This document summarizes a research study that examined high school students' use of academic vocabulary in English essays and how it relates to their English proficiency. The study analyzed 233 essays from Thai high school students using 70 academic words from the Academic Vocabulary List (AVL). Descriptive statistics identified 48 words that students knew and used. Tests found some effects of gender and proficiency levels on certain words. However, students' academic vocabulary knowledge and use were unrelated to their overall English proficiency or skills in reading, speaking, and writing. The study aimed to address gaps in understanding which academic words students know and use and how this relates to their academic achievement.
CONSTRUCTING A TEXT-MINING BASED ENGLISH VOCABULARY LEARNING LIST-A CASE STUD...IJDKP
This study applied text mining techniques, machine learning approaches and statistical methods to
construct a predictive model of a prioritized English vocabulary list to help nonnative English speakers
prepare for college entrance English exams. Developing a method for efficiently learning English
vocabulary in a limited time is an import issue. This study suggests that highly relevant and frequently repeated test items should be learned first. Although the College Entrance Examination Center (CEEC) in
Taiwan has provided an approximately 7,000-word vocabulary list, the list’s suitability requires verification. Furthermore, this study constructed a vocabulary learning process model to establish a prioritized English vocabulary list for future examinees. Experimental results show that the proposed
model can achieve a 78% hit ratio, which is higher than the 69% of the CEEC’s provided list.
The Effects of Communicative Language Teaching approach (CLT) on Grammar Teac...AJSERJournal
Grammar Translation Method or GTM, which greatly supports students for grammar-based written tests,
is the priority way of grammar teaching in Vietnam. That’s why many students are gradually lacking communication
abilities. In the light of Communicative Language Teaching approach or CLT, grammar is now taught in more
interesting ways. Lately, many studies have found that teaching and learning grammar in communicative contexts
helps students gain better level of language proficiency especially more fluent and accurate speaking skill. Therefore,
this paper aims to evaluate the impact of CLT in grammar instruction for first year English majored students at Dong
Nai Technology University. In addition, how students respond to the lessons instructed by CLT method is also fully
described in the paper. The results show that CLT approach brings many benefits for EFL students. Moreover, students
gain strong motivation and positive attitude through the lessons with CLT
The Effects of Communicative Language Teaching approach (CLT) on Grammar Teac...AJSERJournal
Grammar Translation Method or GTM, which greatly supports students for grammar-based written tests,
is the priority way of grammar teaching in Vietnam. That’s why many students are gradually lacking communication
abilities. In the light of Communicative Language Teaching approach or CLT, grammar is now taught in more
interesting ways. Lately, many studies have found that teaching and learning grammar in communicative contexts
helps students gain better level of language proficiency especially more fluent and accurate speaking skill. Therefore,
this paper aims to evaluate the impact of CLT in grammar instruction for first year English majored students at Dong
Nai Technology University. In addition, how students respond to the lessons instructed by CLT method is also fully
described in the paper. The results show that CLT approach brings many benefits for EFL students. Moreover, students
gain strong motivation and positive attitude through the lessons with CLT
The problems of Fluency in Spoken English among EFL Learners in Saudi Univers...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : This study aims to investigate the problems and challenges which is usually experienced by
English learner's students in the Saudi universities when trying to speak English. It also checks at the problems
that students face when learning English language in Saudi universities and try to find remedies to this problem.
The research uses a questionnaire, interviews, and descriptive methods in the collection of data about fluency in
English language in universities in KSU as an example. The data was then statistically analyzed using the SPSS
program. The results showed that there are various problems which hinder fluency of English learning in the
universities and among them include: under-qualified teachers, unsuitable teaching materials and the methods
used in teaching are also poor. The other problem is the psychological factor which makes student lack
motivation while learning English. The study also contains ways in which these problems can be handled to
bring efficiency in learning and teaching English in Saudi universities.
KEYWORDS: The challenges of fluency in spoken English among the EFL students.
Full paper-the-academic-writing-performance malik albalawi مالك البلوي malikjabr
Academic Writing performance and Spelling errors of English as A Foreign Language Students at Tabuk University: A case of The Introductory Year Students 2015
The Academic writing performance and Spelling Errors Malik Jabr Albalawi مال...malikjabr
The Academic writing Performance and Spelling Errors of English As Foreign Language Students at Tabuk University: A case of the Introductory Year students:2015
CONSTRUCTING A TEXT-MINING BASED ENGLISH VOCABULARY LEARNING LIST-A CASE STUD...IJDKP
This study applied text mining techniques, machine learning approaches and statistical methods to
construct a predictive model of a prioritized English vocabulary list to help nonnative English speakers
prepare for college entrance English exams. Developing a method for efficiently learning English
vocabulary in a limited time is an import issue. This study suggests that highly relevant and frequently repeated test items should be learned first. Although the College Entrance Examination Center (CEEC) in
Taiwan has provided an approximately 7,000-word vocabulary list, the list’s suitability requires verification. Furthermore, this study constructed a vocabulary learning process model to establish a prioritized English vocabulary list for future examinees. Experimental results show that the proposed
model can achieve a 78% hit ratio, which is higher than the 69% of the CEEC’s provided list.
The Effects of Communicative Language Teaching approach (CLT) on Grammar Teac...AJSERJournal
Grammar Translation Method or GTM, which greatly supports students for grammar-based written tests,
is the priority way of grammar teaching in Vietnam. That’s why many students are gradually lacking communication
abilities. In the light of Communicative Language Teaching approach or CLT, grammar is now taught in more
interesting ways. Lately, many studies have found that teaching and learning grammar in communicative contexts
helps students gain better level of language proficiency especially more fluent and accurate speaking skill. Therefore,
this paper aims to evaluate the impact of CLT in grammar instruction for first year English majored students at Dong
Nai Technology University. In addition, how students respond to the lessons instructed by CLT method is also fully
described in the paper. The results show that CLT approach brings many benefits for EFL students. Moreover, students
gain strong motivation and positive attitude through the lessons with CLT
The Effects of Communicative Language Teaching approach (CLT) on Grammar Teac...AJSERJournal
Grammar Translation Method or GTM, which greatly supports students for grammar-based written tests,
is the priority way of grammar teaching in Vietnam. That’s why many students are gradually lacking communication
abilities. In the light of Communicative Language Teaching approach or CLT, grammar is now taught in more
interesting ways. Lately, many studies have found that teaching and learning grammar in communicative contexts
helps students gain better level of language proficiency especially more fluent and accurate speaking skill. Therefore,
this paper aims to evaluate the impact of CLT in grammar instruction for first year English majored students at Dong
Nai Technology University. In addition, how students respond to the lessons instructed by CLT method is also fully
described in the paper. The results show that CLT approach brings many benefits for EFL students. Moreover, students
gain strong motivation and positive attitude through the lessons with CLT
The problems of Fluency in Spoken English among EFL Learners in Saudi Univers...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : This study aims to investigate the problems and challenges which is usually experienced by
English learner's students in the Saudi universities when trying to speak English. It also checks at the problems
that students face when learning English language in Saudi universities and try to find remedies to this problem.
The research uses a questionnaire, interviews, and descriptive methods in the collection of data about fluency in
English language in universities in KSU as an example. The data was then statistically analyzed using the SPSS
program. The results showed that there are various problems which hinder fluency of English learning in the
universities and among them include: under-qualified teachers, unsuitable teaching materials and the methods
used in teaching are also poor. The other problem is the psychological factor which makes student lack
motivation while learning English. The study also contains ways in which these problems can be handled to
bring efficiency in learning and teaching English in Saudi universities.
KEYWORDS: The challenges of fluency in spoken English among the EFL students.
