This patient with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) presents with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) as evidenced by a metabolic acidosis with low bicarbonate and pH, low PCO2 due to compensatory hyperventilation, and elevated blood glucose and ketones. The metabolic acidosis is primarily due to the accumulation of ketone bodies from the breakdown of fat in the absence of insulin. The patient requires emergent treatment including intravenous fluids and insulin.
Biochemical mechanismsof acid base balance and acid base disordersrohini sane
A comprehensive presentation on Biochemical Mechanisms of Acid-Base Balance and Acid Base disorders for undergraduate medical, dental, biotechnology and pharmacology students for self –learning. pH maintained in tissues under physiological conditions are mentioned.
Basic concepts of buffers & their types (Acidic buffer & alkaline) are illustrated. Mechanisms of action of Buffer system for acid base balance is explained for perusal of students. Acids produced in a human body during metabolisms are listed.
Front line defense, second line defense (kidney) and dilution factor in regulation of pH in human body for acid-base balance are presented.
Blood buffers involved in acid base balance are classified. Ratio involved, Advantages and Disadvantages of Bicarbonate Buffer / Phosphate buffer system in acid base balance elaborated for their clinical applications.
Comparison of Buffering action of hemoglobin verses plasma proteins is presented under Protein buffer system. Mechanism of Buffering action of plasma proteins in Acidic and alkaline conditions is explained. Working of Hemoglobin buffer system in lung and tissue is illustrated.
Mechanisms involving hypo ventilation and hyperventilation of respiratory system in acid base balance is presented. Importance of Imidazole group of Histidine of hemoglobin in maintaining blood pH is explained
Role Renal Mechanism during acidosis and alkalosis using Bicarbonate mechanism, Phosphate mechanism, Ammonia mechanism, HCO³⁻ reabsorption and NH ₃ production is simplified. pCO₂, Concentration of K⁺ in ICF (intracellular fluid). Plasma Concentration of Cl⁻ ions and Concentration of adrenal-corticoids Hormones as factors affecting bicarbonate re absorption in proximal renal tubular cells are explained in lucid manner.
Phosphate buffer mechanism (Distal tubular cells) for acid base balance is illustrated.
Importance of Anion Gap in detection of metabolic acidosis & alkalosis presented. Anion Gap in Metabolic acidosis (acid accumulation and bicarbonate ion loss) is elucidated. Urinary anion gap as indicator of effective renal acid secretion during acidosis is explained diagrammatically. Clinical Conditions associated with increase and decrease in Anion Gap are listed. Comparison of Anion Gap between Metabolic acidosis And Metabolic alkalosis is explained diagrammatically.
Importance of Glutaminase, Glutaminase, L- amino acid oxidase, and Glycine oxidase in Ammonia mechanism in kidney-Distal tubular cells for acid base balance is presented.
Comparison of Definition, Ratio, Biochemical findings in Uncompensated and Compensatory phase of between different types of acidosis & alkalosis is done for their laboratory diagnosis. Clinical conditions associated in different types of acidosis & alkalosis are listed. Google images are used to convey the concept of the subject to self-learners.
Concepts of acid base balance and its disorders are very important for practice of medicine.It is for the benefit of medical and students of allied fields.
ABGs or VBGs interpretation made simple straight forward easy to remember and easy to apply. The presentation is designed to help the residents and junior ER physicians. The second part will discuss the oxygenation and the third part will review the "Stewart Approach" while fourth and last part is meant for the Experts.
Short Review regarding Metabolic Acidosis
The Causes, anion gap,urine osmolal gap, Renal Tubular Acidosis, approach to Metabolic Acidosis in Final Slide
one can learn the step by step approach of ABG interpritation and its analysis from basics with the help of different case scenarios,Ref-NEJM article regarding physiological approach to acid base disbalance
Potassium is the principal cation of the intracellular fl uid
(ICF) where its concentration is between 120 and 150 mEq/L.
The extracellular fl uid (ECF) and plasma potassium concentration [K] is much lower––in the 3.5–5.0 mEq/L range.
