender Differences
- 43. Sexual Jealousy Men arecommonly both the killers and victims Daly and Wilson found that in same sex murders involving love triangle 92% were between males Lack of resources Females are attracted to men with resources Daly and Wilson found most of the murderers in Detroit were unemployed Threats to status Females are attracted to dominance Evolution of Murder Three Factors
- 44. Commonly seen innature High levels of research Ignores cognitive processes Deterministic Most people do not murder their reproductive competition Cannot explain cultural differences Evaluation of Murder
- 45. Belief that peoplebehave differently in groups Lynch mobs Dehumanisation Power Threat Hypothesis As minority groups grow so do majority groups in order to display dominance When number of African-American citizens increased lynching increased as a power display Group Displays
- 46. Dehumanisation In lynching's thebodies were often broken down or burnt so victims couldn’t be recognised as human Black people were perceived by lynch groups as being animalistic Seen in Nazi Germany by the way in which Jewish people were treated Group Displays
- 47. Large amount ofevidence for dehumanisation – commonly still occurs in many countries Mainly based on case studies so is valid Not reliable as cannot be generalised Contradictory evidence to power threat hypothesis – a lot of people who have been murdered in group displays of aggression are those who are of no threat Can be just as easily explained through deindividuation Evaluation
- 48. Rituals in certaincultures and religions can be extremely brutal and aggressive In Islam there is a ritual where you beat yourself with chains and knives until bloody to pay respects to a martyr Seems to contradict the evolutionary theory They do it because… Shows commitment Co-operation which can be described as adaptive Group Displays - Culture
- 49. Aggression is commonin sport and in war Sport Intimidates other team Haka – All Blacks Brings them all into the same mentality Fans may be aggressive to show commitment Podalin et al Xenophobia in football matches strengthened cultural identity of the support Group Displays – War and Sport
- 50. War Important to showhigh commitment to ensure survival Binds group together Chagnon Tribe in Amazon who fight for women Success in battle gives men higher status Men who had not killed were rarely married Group Displays – War and Sport