Full paper-the-academic-writing-performance malik albalawi مالك البلوي malikjabr
Academic Writing performance and Spelling errors of English as A Foreign Language Students at Tabuk University: A case of The Introductory Year Students 2015
The Academic writing performance and Spelling Errors Malik Jabr Albalawi مال...malikjabr
The Academic writing Performance and Spelling Errors of English As Foreign Language Students at Tabuk University: A case of the Introductory Year students:2015
This article provides an overview of existing instruments measuring self-efficacy for English language learning in both first and second language acquisition fields and their reliability and validity evidence. It also describes the development and use of the Questionnaire of English Language Self-Efficacy (QESE) scale, designed specifically for English language learners (ELLs), and presents an overview of the research findings from empirical studies related to its psychometric properties. A growing body of literature has begun to document encouraging evidence of ELL students’ self-efficacy belief measures and the utility of the QESE in particular. The information pertaining to the QESE is quite encouraging from measurement perspectives and fills the gap in the literature by providing a reliable and valid instrument to measure ELLs’ self-efficacy in various cultures. This paper concludes with evidence for internal consistency, test-retest reliability, structural, generalizability, and external aspects of the construct validity of the QESE. This paper contributes to the growing interest in these skills by reviewing the measures of self-efficacy in the field of second-language acquisition and the findings of empirical research on the development and use of a self-efficacy scale for ELLs.
Language Needs Analysis for English Curriculum Validationinventionjournals
This study aims to identify the language needs analysis for English curriculum validation in the tertiary level. The descriptive method is utilized in the study and employed purposive sampling. This is also called judgmental sampling. A deliberate selection of individuals made by the researcher based on the predefined criteria. Three hundred forty nine (349) students were utilized as respondents to test their listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, identifying errors and correct usage. Result showed that identifying errors skills, writing skills, correct usage, reading skills and listening skills were significantly affected by the respondents profile since the computed P-value is greater than the significance level of 0.05. However, speaking skills and vocabulary skills show that they are not significant to the profile of the respondents.
This article aims at exposing a design of project based content language integrated learning (CLIL) at a higher education insitution in Indonesia. Th design is proposed based on a mixture of the principle of language integrated learning (CLIL) and the principle of project based learning. The design was implemented for the teaching of English as a compulsory subject at three departments of the university of Lampung. Quantitative data was obtained from the value of students’ English proficiency before and after CLIL model application. While the qualitative data was obtained from the output of language produced by students during the learning process took place. The results showed that project based CLIL English language course at the faculty of teaching and education, the University of Lampung could work effectively. This is evident from the implementation of the whole program activities, from the implementation of the formation of groups, students work in groups to finish the project, group presentation activities, personal presentations and students’ responses to all activities.
The aim of this research study is to analyze the appropriateness of the English syllabus according to the true language needs, which is being offered to the students of International Relations Department of Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan. To carry out this research study, students of IR department (Part 1 and 2) have been taken as a sample population to collect required data. To check the appropriateness of the offered English syllabus and existing level of English language competence according to the students’ needs; two research tools have been taken as: test and interview. In order to get the actual feedback from the students, a test consisted of four basic skills of English (listening, speaking, reading and writing) was conducted to 50 students of IR department. Interview was conducted to the teachers of IR department in order to get the actual information about the appropriateness of the English syllabus and the competency level of the students. Collected data through both the sources were analyzed qualitatively as well as quantitatively. The findings from these sources provided the results which were expected before the accomplishment of this research work. The findings of this research advocated that the EAP should be adopted to make the existing syllabus appropriate and need based in order to refine the basic English language skills of the students. This recommended course is very productive for social sciences disciplines of the BZU.
English - Majored Juniors’ attitudes towards learning the academic writing co...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : The study aims to investigate attitudes ofJuniors ofEnglish as a foreign language (EFL)
towards learning the academic writing course at TraVinh University (TVU) and to help these learners recognize
what benefits they have got and difficulties they have encountered during the course. The writer uses a
quantitative approach with aquestionnaire to collect data from80third-year English majors, whotook part in the
academic course at TVU. The findings indicate that all students have positive attitudes about this course and
concede the benefits of the academic writing course. One of the most crucial results from this study's data was
that academic writing skills were needed for students’ graduation thesis. Apart from that, the
studentsencountered challenges throughout the learning process. Particularly, due to the impact of their native
tongue on language learning, grammar is regarded as the most prominent difficulty. The study lastly suggests a
range of implications for students to enhance their academic writing skills.
KEYWORDS: academic writing, attitudes, difficulties, EFL Juniors
Speaking in English confidently is a challenging task but very crucial for university students. Graduates with good communication efficiency especially in the engineering field are greatly demanded in the current work industry. Performing confidently is not only important for scoring academic tasks but also to help expand the revenue of the companies at workplace. Thus, a pilot study was conducted to investigate the perceptions of a public technical university engineering undergraduates’ confidence level in speaking English. A mixed method design was employed where a survey and semi-structured interview were conducted for data collection. The participants were selected using purposive sampling method where a total number of 50 undergraduates provided valid responses to the online questionnaire and 5 undergraduates participated in the semi-structured interview. Descriptive statistics using Statistical Package for the Social Science Version 25.0 (SPSS version 25.0) and thematic analysis were adopted for data analyses. The results revealed three main areas that were identified as important to build the students’ confidence in speaking: applying manual skills, familiarization of vocabulary and correct usage of grammar. The findings also highlighted that the participants felt that more public speaking practices should be provided to them to improve their confidence level further in speaking English fluently.
The Responses of Non-English Major Students with Visual Learning Style of Wri...idhasaeful
This research is conducted towards the students of non-English major with visual learning style and writing preference. There are 14 students, which are taken to be the respondents. Questionnaires are the instrument used to gather the data in this research. This research employs descriptive qualitative method in analyzing the data.
The result portrays that 3 major findings: (1) most of the students find it difficult to accomplish the oral English test which is natural and normal due to their preference skill in writing, (2) in spite of the difficulty of the oral English test, the majority of the students consider the test to be challenging, accommodating and satisfying (3) a large number of the students get the benefit from the effectiveness of the feedback that they get in the form of rubrics.
The present study aimed at exploring the abstracts of research articles written by non-native English researchers to uncover the specific characteristics of academic vocabulary employed in the English research articles abstracts.It focuses on frequency and coverage distribution of the words from the Academic Word List (Coxhead, 2000) in the abstracts of research articles. The source of data for this corpus study was gathered from 97 abstracts written by the EFL researchers and published by the Journal Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Missio at STKIP St. Paulus Ruteng from 2015 until 2018. The results of this study revealed that the coverage of K1, the first most frequent 1000 English words, is the most dominant lexical items applied by the researchers. It covered 71.33% of the texts. The representation of lexical items that belong to K2, the second most frequent 1000 English words, covered 5.44% of all the words used by the writers in their abstracts. Moreover, the presence of Academic Word List, which refers to a list of 570 word families that are commonly found in academic texts and Off-list, which refers to the words that do not belong to K1 or K2 because it is related to certain field, has slight difference over all of the texts where the former covers 11.95% and the later covers 11.26%. As far as the findings of the present study are concerned, the room for some improvements on academic words applied in the abstracts need to pay attention.
1
Annotated Bibliography 2
Tense Errors in English Second Language
Budiharto, R. A. (2019). Native language interference on target language writings of Indonesian EFL students: An exploratory case study. Indonesian EFL Journal, 5(1), 107-116.
Authors argue that the native language influences the proficiency and quality of the students learning English as a second language. Using a mixed-method design, the authors examined 22 English essays written by EFL students of Indonesian origin. The results proved that the Indonesian language influenced the students writing quality, with lexicon-semantics and grammar constituting more significant and more recurrent errors in their writing.
The study used a scientific method to yield generalizable results that prove that the native language influences the English learning experience among immigrants. The study is essential in riveting that EFL students face English language proficiency problems and need assistance with teaching methodology and remedial to improve English language learning success. Compared with other studies, the standard errors of tenses in most immigrants are thus profitable in advising English teachers on the appropriate teaching tools.