The very large transcellular gradient is maintained by active
K transport via the Na-K-ATPase pumps present in all cell
membranes and the ionic permeability characteristics of
these membranes. The resulting greater than 40-fold transmembrane [K] gradient is the principal determinant of the
transcellular resting potential gradient, about 90 mV with
the cell interior negative . Normal cell function
requires maintenance of the ECF [K] within a relatively narrow
range. This is particularly important for excitable cells
such as myocytes and neurons. The pathophysiologic effects
of dyskalemia on these cells result in most of the clinical
manifestations.
Biochemical mechanismsof acid base balance and acid base disordersrohini sane
A comprehensive presentation on Biochemical Mechanisms of Acid-Base Balance and Acid Base disorders for undergraduate medical, dental, biotechnology and pharmacology students for self –learning. pH maintained in tissues under physiological conditions are mentioned.
Basic concepts of buffers & their types (Acidic buffer & alkaline) are illustrated. Mechanisms of action of Buffer system for acid base balance is explained for perusal of students. Acids produced in a human body during metabolisms are listed.
Front line defense, second line defense (kidney) and dilution factor in regulation of pH in human body for acid-base balance are presented.
Blood buffers involved in acid base balance are classified. Ratio involved, Advantages and Disadvantages of Bicarbonate Buffer / Phosphate buffer system in acid base balance elaborated for their clinical applications.
Comparison of Buffering action of hemoglobin verses plasma proteins is presented under Protein buffer system. Mechanism of Buffering action of plasma proteins in Acidic and alkaline conditions is explained. Working of Hemoglobin buffer system in lung and tissue is illustrated.
Mechanisms involving hypo ventilation and hyperventilation of respiratory system in acid base balance is presented. Importance of Imidazole group of Histidine of hemoglobin in maintaining blood pH is explained
Role Renal Mechanism during acidosis and alkalosis using Bicarbonate mechanism, Phosphate mechanism, Ammonia mechanism, HCO³⁻ reabsorption and NH ₃ production is simplified. pCO₂, Concentration of K⁺ in ICF (intracellular fluid). Plasma Concentration of Cl⁻ ions and Concentration of adrenal-corticoids Hormones as factors affecting bicarbonate re absorption in proximal renal tubular cells are explained in lucid manner.
Phosphate buffer mechanism (Distal tubular cells) for acid base balance is illustrated.
Importance of Anion Gap in detection of metabolic acidosis & alkalosis presented. Anion Gap in Metabolic acidosis (acid accumulation and bicarbonate ion loss) is elucidated. Urinary anion gap as indicator of effective renal acid secretion during acidosis is explained diagrammatically. Clinical Conditions associated with increase and decrease in Anion Gap are listed. Comparison of Anion Gap between Metabolic acidosis And Metabolic alkalosis is explained diagrammatically.
Importance of Glutaminase, Glutaminase, L- amino acid oxidase, and Glycine oxidase in Ammonia mechanism in kidney-Distal tubular cells for acid base balance is presented.
Comparison of Definition, Ratio, Biochemical findings in Uncompensated and Compensatory phase of between different types of acidosis & alkalosis is done for their laboratory diagnosis. Clinical conditions associated in different types of acidosis & alkalosis are listed. Google images are used to convey the concept of the subject to self-learners.
Concepts of acid base balance and its disorders are very important for practice of medicine.It is for the benefit of medical and students of allied fields.
ABGs or VBGs interpretation made simple straight forward easy to remember and easy to apply. The presentation is designed to help the residents and junior ER physicians. The second part will discuss the oxygenation and the third part will review the "Stewart Approach" while fourth and last part is meant for the Experts.
Short Review regarding Metabolic Acidosis
The Causes, anion gap,urine osmolal gap, Renal Tubular Acidosis, approach to Metabolic Acidosis in Final Slide
one can learn the step by step approach of ABG interpritation and its analysis from basics with the help of different case scenarios,Ref-NEJM article regarding physiological approach to acid base disbalance
Potassium is the principal cation of the intracellular fl uid
(ICF) where its concentration is between 120 and 150 mEq/L.