Garrido, C. G., & Rosado Romero, C. (2012). Errors in the use of English tenses. Íkala, revista de lenguaje y cultura, 17(3), 285-296.
The authors investigate the tense errors made by first-year Spanish students learning to be EFL teachers at Universidad San Sebastián. The researchers used a hierarchy of complexity and explanation of students’ main errors design. They argue that after one year of formal instruction, English aspects and tense errors were common among the Spanish students learning EFL. The researchers identified the main problem as inaccurate matching of tenses and English aspects to correct contexts. A scientific statement stating strategy is used to convey the findings in this paper. Empirical data is displayed with statistical differences and significance used to illustrate the argument.
The authors reveal a high level of credibility. This is because they used a scientific, statistical data collection and analysis method. The tools used were credible, and the sample size was adequate. The findings are generalizable and present information on the critical issue of matching tenses and English aspects to their context as an area that requires close consideration in training English teachers as a second language. This is important in my study because it shows that learning the second language among immigrants faces context matching and tense use. The information will therefore help design a teaching methodology that will assist Spanish immigrants successively in learning English tenses and related aspects.
Mocciaro, E., & Young-Scholten, M. (2022). Why and How Grammar Matters for Post-puberty Immigrants with Limited Formal Schooling. In English and Students with Limited or Interrupted Formal Education ...
This article provides an overview of existing instruments measuring self-efficacy for English language learning in both first and second language acquisition fields and their reliability and validity evidence. It also describes the development and use of the Questionnaire of English Language Self-Efficacy (QESE) scale, designed specifically for English language learners (ELLs), and presents an overview of the research findings from empirical studies related to its psychometric properties. A growing body of literature has begun to document encouraging evidence of ELL students’ self-efficacy belief measures and the utility of the QESE in particular. The information pertaining to the QESE is quite encouraging from measurement perspectives and fills the gap in the literature by providing a reliable and valid instrument to measure ELLs’ self-efficacy in various cultures. This paper concludes with evidence for internal consistency, test-retest reliability, structural, generalizability, and external aspects of the construct validity of the QESE. This paper contributes to the growing interest in these skills by reviewing the measures of self-efficacy in the field of second-language acquisition and the findings of empirical research on the development and use of a self-efficacy scale for ELLs.
Language Needs Analysis for English Curriculum Validationinventionjournals
This study aims to identify the language needs analysis for English curriculum validation in the tertiary level. The descriptive method is utilized in the study and employed purposive sampling. This is also called judgmental sampling. A deliberate selection of individuals made by the researcher based on the predefined criteria. Three hundred forty nine (349) students were utilized as respondents to test their listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, identifying errors and correct usage. Result showed that identifying errors skills, writing skills, correct usage, reading skills and listening skills were significantly affected by the respondents profile since the computed P-value is greater than the significance level of 0.05. However, speaking skills and vocabulary skills show that they are not significant to the profile of the respondents.
This article aims at exposing a design of project based content language integrated learning (CLIL) at a higher education insitution in Indonesia. Th design is proposed based on a mixture of the principle of language integrated learning (CLIL) and the principle of project based learning. The design was implemented for the teaching of English as a compulsory subject at three departments of the university of Lampung. Quantitative data was obtained from the value of students’ English proficiency before and after CLIL model application. While the qualitative data was obtained from the output of language produced by students during the learning process took place. The results showed that project based CLIL English language course at the faculty of teaching and education, the University of Lampung could work effectively. This is evident from the implementation of the whole program activities, from the implementation of the formation of groups, students work in groups to finish the project, group presentation activities, personal presentations and students’ responses to all activities.
The aim of this research study is to analyze the appropriateness of the English syllabus according to the true language needs, which is being offered to the students of International Relations Department of Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan. To carry out this research study, students of IR department (Part 1 and 2) have been taken as a sample population to collect required data. To check the appropriateness of the offered English syllabus and existing level of English language competence according to the students’ needs; two research tools have been taken as: test and interview. In order to get the actual feedback from the students, a test consisted of four basic skills of English (listening, speaking, reading and writing) was conducted to 50 students of IR department. Interview was conducted to the teachers of IR department in order to get the actual information about the appropriateness of the English syllabus and the competency level of the students. Collected data through both the sources were analyzed qualitatively as well as quantitatively. The findings from these sources provided the results which were expected before the accomplishment of this research work. The findings of this research advocated that the EAP should be adopted to make the existing syllabus appropriate and need based in order to refine the basic English language skills of the students. This recommended course is very productive for social sciences disciplines of the BZU.
English - Majored Juniors’ attitudes towards learning the academic writing co...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : The study aims to investigate attitudes ofJuniors ofEnglish as a foreign language (EFL)
towards learning the academic writing course at TraVinh University (TVU) and to help these learners recognize
what benefits they have got and difficulties they have encountered during the course. The writer uses a
quantitative approach with aquestionnaire to collect data from80third-year English majors, whotook part in the
academic course at TVU. The findings indicate that all students have positive attitudes about this course and
concede the benefits of the academic writing course. One of the most crucial results from this study's data was
that academic writing skills were needed for students’ graduation thesis. Apart from that, the
studentsencountered challenges throughout the learning process. Particularly, due to the impact of their native
tongue on language learning, grammar is regarded as the most prominent difficulty. The study lastly suggests a
range of implications for students to enhance their academic writing skills.
KEYWORDS: academic writing, attitudes, difficulties, EFL Juniors
Speaking in English confidently is a challenging task but very crucial for university students. Graduates with good communication efficiency especially in the engineering field are greatly demanded in the current work industry. Performing confidently is not only important for scoring academic tasks but also to help expand the revenue of the companies at workplace. Thus, a pilot study was conducted to investigate the perceptions of a public technical university engineering undergraduates’ confidence level in speaking English. A mixed method design was employed where a survey and semi-structured interview were conducted for data collection. The participants were selected using purposive sampling method where a total number of 50 undergraduates provided valid responses to the online questionnaire and 5 undergraduates participated in the semi-structured interview. Descriptive statistics using Statistical Package for the Social Science Version 25.0 (SPSS version 25.0) and thematic analysis were adopted for data analyses. The results revealed three main areas that were identified as important to build the students’ confidence in speaking: applying manual skills, familiarization of vocabulary and correct usage of grammar. The findings also highlighted that the participants felt that more public speaking practices should be provided to them to improve their confidence level further in speaking English fluently.
The Responses of Non-English Major Students with Visual Learning Style of Wri...idhasaeful
This research is conducted towards the students of non-English major with visual learning style and writing preference. There are 14 students, which are taken to be the respondents. Questionnaires are the instrument used to gather the data in this research. This research employs descriptive qualitative method in analyzing the data.
The result portrays that 3 major findings: (1) most of the students find it difficult to accomplish the oral English test which is natural and normal due to their preference skill in writing, (2) in spite of the difficulty of the oral English test, the majority of the students consider the test to be challenging, accommodating and satisfying (3) a large number of the students get the benefit from the effectiveness of the feedback that they get in the form of rubrics.
The present study aimed at exploring the abstracts of research articles written by non-native English researchers to uncover the specific characteristics of academic vocabulary employed in the English research articles abstracts.It focuses on frequency and coverage distribution of the words from the Academic Word List (Coxhead, 2000) in the abstracts of research articles. The source of data for this corpus study was gathered from 97 abstracts written by the EFL researchers and published by the Journal Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Missio at STKIP St. Paulus Ruteng from 2015 until 2018. The results of this study revealed that the coverage of K1, the first most frequent 1000 English words, is the most dominant lexical items applied by the researchers. It covered 71.33% of the texts. The representation of lexical items that belong to K2, the second most frequent 1000 English words, covered 5.44% of all the words used by the writers in their abstracts. Moreover, the presence of Academic Word List, which refers to a list of 570 word families that are commonly found in academic texts and Off-list, which refers to the words that do not belong to K1 or K2 because it is related to certain field, has slight difference over all of the texts where the former covers 11.95% and the later covers 11.26%. As far as the findings of the present study are concerned, the room for some improvements on academic words applied in the abstracts need to pay attention.