The extracellular fl uid (ECF) and plasma potassium concentration [K] is much lower––in the 3.5–5.0 mEq/L range.
The very large transcellular gradient is maintained by active
K transport via the Na-K-ATPase pumps present in all cell
membranes and the ionic permeability characteristics of
these membranes. The resulting greater than 40-fold transmembrane [K] gradient is the principal determinant of the
transcellular resting potential gradient, about 90 mV with
the cell interior negative . Normal cell function
requires maintenance of the ECF [K] within a relatively narrow
range. This is particularly important for excitable cells
such as myocytes and neurons. The pathophysiologic effects
of dyskalemia on these cells result in most of the clinical
manifestations.
Acid base balance
Acid base disorder in body
Metabolic acidosis
Metabolic alkalosis
Respiratory acidosis
Respiratory alkalosis
Patterns Associated with AB Disorders
The normal pH of the blood is maintained the narrow range of 7.35-7..pdfRubanjews
The normal pH of the blood is maintained the narrow range of 7.35-7.45 that is slightly alkaline.
Any change in the normal value can cause marked alterations in the chemical reactions of the
cell.
The body has developed three mechanisms of defence to regulate or maintenance of blood pH or
acid-base balance.
1. Blood buffers
2. Respiratory mechanism.
3. Renal mechanism.
1. Blood buffers : Buffers are present both in the plasma and in the RBC\'s. The buffer cannot
remove H+ ion from the body, it temporarily acts as a shock absorbent to reduce the free H+
ions.
The blood consists of 3 buffer systems.
A. Bicarbonate buffer system : Sodium bicarbonate and carbonic acid (NaHCO3 - H2CO3) is the
most predominant buffer system of the extracellular fluid and plasma. At blood pH 7.4, the ratio
of carbonic acid is 20:1. Thus the bicarbonate concentration is much higher than carbonic acid in
the blood. This is referred to as alkali reserve and is responsible for the active buffering of h+
ions, generated by the body. The plasma bicarbonate [HCO3-] concentration is around 22-26
mmol/l. Carbonic acid is the solution of CO2 in water.
B. Phosphate buffer system: Sodium dihydrogen phosphate and disodium hydrogen phosphate
(NaH2PO4 - Na2HPO4) constitute the phosphate buffer. It is of less importance in plasma due to
its low concentration with a pk of 6.8, close to blood pH 7.4, the phosphate buffer would have
been more effective, had it been present in high concentration. It is estimated that the ratio of
base to acid fort phosphate buffer is 4, compared to 20 for bicarbonate buffer.
C. Protein buffer system : The plasma proteins and hemoglobin together constitute the protein
buffer system of blood. The buffering capacity of proteins is dependent on the Pk of ionizable
groups of amino acids. The imidazole group of histidine (Pk = 6.7) is the most effective
contributor of protein buffers. The plasma proteins account for about 2% of the total buffering
capacity of the plasma.Hemoglobin of RBC is also an important buffer. It mainly buffers the
fixed acid, besides being involved in the transport of gases (O2 and CO2).
2. Respiratory mechanism : Lungs are actually the most effective organs for rapid pH adjustment
or maintaining acid-base balance. About one-half of the H+ ions drained by the cells to the
extracellular fluids combine with HCO3- to form H2CO3, which disassociates into H2O and
CO2. The CO2 thus formed is subsequently eliminated by the lungs. So the elimination of one
molecule of CO2 means the removal of one H+ ion.
The rate of respiration is controlled by a respiratory center, located in the medulla of the brain,
highly sensitive to changes in the pH of blood. Any decrease in blood pH causes hyperventilation
to blow off CO2, there by reducing the H2CO3 concentration, simultaneously the H+ ions are
eliminated as H2O.
An increase in blood P (P - partial pressure) CO2 increases pulmonary ventilation. Pulmonary
ventilation is also increased with slight incr.
4. Renal Block-Acid Base Balance-for Medical students.pptxRajendra Dev Bhatt
Acid–Base balance (also known as pH HOMEOSTASIS ) : one of the essential functions of the body, it is concerned with the precise regulation of free (unbound) hydrogen ion concentration in body fluids.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
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Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
2. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Capsular Overview
1. Arterial pH ([H+] ) must be maintained in a close range (7.35-7.45)
for individual to be alive
2. Arterial pH is based on relationship of plasma bicarbonate (HCO−
3)
to carbon dioxide tension (Pco2 )
3. Simplify Henderson–Hasselbach equation to: pH = HCO−
3 / Pco2
4. Metabolic disorder = ∆ HCO−
3 = kidney = slow response
5. Respiratory disorder = ∆ Pco2 = lung = fast response
6. A disorder that is primarily associated w ventilation, e.g.,
pneumonia, drug overdose, causes a respiratory acid-base disorder
with a compensatory metabolic response
7. A disorder that is primarily assoc. w. renal disease, an
endocrinopathy, or GI disease causes a metabolic acid-base disorder
w a compensatory respiratory response Examples include severe
vomiting or diarrhea; uncontrolled diabetes; and uremia
2
3. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Definition
Acid–base imbalance is an abnormality
of human body's normal balance of acids
and bases that causes plasma pH to deviate
out of normal range (7.35 to 7.45)
3
4. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Background Definitions
4
Acidemia versus Acidosis
Acidemia describes an increased concentration of H+ in
plasma
Acidosis is a process in which there is an addition of H+ to the
body this may or may not cause acidemia
Acids and Bases
Acids are compounds that are capable of donating H+
Bases are compounds that are capable of accepting H+
When an acid (HA) dissociates, it yields H+ and its conjugate
base or anions (A−)
HA ⇌ H+ + A−
5. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Arterial pH or H+ Conc.
5
[H+] (pH) in body fluids must be maintained in a
very narrow range
If this concentration rises H+ will bind to important
compounds (proteins) this changes their charge, shape,
and possibly function with potentially dire consequences
Accordingly, there is a H+ removal process (the bicarbonate
buffer system)
The strategy that permits this H+ removal system to function is
that a low PCO2 obliges H+ to react with HCO−
3
HCO−
3 + H+ ↔ CO2 (venous)+ H2O
Therefore, a high [H+] stimulates breathing (lungs) & thereby
ensures that there is a lower [CO2] in each liter of alveolar air
and hence in arterial blood
6. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
H+ Concentration (2)
6
As shown in eq. above this safe way to remove H+
leads to a deficit of HCO3
−
Accordingly, one must have another system that adds new
HCO3
− to body as long as acidemia persists this is task of
kidney
Most important component is excretion of ammonium
ions (NH4
+) b/c kidney makes NH4
+ + HCO3
− in same
metabolic process:
Glutamine →2NH4
+ + 2HCO3
−
NB: Maintaining a urine pH of 6 will permit a high rate of excretion of NH4
+
diminishes risk of precipitation or uric acid
7. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Classification
An excess of acid is called acidosis or acidemia
An excess in bases is called alkalosis or
alkalemia
Process that causes imbalance is classified based
on etiology of disturbance (respiratory or
metabolic) and direction of change in pH
(acidosis or alkalosis)
7
8. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Classification (2)
simple acid–base disorders
process pH carbon dioxide compensation
metabolic
acidosis
down down respiratory
respiratory
acidosis
down up renal
metabolic
alkalosis
up up respiratory
respiratory
alkalosis
up down renal
Presence of only one of above derangements is called
a simple acid–base disorder
8
9. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Mixed disorders
In a mixed disorder more than one derangements is
occurring at same time
Mixed disorders may feature an acidosis and alkalosis
at same time that partially counteract each other, or
there can be two different conditions affecting pH in
same direction
Phrase "mixed acidosis", for example, refers to metabolic
acidosis in conjunction with respiratory acidosis
Any combination is possible, except concurrent
respiratory acidosis and respiratory alkalosis since a
person cannot breathe too fast and too slow at the same time...