1
Annotated Bibliography 2
Tense Errors in English Second Language
Budiharto, R. A. (2019). Native language interference on target language writings of Indonesian EFL students: An exploratory case study. Indonesian EFL Journal, 5(1), 107-116.
Authors argue that the native language influences the proficiency and quality of the students learning English as a second language. Using a mixed-method design, the authors examined 22 English essays written by EFL students of Indonesian origin. The results proved that the Indonesian language influenced the students writing quality, with lexicon-semantics and grammar constituting more significant and more recurrent errors in their writing.
The study used a scientific method to yield generalizable results that prove that the native language influences the English learning experience among immigrants. The study is essential in riveting that EFL students face English language proficiency problems and need assistance with teaching methodology and remedial to improve English language learning success. Compared with other studies, the standard errors of tenses in most immigrants are thus profitable in advising English teachers on the appropriate teaching tools.
Garrido, C. G., & Rosado Romero, C. (2012). Errors in the use of English tenses. Íkala, revista de lenguaje y cultura, 17(3), 285-296.
The authors investigate the tense errors made by first-year Spanish students learning to be EFL teachers at Universidad San Sebastián. The researchers used a hierarchy of complexity and explanation of students’ main errors design. They argue that after one year of formal instruction, English aspects and tense errors were common among the Spanish students learning EFL. The researchers identified the main problem as inaccurate matching of tenses and English aspects to correct contexts. A scientific statement stating strategy is used to convey the findings in this paper. Empirical data is displayed with statistical differences and significance used to illustrate the argument.
The authors reveal a high level of credibility. This is because they used a scientific, statistical data collection and analysis method. The tools used were credible, and the sample size was adequate. The findings are generalizable and present information on the critical issue of matching tenses and English aspects to their context as an area that requires close consideration in training English teachers as a second language. This is important in my study because it shows that learning the second language among immigrants faces context matching and tense use. The information will therefore help design a teaching methodology that will assist Spanish immigrants successively in learning English tenses and related aspects.
Mocciaro, E., & Young-Scholten, M. (2022). Why and How Grammar Matters for Post-puberty Immigrants with Limited Formal Schooling. In English and Students with Limited or Interrupted Formal Education ...
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Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
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Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
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June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Academic Vocabulary Used By High School Students In Essays And Its Relation To English Proficiency
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Academic Vocabulary Used by High School Students in Essays
and Its Relation to English Proficiency
BUDI WALUYO
School of Languages and General Education,
Walailak University, Thailand
budi.business.waluyo@gmail.com
RAHMAH BAKOKO
School of Languages and General Education,
Walailak University, Thailand
ABSTRACT
Among the high number of studies on vocabulary, little attention has been given to high school students, even
though EFL students begin to learn and use vocabulary in academic settings more complex at a high school level
in non-English speaking countries. To fill this gap, this study examined high school students’ vocabulary use in
English essay writing. The target words involved 70 among the most frequently occurring words in academic
settings from the Academic Vocabulary List (AVL). The data set consisted of 233 essays collected in Thailand as
part of an English proficiency test and analyzed using quantitative statistical analyses. The results of descriptive
statistics disclosed the 48 words known and used by the high school students. The independent t-test and one-way
ANOVA revealed the effects of gender and proficiency levels for certain words. Yet, students’ academic
vocabulary knowledge and use were found to be unrelated to their writing achievement, overall English
proficiency, and specific English skills including reading, speaking, and writing. It was assumed that non-
academic words might have played a more significant role in student essays than academic words did.
Keywords: Academic words; English proficiency; high school students; vocabulary
INTRODUCTION
Vocabulary is undeniably one of the most important components of English proficiency. Since
the late 1980s, research has extensively explored diagnostic approaches to find out how many
words are known by a foreign language learner recognized as vocabulary knowledge (Read,
1988). Various types of tests have been created to assess learners’ vocabulary knowledge,
ranging from the prominent Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) created by Nation (1990) to the
tests on receptive (Mochida & Harrington, 2006) and productive vocabulary knowledge
(Fitzpatrick & Clenton, 2010). Over the past few decades, more and more revised versions of
vocabulary knowledge tests have been published, implying the need for an assessment that is
as precise as possible to provide accurate results of the number of words learners know. Beglar
and Nation (2013) contend that vocabulary knowledge is a fundamental component of language
proficiency as it is vital in the process of constructing receptive vocabulary knowledge and
performing productive skills in the target language.
Vocabulary knowledge is multifaceted as it not only refers to the acquisition of words
but also, how well those words and their derivatives are understood (Schmitt, 2014). Hence,
the present study specifically focuses on academic vocabulary knowledge and its role in
scaffolding English proficiency. The knowledge refers to students’ familiarity with and
understanding of words used in academic settings that may involve academic texts,
conversations, writing, and listening (Schmitt, 2014). It has been reported that EFL learners
often find it distinctly difficult to acquire academic English vocabulary because of the abstract
and opaque nature of the words as well as the need to be particularly exposed to academic texts
and discourses (Townsend & Collins, 2009). Academic words are tools of communication and
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thinking concerning disciplinary contents (Nagy & Townsend, 2012). Existing research has
indicated that knowledge of academic vocabulary can determine academic success for it is
essentially required to gain new knowledge through academic reading and listening and
perform it in speaking and writing (Schleppegrell, 2004).
Most studies measuring vocabulary knowledge focus on either a particular number of
word families or the academic levels of the learners being assessed. Test scores have frequently
been used to examine the relationships between vocabulary knowledge and the learners’
receptive and productive skills (e.g., Choi, 2013). On the other hand, still little is known about
which words learners know and use (Csomay, 2020) and how that relates to their academic
achievement (Csomay & Prades, 2018). As well, the number of studies specifically focusing
on high school students’ academic vocabulary knowledge is still limited. Therefore, in
recognition of such research gaps, the present study specifically investigates how much high
school students know and use academic vocabulary in their essays and how this knowledge
and word use affect their overall English proficiency as well as their English proficiency in
specific skills including reading, speaking, and listening, measured by an English proficiency
test. The findings of this study can contribute to the understanding of vocabulary knowledge
and use in a more specific application, such as in essay writing. English teachers can benefit
by knowing which academic words are most frequently known and used by their students and
which words seem to have more impact on students’ writing achievement and improve English
proficiency, especially in the contexts related to Thai EFL learners.
LITERATURE REVIEW
ACADEMIC VOCABULARY LIST (AVL)
Typically, one of the immediately raised questions when studying vocabulary is how many
words learners need to know and acquire at a certain level of education. By their graduation,
high school students should have acquired around 75,000 words in their first language (Snow
& Kim, 2007). The importance of acquiring a certain number of academic vocabulary words
not only lies in their functions for academic communication and thinking but also in their
functions in improving academic achievement. Townsend et al. (2012), who examined the role
of academic English in middle school students’ academic achievement, found that knowledge
of academic words could explain a sizable amount of variance in students’ achievement;
similarly, in a more recent study, Masrai and Milton (2018) observed that students’ overall
vocabulary size could predict their grade point average (GPA) scores. In high schools where
students are more likely to study abroad and eventually seek employment at international
companies, non-native English learners still need more support in their academic English
learning (Martinsen et al., 2010; Ranta, 2010). Due to the subjects emphasized in national
school-leaving examinations and graduation requirements, other subjects tend to crowd out
English, and less additional help is given to students in English subject (Dong, 2013). Thus,
considering the size of the vocabulary that students have to acquire as well as the contribution
of increased vocabulary to academic achievement, pedagogical academic vocabulary lists were
created to assist in establishing goals, creating assessments, and determining materials
(Coxhead, 2000; Gardner & Davies, 2014).
In 2014, Gardner and Davies published Academic Vocabulary List (AVL) developed
from a 120-million-word academic sub-corpus extracted from the 425-million-word Corpus of
Contemporary American English (COCA). The publication was soon followed by a significant
number of empirical studies utilizing AVL in a wide range of contexts. Examining university
students’ writing, it has been confirmed that the use of AVL is relatively high with minor and
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major variations across text genres and disciplines, respectively (Durrant, 2016). Positive
relationships were noted between academic vocabulary use and scores in response,
comparative, and argumentative papers, yet non-significant for exploratory, rhetorical, and
editorial types of tasks (Csomay & Prades, 2018). The AVL was adopted for researching what
academic vocabulary students use frequently in their writing the research identified
approximately 600 words more frequently used in academic writing than in non-academic
writing and disclosed students’ ability in differentiating academic and non-academic words
(Malmström et al., 2018).
It is important for all English students to know and be able to use the general vocabulary
needed for general conversation and everyday living. However, for students aspiring to
continue their education in English or to function at a higher level in English, a much wider
vocabulary is needed. These words on the AVL are used across 90% of university formal
writing in English (Durrrant, 2016). Vocabulary lists such as AVL offer pedagogical usefulness
for English teaching and learning; nonetheless, no one set of words has been established that
will be useful to all EFL students since the needs of learners will most likely vary by
proficiency level, cultural background, academic disciplines, contexts, and personal goals
(Brezina & Gablasova, 2017). Nonetheless, despite all these aspects, how much high school
students know and use academic vocabulary measured by using AVL is still insufficiently
investigated. The Thai high school students chosen for the current study were in their final year
of school-level English study. The majority of these students aspire to continue their education
at a university where English is the medium of instruction. As a result, it is critical to conduct
research on the extent to which these high school students understand and use academic
vocabulary as measured by the AVL.
IMPACT OF L2 HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC VOCABULARY ON READING
COMPREHENSION
L2 high school students’ academic vocabulary knowledge has not received much attention, as
most existing research has focused on university students. From among the relatively few
studies that have specifically addressed academic word knowledge among L2 high school
students, most of the exploration has focused on the effect of academic vocabulary knowledge
on students’ reading comprehension and the findings indicate positive correlations. For
instance, among L2 Korean high school students, Choi (2013) observed positive interplay
between vocabulary knowledge and vocabulary depth and reading comprehension; it was also
found that vocabulary knowledge was a significant predictor of students’ reading
comprehension. Kim's (2014) study with other Korean high school students obtained similar
results; the study administered a Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT), a Productive Vocabulary
Levels Test (PVLT), a Word Associates Test (WAT), and a Reading Comprehension Test
(RCT) to 10th grade students and analyzed the results using correlation and regression
analyses. In the case of Israeli high school students, vocabulary knowledge was not only
noticed to be a significant predictor of reading comprehension, but also had a strong correlation
with students’ lexical inferencing abilities (Prior et al., 2014). A mixed-method study that
compared Malaysian high school students’ vocabulary test and reading comprehension scores
both in L1 and L2 also discovered that the students’ level of vocabulary knowledge
significantly affected their reading comprehension performance (Sidek & Rahim, 2015). Apart
from reading comprehension, previous studies have also disclosed that vocabulary knowledge
was associated with reading speed (Joo, 2014) and prior word knowledge and that it affected
students’ vocabulary learning progress in an extensive reading program (Webb & Chang,
2015). Inconsistent results were obtained from a study on vocabulary knowledge development
by gender differences (Llach & Gallego, 2012).
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ACADEMIC VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE AND ENGLISH PROFICIENCY
Research into academic vocabulary knowledge has drawn lines to students’ English
proficiency in overall and specific skills. Miralpeix and Muñoz (2018), for instance, identified
that vocabulary knowledge explained a large number of variances in English proficiency, but
not as much as among low proficiency learners. According to this study, vocabulary knowledge
of students with high levels of English proficiency was positively related to writing, reading,
speaking, and listening. Often, measured by using the Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT), more
proficient students had a larger vocabulary repertoire, and vice versa (Nasir et al., 2017). In the
case of a standardized test, a weak, negative correlation was noted (Paribakht & Webb, 2016).
The total of academic words included in a proficiency test could significantly influence the
results of students’ vocabulary knowledge level, yet some other factors were suspected to exist.
This was recently clarified when González-Fernández and Schmitt (2019) uncovered that
students’ vocabulary knowledge could rely on their ability to recognize and recall the four-
word knowledge components, such as the form-meaning links, derivatives, multiple meanings,
and collocations. Obviously, when students were unable to recognize the most frequent words
in English, their proficiency development was significantly affected (Stæhr, 2008).
The role of vocabulary knowledge in students’ proficiency in the four English skills has
also been examined. Concerning receptive skills, students’ vocabulary knowledge showed a
stronger correlation with listening (Cheng & Matthews, 2018). In each skill, Matthews (2018),
who explored the contribution of aural (listening) vocabulary knowledge to listening
comprehension, recognized a significant correlation, noting that L2 students who can recognize
only the most commonly used words had lower proficiency in listening comprehension.
Conversely, better recognition of the less frequently used words predicted higher listening
comprehension proficiency. Among the two types of vocabulary knowledge (vocabulary size
and depth), depth of vocabulary knowledge was a better predictor of students’ listening
proficiency (Vafaee, 2020). Yet, although students’ pre-existing vocabulary knowledge played
a significant role in listening, it could also work the other way around where listening activities
were created to enhance vocabulary knowledge (Zhang & Graham, 2020). Meanwhile, given
the nature of the skill, higher reading comprehension has extensively been associated with
higher vocabulary knowledge (Hacking & Tschirner, 2017; Masrai, 2019).
For productive skills, Kilic’s study (2019) discovered that vocabulary knowledge could
explain 26% of variances observed in writing and 17% of those observed in speaking test
scores. Vocabulary knowledge also significantly contributed to students’ writing and speaking
development, but the extent relied on students’ proficiency levels (Waluyo, 2018) and receptive
vocabulary size (Uchihara & Clenton, 2018). Meanwhile, productive vocabulary knowledge
was observed to be useful in spontaneous speech production without any effects on
comprehensibility and accentedness (Uchihara & Saito, 2019). Of the word levels, students
had better oral performance when they had the knowledge of 2000-3000-word levels (Alharthi,
2020). Nonetheless, high school students seemed to lack the knowledge of words in such levels
that consequently affected their listening, reading, writing performances (Stæhr, 2008).
THE STUDY
The brief review of the literature indicates two major points. First, much of the research has
extensively been concentrated on university students’ vocabulary knowledge, while little is
known about the extent high school students know and use academic vocabulary. Secondly,
most of the studies utilize Vocabulary Levels Tests (VLT) in examining students’ vocabulary
knowledge, whereas the details of which academic words that students actually know, and use
are still insufficiently presented. Normally, once students start their English learning in high
school, they are beginning to explore and acquire academic vocabulary. The absence of
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information on how students’ vocabulary knowledge is built at various school levels decreases
our understanding of how students develop their academic vocabulary knowledge. Sato’s study
(2017) suggests the improvement of vocabulary tests used to measure high school students’
vocabulary knowledge. In recognition of such research gaps, the present study aims to explore
high school students’ academic vocabulary knowledge by exploring the following research
questions:
1. Of the 70 words chosen from the most frequently occurring academic words used in
academic settings listed in the Academic Vocabulary List (AVL), which words are used
by high school students in their essays, signifying explicit knowledge of the words?