9
10. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Causes
There are numerous reasons that each of four
processes can occur (detailed to follow)
Sources of acid gain include:
1.Retention of carbon dioxide
2.Production of nonvolatile acids from
metabolism of proteins and other organic
molecules
3.Loss of bicarbonate in feces or urine
4.Intake of acids or acid precursors
10
11. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Causes (2)
Sources of acid loss include:
1.Use of hydrogen ions in the metabolism of
various organic anions
2.Loss of acid in the vomitus or urine
3.Gastric aspiration in hospital
4.Severe diarrhea
5.Carbon dioxide loss through hyperventilation
11
12. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Compensation
Body's acid–base balance is tightly regulated
Several buffering agents exist which reversibly bind
hydrogen ions and impede any change in pH
Extracellular buffers include bicarbonate and ammonia
Proteins and phosphate act as intracellular buffers
o Bicarbonate buffering system is especially key as
carbon dioxide (CO2) can be shifted through carbonic
acid (H2CO3) to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate (HCO−
3 )
HCO−
3 + H+ ↔H2CO3↔ CO2+ H2O
12
13. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Compensation (2)
Expected degree of compensation can be
calculated from “renal rules”
These rules predict appropriate compensatory
responses for simple acid–base disorders (see Table
that follows)
For example, in simple metabolic acidosis,
renal rules can determine whether lungs are
hyperventilating to extent expected for a given
decrease in HCO−
3 concentration
13
14. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Compensation (3)
If HCO3 concentration is ↓ to 8 mEq/L (nml, 24
mEq/L) rules can be used to predict expected
decrease in Pco2 for this decrease in HCO−
3
If actual Pco2 is same as predicted Pco2
respiratory compensation is considered appropriate,
and no other acid–base abnormality is present
If actual Pco2 is different from Predicted value
then another acid–base disorder is present (in
addition to metabolic acidosis)
14
15. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Compensation (4)
Renal rules (slide 17) tell us that in simple metabolic acidosis,
expected change in Pco2 (from normal value of 40 mm Hg) is 1.3
times change in HCO−
3 concentration (from normal value of 24
mEq/L)
Doing the Math
Thus, in example case:
Decrease in HCO−
3 (from nml) = 24 mEq/L - 8 mEq/L= 16 mEq/L
Predicted decrease in Pco2 (from nml) = 1.3 × 16 mEq/L= 20.8 mm Hg
Predicted Pco2 = 40 mm Hg − 20.8 mm Hg = 19.2 mm Hg
15
16. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Compensation (5)
Predicted Pco2 is 19.2 mm Hg
Actual in example Pco2 was 20 mm Hg
Thus, degree of respiratory compensation was
both appropriate and expected for a person w
an HCO−
3 concentration of 8 mEq/L no
additional acid–base disorders is present
16
17. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Calculating Compensatory Responses
to Simple Acid–Base Disorders
Costanzo LS. BRS Physiology. 5th ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2011:176.
“renal rules”
17
18. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Understanding Acid-Base
Disorders via Linkage
18
The linkage is laboratory value to body organ
to physiologic response
HCO3 is linked to metabolic that links to kidney
with a final linkage to “slow”
Remember: The term metabolic relates to plasma
bicarbonate
A low pH is acidosis low pH assoc. w a low
bicarbonate conc. is metabolic acidosis
A high pH is alkalosis a high pH assoc. w a high
bicarbonate conc. is metabolic alkalosis
19. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Acid-Base Disorders via
Linkage cont’d.
19
Pco2 is linked to respiratory that links to ventilation
that links to lung with a final linkage to “fast”
Remember: Pco2 relates only to alveolar ventilation
A low pH is acidosis a low pH due to elevated Pco2
is hypoventilation-induced respiratory acidosis
A high pH is alkalosis a high pH due to a reduced
Pco2 is hyperventilation-induced respiratory alkalosis
20. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Acid-Base Disorders via
Linkage cont’d.
20
Fast and slow refer to compensatory efforts of lungs
or kidney in response to acidosis or alkalosis
If primary illness is in ventilation causing respiratory
acidosis (high Pco2) or respiratory alkalosis (low Pco2),
kidney is slow meaning it takes 3 to 5 days for kidney to
retain or secrete bicarb. in an effort to keep pH close to
normal
contrastly,
Lung can start its compensation in seconds to a minute
when there is a primary metabolic acid–base abnormality
For more detail and examples see:
Acid–Base Balance Linkage_pdf notes
21. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Two other clinical points
21
1. Acid–base compensation is never complete or perfect
In other words, compensation brings pH back toward
normal, but body does not reach a normal pH value
o If pH reaches nml or beyond mixed disorder
2. In case of metabolic acidosis a compensatory
increase in ventilation never causes dyspnea
Thus, patient who has Kussmaul breathing in diabetic
ketoacidosis is never short of breath
22. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Acid-Base Disorders
Assessment
Assessment of a patient’s acid–base status requires
measurement of arterial pH, PCO2, and plasma
bicarbonate (HCO−
3 )
Blood gas analyzers directly measure pH and PCO2
HCO−
3 value is calculated from the Henderson–
Hasselbalch equation (or in clinical setting using
bicarbonate on chemistry panel)
pH = pK + log (HCO−
3 ) / (H2CO3)
H–H eq. can be simplified to pH = HCO−
3 / PCO2
22
23. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
FLOW CHART
Initial Dx of acid-base disorders
23
Kamel KS, Halperin ML. Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Physiology: A Problem-Based Approach, 5th Ed.
Philadelphia: Elsevier, 2017.
24. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Case 1
A 35-year-old man with T1DM has not been taking his
daily insulin injections for 1 week. He presents to the
emergency room with deep, regular, sighing respirations,
abdominal pain, vomiting, and signs of severe dehydration.
You conduct ABG and chemistry studies, which are
significant for a low blood pH, low HCO-
3, decreased
PCO2, extreme hyperglycemia, and increased blood
ketones. You immediately treat the patient with fluids and
insulin to try and reverse this metabolic disturbance.
What is the Diagnosis?
24
25. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Metabolic Acidosis
Etiology
Anion gap metabolic acidosis: Causes include renal failure
(azotemia), lactic acidosis, diabetic ketoacidosis, certain
toxins (methanol, paraldehyde, phenformin, iron, carbon
monoxide, ethanol, ethylene glycol, salicylate), and INH
o (One way to remember all of causes of anion gap acidosis is mnemonic MUD PILES=
Methanol, Uremia, Diabetic ketoacidosis, Paraldehyde or Phenformin, Iron tablets or
Isoniazid, Lactic acidosis, Ethylene glycol, Salicylates)
Normal anion gap metabolic acidosis: Causes include traveler’s
diarrhea, acetazolamide overdose, renal tubular acidosis , and
glue sniffing hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis
If primary cause of acidosis is a loss of HCO-
3 there will be an ↑ in Cl-
Anion gap will be nml as seen in severe diarrhea
25
26. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Pathophysiology
Primary disturbance: Decrease in HCO-
3
concentration
Compensatory response: Decrease in
PCO2 results in vascular bed
dilatation and ↓ cardiac contractility
(resistant to catecholamines) can lead
to shock
26
27. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Clinical Manifestations
Hyperventilation or Kussmaul breathing (deep, sighing
respirations); other specific signs and symptoms depend on
cause of metabolic acidosis
Lab findings: Decreased pH, decreased PCO2, decreased HCO-
3
Treatment Treat with bicarbonate if pH < 7.1 and treat underlying
condition
Note:
Anion gap calculation: Anion gap = Na+– (Cl-+ HCO-
3)
Anion gap is normally 10–15 mEq/L and is increased if
unmeasured anion replaces HCO-
3
Compensation calculation: (Winter’s formula): Decrease in
PCO2 = 1.5 (HCO-
3) + 8 2
27
28. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Case 2
A 45-year-old man presents to the emergency department with
increased dizziness and weakness. After taking a history, you learn
that he has been accidentally taking twice the amount of a prescribed
diuretic. On physical examination, you notice that he has sunken
eyes, poor skin turgor, hyporeflexia in all reflexes, and orthostatic
hypotension. Laboratory studies show an arterial pH of 7.56 and an
arterial PCO2 of 45. Serum potassium and chloride are decreased.