2. Does high school students’ use of these academic words differ across gender and
proficiency level?
3. How does the frequency of using these academic words correlate with and predict
writing achievement?
4. How does the frequency of using these academic words contribute to students’ overall
proficiency and in specific skills including reading, speaking, and listening as measured
by an English proficiency test?
METHOD
PARTICIPANTS
This study involved 233 (male 43.8%, female 56.2%) high school students from one of the
oldest and largest public schools in the South of Thailand. The school was considered as one
of the prestigious public schools, in which some of the students had the experience of travelling
abroad and having a short summer English course in the United Kingdom or Australia. Most
of the school graduates continued their studies to prominent universities in Thailand such as
Chulalongkorn University, Mahidol University, and Thammasat University. The school
employed foreign English teachers and designed a specific curriculum that required students
to practice English every day. Assessed by using the Walailak University Test of English
Proficiency (WUTEP), students’ proficiency levels ranged from A1 to B2 in the Common
European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). Table 1 below provides the details
of their proficiency in overall and in each English skill.
TABLE 1. Students’ proficiency levels (N = 233)
Levels Listening Reading Speaking Writing Overall Proficiency
C1 1 1 0 0 0
B2 124 152 42 4 10
B1 98 75 94 39 129
A2 9 5 72 103 92
A1 1 0 25 87 2
TARGET WORDS
The first 70 of 500 most frequently used academic words from Academic Vocabulary List
(AVL) by Gardner and Davies (2014) were selected to measure students’ academic vocabulary
knowledge. Gardner and Davies (2014) claimed that AVL was derived from the analyses of
the 425-million-word Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA). AVL was
intentionally created to facilitate learning focused on academic English words. In this study,
the word list was employed to guide the word count and analysis on high school students’
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knowledge and use in academic English. The first 70 words were chosen because Gardner and
Davies (2014) found that these words are generally the most frequently occurring in academic
settings. Because these are the most frequently occurring academic words, students will
encounter them more often. Based on the principle that frequent exposure facilitates acquisition
(Rott, 1999), it is reasonable to believe that students should not only recognize these words in
their reading but would be able to apply them in their writing. Table 2 provides the detailed
list.
TABLE 2. The first 70 most occurring words in academic settings (Gardner & Davies, 2014)
1. study.n 2. group.n 3. system.n 4. social.j 5. provide.v
6. however.r 7. research.n 8. level.n 9. result.n 10. include.v
11. important.j 12. process.n 13. use.n 14. development.n 15. data.n
16. information.n 17. effect.n 18. change.n 19. table.n 20. policy.n
21. university.n 22. model.n 23. experience.n 24. activity.n 25. human.j
26. history.n 27. develop.v 28. suggest.v 29. economic.j 30. low.j
31. relationship.n 32. both.r 33. value.n 34. require.v 35. role.n
36. difference.n 37. analysis.n 38. practice.n 39. society.n 40. thus.r
41. control.n 42. form.n 43. report.v 44. rate.n 45. significant.j
46. figure.n 47. factor.n 48. interest.n 49. culture.n 50. need.n
51. base.v 52. population.n 53. international.j 54. technology.n 55. individual.n
56. type.n 57. describe.v 58. indicate.v 59. image.n 60. subject.n
61. science.n 62. material.n 63. produce.v 64. condition.n 65. identify.v
66. knowledge.n 67. support.n 68. performance.n 69. project.n 70. response.n
Note. n = noun; v = verb; j = adjective; r = adverb.
MATERIALS
The present study used a standardized test named “WUTEP (Walailak University Test of
English Proficiency)” as the instrument to collect students’ academic vocabulary knowledge
and use in prompted essay writing as well as to measure students’ English proficiency. WUTEP
assessed students’ proficiency in the four main English skills encompassing listening, reading,
writing, and speaking. The whole test lasted about 2 hours 45 minutes. Both the assessors of
the essays and interviewers of the speaking tests involved approximately 20 foreign English
lecturers (native and non-native speakers) from the U.S.A, Iran, Indonesia, Philippines,
Vietnam, India, China, and Ghana. WUTEP has been used to assess the proficiency levels of
around 4,000 non-native English speaker students every year. The scores can be mapped to
other standardized tests including IELTS, TOEFL, and TOEIC. The tests of reading and
listening proficiency utilized multiple-choice questions, while reading and writing were
assessed by using standardized assessment rubrics (Waluyo, 2019). This English test has been
used by recent studies as a measure of English proficiency of Thai EFL students (Koad &
Waluyo, 2021; Rofiah & Waluyo, 2020), signifying the validity of the instrument.
ESSAY WRITING
Students were given 40 minutes to write a prompted essay. The prompts involved the topics of
the importance of homework and personalities. Students wrote at least 150 words. The
assessment rubric looked at task achievement, grammar, vocabulary, logics, and mechanics
(spelling and punctuation). The scores ranged from 0 to 10, in which 0-4 means A1, 5 means
A2, 6 means B1, 7 means B2, 8 means C1, and 9-10 means C2 in the Common European
Framework of Reference (CEFR). Students’ scores from this writing test were referred as
writing achievements in this study.
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FIGURE 1. Samples of the students’ prompted essay writings
LISTENING
The listening test consisted of four parts: Part 1: Statements and pictures, Part 2: Statements
and responses, Part 3: Conversations, and Part 4: Talks. It lasted 40 minutes. The whole test
used fifty multiple-choice questions. The audio was only played once.
READING
Following on from the listening test, the reading test was divided into three parts: Part 5:
Sentence completion, Part 6: An e-mail completion, and Part 7: Reading comprehension: single
passage and double passages. With fifty multiple-choice questions, the test lasted 60 minutes.
SPEAKING
The speaking test involved a discussion with a foreign lecturer involving self-introduction,
speaking about two topics, and questions-answers for 10 minutes. The assessment rubric
emphasized fluency and coherence, lexical resource, grammatical range and accuracy, and
pronunciation. The scores ranged from 0-2 (Pre-A1), 3 (A1), 4 (A2), 5 (B1), 6 (B2), 7-8 (C1),
and 9-10 (C2) in the CEFR levels.
RESEARCH PROCEDURES
As illustrated in Figure 2, the research was conducted in three stages:
STAGE 1
Students took WUTEP on February 8, 2020 at Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat,
Thailand. The results of the speaking test were directly obtained during the day of the test.
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STAGE 2
Students’ reading and listening answer sheets went through answer sheet checkers. The results
were obtained after a few days. At the same time, students’ writings were graded by foreign
English teachers. The grading procedure involved two assessors for each paper. The results of
stage 1 and 2 showed students’ overall proficiency levels and in each skill.
STAGE 3
Researchers collected the essays and analyzed students’ writing one by one. The analysis was
focused on the use of the first 70 most frequently occurring words in academic settings by each
student. These words were counted manually every time they appeared in an essay and recorded
in an Excel file. Apart from collecting the 70 most frequently used academic words, researchers
also collected words that were most frequently used by students to serve as additional
information.
STAGE 4
The results from stage 1, 2, and 3 were students’ proficiency scores and levels and frequency
of the first 70 most frequently used academic words utilized by students in their writing. The
data were, then, computed into SPSS for further analysis.
DATA ANALYSIS
The data analyses employed several statistical techniques which followed the raised research
questions. Since the results of a standardized paper-based test were used to find the
information, the researchers had to manually find the frequency with which each of these 70
words was used. Descriptive statistics were next used to discover the most frequently used
academic words. Then, independent t-test and one-way ANOVA were run to disclose
differences across gender and proficiency level. Afterwards, bivariate correlation and linear
regression were conducted to reveal correlational and predictive roles. Lastly, multiple-linear
regression was performed to see the contribution of students’ academic vocabulary knowledge
to their English proficiency. The detailed results are elaborated in the following section.