No other abnormalities are noted. You immediately begin to
administer IV fluids and you suspect that this will reverse his
metabolic abnormality.
What is the Diagnosis?
28
29. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Metabolic Alkalosis
Etiology
Saline-responsive metabolic alkalosis: Caused by
extracellular volume contraction caused by vomiting,
diuretics
Saline-resistant metabolic alkalosis: Caused by
mineralocorticoid excess (Conn syndrome,
renovascular disease, Cushing disease) or alkali
administration with decreased GFR (eg, antacid
admin.) or severe hypokalemia
29
30. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Pathophysiology
Primary disturbance: Increase in HCO-
3 concentration
Compensatory response: Increase in PCO2
hypoventilation causes PCO2 to increase in order to
increase bicarbonate concentration
Metabolic alkalosis is generally associated w
hypokalemia that acts to worsen the metabolic
alkalosis by increasing bicarbonate absorption in the
proximal tubule and hydrogen ion secretion in the distal
tubule
30
31. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Clinical Manifestations
May present w signs of dehydration (sunken eyes, poor skin turgor,
lethargy, and hypotension) and muscle weakness (b/c of hypokalemia);
can also cause ↓ cerebral blood flow and cardiac arrhythmias
Lab findings: Increased pH, increased PCO2, increased HCO-
3,
hypokalemia
Treatment
Saline-responsive: Fluid replacement
Saline-resistant: Treat underlying cause of mineralocorticoid excess;
replete potassium
Notes
Compensation: PCO2 increases 0.7 mm Hg for every 1 mEq/L HCO-
3
increase
31
32. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Case 3
A 28-year-old male heroin addict presents to the emergency
room with shallow, deep breathing as well as nausea,
vomiting, and constipation. On physical examination, the
patient is confused and somnolent. Myoclonus with
asterixis is apparent, as are pinpoint pupils. Track marks are
found on both arms. Laboratory studies indicate an arterial
pH of 7.30 and an arterial PCO2 of 55. To reverse the drug
overdose and thereby relieve the metabolic disturbance, you
decide to administer 0.4 mg of naloxone IV.
What is the diagnosis?
32
33. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Respiratory Acidosis
Etiology
Caused by acute lung disease (ARDS, airway obstruction), chronic
lung disease (COPD), CNS depression (opioids, sedatives, narcotics),
or weak respiratory muscles (ALS, kyphoscoliosis, MS, polio)
Pathophysiology
Primary disturbance: Increase in PCO2 (hypercapnia) owing to
decreased alveolar ventilation
Compensatory response: Increase in HCO-
3 caused by increased
renal HCO-
3 reabsorption as stimulated by low pH and high PCO2
33
34. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Clinical Manifestations
Hypoventilation; somnolence; confusion; myoclonus with asterixis;
signs of ↑intracranial pressure (eg, papilledema, pseudotumor
cerebri= Idiopathic intracranial hypertension [IIH])
Lab findings: Decreased pH, increased PCO2, increased HCO-
3
Treatment
Treat underlying condition of acute respiratory acidosis
No treatment necessary for chronic respiratory acidosis
Notes
Acute compensation: 1 mEq/L HCO-
3 increase for every 10 mm Hg
PCO2 increase
Chronic compensation: 3.5 mEq/L HCO-
3 increase for every 10 mm
Hg PCO2 increase
34
35. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Case 4
A 30-year-old woman just learns that her brother was in a
serious car accident, but is currently in stable condition.
She begins to hyperventilate and starts complaining of
feeling light-headed and having tingling in her hands and
feet. Realizing that she is in danger of experiencing a
metabolic disturbance, you hand her a paper bag and ask
her to breathe into it.
What is the Diagnosis?
35
36. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Respiratory Alkalosis
Etiology
Acute respiratory alkalosis: Caused by hyperventilation, early
phase of salicylate overdose, pneumonia, sepsis, pregnancy,
pulmonary edema, pulmonary embolism, or cirrhosis
Chronic respiratory alkalosis: Caused by high altitude or
pregnancy
Pathophysiology Primary disturbance: Decrease in PCO2
Compensatory response: Decrease in HCO-
3 because of increased
renal HCO-3 secretion
36
37. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Clinical Manifestations Sx in acute respiratory alkalosis are related
to ↓ cerebral blood flow (light-headedness, anxiety, paresthesias,
numbness about mouth, tingling in distal extremities,
hyperventilation); may also cause cardiac arrhythmias
Lab findings: Increased pH, decreased PCO2, decreased HCO-
3
Treatment Acute hyperventilation syndrome from anxiety can be
treated by breathing into paper bag to increase PCO2; otherwise, treat
underlying cause (ie, sepsis or pneumonia)
Notes
Acute compensation: 2 mEq/L HCO-
3 decrease for every 1 mm
Hg PCO2 decrease
Chronic compensation: 5 mEq/L HCO-
3 decrease for every 10
mm Hg PCO2 decrease
37
38. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Step-By-Step Analysis of
Acid-Base Status
1. Is the patient acidemic or alkalemic?
2. Is the primary disturbance respiratory or metabolic?
3. For a respiratory disturbance, is it acute or chronic?
4. For metabolic acidosis, is an anion gap present?
5. If an anion gap is present, are there still other
coexistent metabolic disturbances?
6. What is the degree of compensation by respiratory
system for a metabolic disturbance?
38
39. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Key Points to Remember
1. Arterial pH must be maintained in a close range (7.35-7.45) for
individual to be alive
2. Arterial pH is based on relationship of plasma bicarbonate (HCO−
3)
to carbon dioxide tension (Pco2 )
3. Simplify Henderson–Hasselbach equation to: pH = HCO−
3 / Pco2
4. Metabolic disorder = ∆ HCO−
3 = kidney = slow response
5. Respiratory disorder = ∆ Pco2 = lung = fast response
6. A disorder that is primarily associated w ventilation, e.g.,
pneumonia, drug overdose, causes a respiratory acid-base disorder
with a compensatory metabolic response
7. A disorder that is primarily assoc. w. renal disease, an
endocrinopathy, or GI disease causes a metabolic acid-base disorder
w a compensatory respiratory response Examples include severe
vomiting or diarrhea; uncontrolled diabetes; and uremia
39
40. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Le T, Bhushan, et al. First Aid for the USMLE Step 1 2017. McGraw-Hill Education, 2017. 40
41. Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.
Sources and further study:
Companions:
Acid-Base Balance and Disorders_ SDL Tutorial.pdf
Acid–Base Balance Linkage_SDL Note.pdf
Sources and further study:
Baron SJ, Lee CI. Lange Pathology Flash Cards, 2nd Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009.
Cho, CH. Electrolyte & Acid-Base Disorders, Ch. 21, In: Current Medical Diagnosis and
Treatment 2017, 56th Ed. Papadakis MA, McPhee SJ, (Eds). New York: McGraw-Hill,
2017.
Costanzo LS. BRS Physiology. 5th ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2011.
Diamond MA. Medical Insights: From Classroom to Patient. Sudbury, MA: Jones and
Bartlett Publishers, LLC, 2010.
Le T, Bhushan, et al. First Aid for the USMLE Step 1 2017. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2017
Kamel KS, Halperin ML. Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Physiology: A Problem-Based
Approach, 5th Ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier, 2017.
Jameson LJ, Loscalzo J. Harrison’s Nephrology and Acid-Base Disorders, 2nd Ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 2013.
41