FIGURE 2. An illustration of the research model
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RESULTS
ACADEMIC WORDS USED BY HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN PROMPTED ESSAY WRITINGS
After analyzing 233 students’ writings, it was found that of the first 70 most frequently
occurring words in academic settings, 48 appeared, while the rest of the words did not. The
most frequently used word was “Important(adjective)” with 119 appearances (M = 1.74, SD =
.97), followed by the words “Change (noun)” (N = 86, M = 2.16, SD = 1.31), “Study (noun)”
(N = 65, M = 2.09, SD = 1.34), “Practice (noun)” (N = 58, M = 2.29, SD = 1.43), “Knowledge
(noun)” (N = 56, M = 1.77, SD = 1.06), “Subject (noun)” (N = 42, M = 1.40, SD = .94), “Need
(noun)” (N = 36, M = 1.36, SD = .96), “Include (verb)” (N = 27, M = 1.63, SD = 1.08), “Use
(noun)” (N = 25, M = 1.52, SD = .77), and “Effect(noun)” (N = 22, M = 1.59, SD = .22). The
frequency of word uses by these high school students differed from the overall frequency of
use indicated by the AVL. This might be an indication of the differences between high school
and university level ESL students; however, much wider research would be needed to know if
this were actually the case. For instance, Study was the most frequently occurring word of all
in the AVL, but it only appeared 65 times in these students’ 233 essays, lower than the words
“Important” and “Change” which were put 11th
and 18th
in the AVL. Further, two of the top
ten academic words in the AVL, i.e. “However” and “Level”, were not used at all by students.
Table 3 presents the words explicitly known and used by students in their writings, excluding
those that did not appear.
TABLE 3. Descriptive Statistics of Word Appearance in Students’ Writings
Word rank from AVL Word N M SD
11 Important 119 1.74 0.97
18 Change 86 2.16 1.31
1 Study 65 2.09 1.34
38 Practice 58 2.29 1.43
66 Knowledge 56 1.77 1.06
60 Subject 42 1.40 0.94
50 Need 36 1.36 0.96
10 Include 27 1.63 1.08
13 Use 25 1.52 0.77
17 Effect 2 1.59 1.22
4 Social 16 2.00 1.79
59 Image 13 1.85 1.28
27 Develop 10 1.20 0.42
65 Identify 9 2.22 1.20
69 Project 9 1.33 0.50
70 Response 9 1.89 0.93
2 Group 8 1.88 1.13
16 Informative 8 2.00 2.45
23 Experience 8 1.00 0.00
37 Analysis 8 2.75 2.19
3 System 6 1.17 0.41
25 Human 5 1.00 0.00
39 Society 5 1.00 0.00
49 Culture 4 1.00 0.00
61 Science 4 1.75 0.50
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5 Provide 3 1.33 0.58
7 Research 3 1.33 0.58
12 Process 3 1.33 0.58
21 University 3 1.00 0.00
24 Activity 3 1.67 0.58
43 Report 3 1 0
67 Support 3 1 0
36 Difference 2 1 0
41 Control 2 2 1.414214
51 Base 2 1
57 Describe 2 1 0
9 Result 1
14 Development 1 1
15 Data 1 2
28 Suggest 1 1
32 Both 1 1
33 Value 1 1
35 Role 1 2
40 Thus 1 1
47 Factor 1 1
52 Population 1 1
54 Technology 1 1
68 Performance 1 1
Apart from the 48 words, there were three words that made frequent appearances in
student writing, including “Make” (N = 121, M = 2.45, SD = 1.57), “Improve” (N = 103, M =
1.98, SD = 1.33), and “Know” (N = 44, M = 1.84, SD = 1.46).
DIFFERENCES ACROSS GENDER AND PROFICIENCY LEVEL
Independent t-tests were performed to see if male and female students had significant
differences in the use of the 48 words that made appearances. A significant difference was only
observed on the word “Social” (t (2,14) = -2.43, p = .03), in which female students used the
words (M = 3.40, SD = 2.70) more often than their male counterparts (M = 1.36, SD = .67). No
other words showed statistically significant differences between the two sexes. Afterwards,
one-way ANOVA was run to find out if students’ use of the 48 words that made appearances
significantly differed by proficiency levels. There was only one significant difference between
groups on the word “Effect” (F (1,21) = 4.81, p = .04), while no significant differences were
noted for other academic words. It revealed that the word “Effect” was only used by students
with a higher proficiency level. On the other hand, the other academic words were known and
used by the students, regardless of their proficiency levels.
CORRELATION AND PREDICTION
The next analysis examined whether the frequency of using the academic words in writing
correlated with and predicted writing achievements. The normality of the data was first checked
by looking at the Skewness and Kurtosis. Values between -2 and +2 are considered normal
(George & Mallery, 2003). The results displayed a normal distribution of the data with the
values < 2. The sample size was considered big as it involved more than 200 subjects. Since
the assumptions had been met, bivariate correlations were performed between each word
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frequency and students’ writing scores; the results indicated no correlations. Then, multiple-
linear regression was conducted for the words most frequently used by students including
“Important, Change, Study, Practice, Knowledge, Subject, Need, Include, Use, and Effect” as
the parameters as well as predictors of student writing achievement in prompted essay writing.
The results did not suggest any predictive roles, as displayed in Table 4 below.
TABLE 4. Results of Multiple-Linear Regression
Word R2
F Sig.
Important 001 .067 .796
Change 017 1.487 .226
Study 029 1.853 .178
Practice 000 .003 .960
Knowledge 002 .093 .761
Subject 007 .298 .588
Need 040 1.414 .243
Include 029 .736 .399
Use 000 .011 .918
Effect 010 .210 .652
Note. Only top 10 most occurring words from students’ essays displayed
CONTRIBUTION TO PROFICIENCY
The last analysis explored whether the frequency of using the academic words contributed to
the students’ overall proficiency and in specific skills including reading, speaking, and
listening. The results did not reflect significant contributions for all the regression models, as
depicted in Table 5.
TABLE 5. Results of the Regression models
Word Speaking Reading Listening Overall Proficiency
R2
F Sig. R2
F Sig. R2
F Sig. R2
F Sig.
Important 0 0.03 0.87 0 0.1 0.75 0.03 3.77 0.06 0.01 1.4 0.24
Change 0.02 1.45 0.23 0.01 0.7 0.41 0.01 0.65 0.42 0 0.03 0.87
Study 0 0.14 0.71 0.01 0.46 0.5 0.01 0.67 0.42 0.01 0.66 0.42
Practice 0 0.11 0.74 0 0.05 0.85 0.01 0.71 0.4 0.01 0.4 0.53
Knowledge 0 0.09 0.77 0 0.06 0.81 0.01 0.7 0.41 0 0.07 0.8
Subject 0.04 1.46 0.23 0 0.08 0.78 0.03 1.41 0.24 0.02 0.67 0.42
Need 0.01 0.3 0.59 0.06 2.27 0.14 0.03 1.03 0.38 0.05 1.72 0.2
Include 0 0.02 0.88 0 0.08 0.78 0.08 2.2 0.15 0.03 0.64 0.43
Use 0.01 0.22 0.64 0.01 0.21 0.65 0.02 0.34 0.56 0.01 0.22 0.64
Effect 0.02 0.47 0.5 0 0.01 0.94 0.03 0.71 0.41 0.01 0.25 0.62
Note. Only top 10 most occurring words from students’ essays displayed
DISCUSSION
The main objective of this study was to explore high school students’ use of academic
vocabulary in prompted essay writings and their contributions to English proficiency. In
summary, there were four key findings revealed. Firstly, high school students used 48 words
from the 70 most frequently occurring words in academic settings listed in AVL. This first
finding indicates that students had knowledge of the words and used them correctly in their
sentences, therefore, they understood and could utilize the terms well in sentences. Schmitt
(2014) criticizes that often vocabulary knowledge tests only describe the number of words
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known by students, but do not provide the details of what the words are and the degree of depth
of vocabulary knowledge it represents. At this point, this study had provided the list of
academic words used by high school students. Despite the reports of the difficulties of
acquiring academic English vocabulary (Townsend & Collins, 2009), high school students
seemingly possessed the ability to use the 48 words as their tools of communication and
thinking concerning disciplinary contents (Nagy &Townsend, 2012). They must have learned
the words from reading or listening. Below are extracts from student essays.
Sample 1. The words: Important and Subject
Sample 2. The words: Change and Practice
Another point was that students did not necessarily use all of the most frequently
occurring words in academic settings listed in AVL in their essays. In addition, students used
the words Make, Improve, and Know frequently, which were not included in the 70 most
frequently occurring words. As Schleppegrell (2004) stated “… the patterns of language chosen
by students to express and share their understanding are of major importance in presenting
themselves as knowers and sharers of knowledge” (p.2). Previous studies utilizing AVL were
mostly conducted on university students which had found variations across text genres and
disciplines (Durrant, 2016) and disclosed the students’ ability in distinguishing academic and
non-academic words (Malmström et al., 2018). A study from Brezina and Gablasova (2017)
argues that students’ vocabulary needs, and knowledge can vary by proficiency levels, cultural
backgrounds, academic disciplines, contexts, and personal goals. However, the second finding
of this study did not fully support such an argument. A significant difference by gender was
only observed on the word “Social” and a significant difference by proficiency level was only
observed on the word “Effect”, implying that high school students’ need and knowledge of
academic vocabulary might be homogenous, unlike those at university level. However, the
words employed would also vary with the topic given. The finding sustains inconsistent results
on vocabulary knowledge development by gender differences (e.g., Llach & Gallego, 2012).
The samples of students’ use of the words “Social” and “Effects” can be seen below.
Sample 3. The word: Social
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Sample 4. The word: Effect
The third finding shows no correlations between the frequency of using the most
frequently occurring academic words in academic settings and writing achievement; it also did
not hint any predictive roles between these two variables of interest. It was assumed that non-
academic words might have played a more significant role in student essays than academic
words did. High school students had been suggested to lack the knowledge of most frequently
used academic words (Stæhr, 2008). Another assumption was that the frequency of using the
target academic words was inadequate to affect students’ overall achievement in writing.
Among university students, it had been found that level of vocabulary knowledge significantly
affected writing performance (Kilic, 2019; Waluyo, 2018). In contrast, the present study did
not observe significant effects of academic word use on writing achievement among high
school students. This third finding was also enhanced by the last finding of this study,
disclosing that the frequency of using the academic words did not contribute significantly to
students’ overall proficiency and in specific skills including reading, speaking, and listening.
It did not follow the findings from previous studies that observed significant contributions (e.g.,
Cheng & Matthews, 2018; Matthews, 2018; Miralpeix & Muñoz, 2018; Vafaee, 2020).
Nevertheless, the latest study analyzing publications around this area of interests from Zhang
and Zhang (2020) discovered that previous studies were not consistent in their findings on the
influence of vocabulary knowledge on overall English skills. This study, hence, recommends
that more research be conducted at high school levels to ensure the consistency of the results.
IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS
The findings of this study have several pedagogical implications for both research and English
teaching and learning. For research, the findings indicate that not all of the most frequently
occurring academic words listed in AVL are used by students in their writing. This indication
can lead to the question of whether the prominent vocabulary lists really represent the
contextual academic vocabulary commonly known and frequently used by students from
countries that consider English as a foreign language. Two prominent vocabulary lists provided
in the body of the literature, such as AVL from Gardner and Davies (2014) and AWL from
Coxhead (2000), were built from corpora collected from sources published in English speaking
countries, e.g., USA, UK, and Australia. The most widely used measure of L2 lexical
knowledge, Vocabulary Levels Test (Nation, 1990), also involved native speakers as the
parameters of the test validity (Schmitt et al., 2001). The fact that students’ academic
vocabulary use was unrelated to their writing achievement might imply the inadequacy of
academic vocabulary lists in covering what words are generally known and how they are used
in their academic writing is also self-evident. It has been reported that there is no one set of
words that will be useful to all EFL students due to differences in needs, proficiency levels,
cultural backgrounds, and academic disciplines (Brezina & Gablasova, 2017; Waluyo &
Bakoko, 2021). It is reasonable to assume that educated native English speakers will have a
larger English vocabulary than L2 speaker, therefore, research should be conducted on the
academic vocabulary knowledge and use of L2 English students and scholars. One of the
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findings in this study provides the list of words commonly used by high school students in their
essay writing which should serve as the basis for such investigation.
The effect of vocabulary knowledge in academic achievement has been identified by
previous studies (Townsend et al., 2012; Masrai & Milton, 2018). EFL learners in non-English
speaking countries are only starting their English learning when they enter at the high school
level. Most of the time, their English learning is driven by the need to pass examinations and
fulfill graduation requirements. Nevertheless, it is also important to perceive high school as the
beginning level where students start to recognize and make use of academic English words in
their study assignments and tests. Students’ success in acquiring academic words at high school
may determine their English advancement at the university level. Most of the previous studies
have confirmed that university students’ vocabulary knowledge is closely associated with
proficiency level (Miralpeix & Muñoz, 2018; Nasir et al., 2017; Waluyo & Bucol, 2021).
LIMITATION
One of the main objectives of research around vocabulary knowledge is to measure the exact
words known and used by high school students. This objective also underscores the present
study. However, measuring vocabulary knowledge can be challenging, especially considering
the fact that one word can be used in different forms. Students may be able to recognize a word
and have enough ideas of a meaning to do well on a multiple-choice vocabulary test, however,
they may not be able to use that word in writing and speaking. This study simply counts the
words written by students in the part of speech as they are listed in AVL, meaning that they
could remember and employ these words. Hence, the outcomes of this study should not be
confused with those utilizing vocabulary tests as a measure of vocabulary knowledge. In
addition, the context may affect the outcomes of this study. It involves high school students
who are considered to have a good level of proficiency in English in Thailand, so the outcomes
can be different from a study conducted in another context. This study was quantitative and
should be interpreted in a way that is not mixed with studies employing other types of research
methods. In addition, this study utilized information from a standardized paper-based test,
therefore result had to be analyzed manually and verified that the word usage was the same as
listed on the AVL. Consequently, only the used of the 70 most frequently used words could be
analyzed not the entire 500 words on the AVL. The analysis also did not involve the accuracy
of word usage, which means that the words might be found in the students’ writing, but they
might not be accurately used. Furthermore, according to WUTEP test results, participants
represented a wide range of proficiency levels (B2-A1). This may be one of the study's
limitations, as the use or absence of academic words in their writing may be due to their English
proficiency. Despite these limitations, it is essential to note that more attention should be paid
to high school students’ academic vocabulary use in the context of non-English speaking
countries as the amount of research is limited.
CONCLUSION
To sum up, this study has explored high school students’ academic vocabulary use in one of
the prominent schools in the South of Thailand. The results disclosed the use of 48 words from
the 70 most frequently occurring academic words listed in the AVL. Small differences by
gender and proficiency levels were observed, but the evidence seemed to be insufficient to
establish whether there are significant differences in academic word use between genders, so
further research is recommended. Despite the importance of academic vocabulary knowledge,
this study did not confirm correlations and predictive roles that it played. This study also did
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not analyze the words that were least frequently used, i.e., those appeared 5 or less times, to
determine if they were more predictive of overall performance level. The findings of this study
add to the knowledge of what words high school students know and use in their prompt essay
writings. Future research can further investigate the applications of high school students’
vocabulary knowledge and use in speaking performance. The integration of qualitative research
analysis is also strongly urged.
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