This document summarizes a study on the relationship between a major irrigation project in Sri Lanka called the Accelerated Mahaweli Programme and chronic kidney disease in the country. The programme developed reservoirs and canals from the Mahaweli River to provide irrigation and hydroelectric power. However, irresponsible farming practices have led to phosphate pollution in the river from excessive fertilizer use. While phosphate levels are low in the river and reservoirs, algal blooms caused by phosphates are harming aquatic ecosystems. The study finds it is unlikely polluted water from the Mahaweli directly causes kidney disease, but environmental impacts are still significant and governments must act to preserve water quality.
Kalu river basin is the 2nd largest river basin in Sri Lanka which covers 2766km2 of land. Much of the catchment area of the river is located in the highest rainfall area in the country. The average annual rainfall of the area is around 4000mm. The basin has steep gradient in upper part of the land and mild gradient in lower areas.The lower flood plains suffer from frequent floods during south-western monsoon season. The lower areas are densely populated and the land is a potential area for paddy cultivation.
Kalu river basin is a highest vulnerable location for floods. Frequent flooding along the Kalu Ganga is a common phenomenon that people live around the banks of Kalu Ganga and its tributaries experience every year.
The floods occur basically due to the high amount of rainfall in the catchment area and due to the gradient differences of the river. The gradient is very low in downstream of Rathnapura to upper stream of Kalutara town. This low gradient is inadequate to provide the sufficient velocity for the water to move downstream. The narrow gap or the bottleneck in Ellagawa area of the river retains the water for several days in the Ratnapura District before it releases to Kalutara District. Heavy extraction of river sand and the lack of proper constructions of infrastructures are also major causes for floods in Kalu river basin.
Program for Hydro-Meteorological Disaster Mitigation for Secondary Cities in South and South East Asia (PROMISE) recognized Kalutara as a secondary city that suffers annually due to floods and designed program to suit the needs of the city. Hazard mapping and vulnerability assessment, Kalu Ganga river flood forecasting and warning system, Demonstration activities as a measure for disaster preparedness and mitigation, Micro credit scheme as a measure of mitigation of flood impacts on the livelihood of urban poor, Activities to build the community awareness on flood risk management are some mitigation methods for floods.
Educating people more about the floods, having a proper flood alert system & Meteorological alert system, building a series of levees to prevent flood water spilling into low lying areas building a bypass canal which will take surplus water around Ratnapura town back to the river preventing the town from getting flooded, building a reservoir at Malwala several kilometers upstream from the town, Diversion of Kalu Ganga to Ruhuna, Having proper technological construction systems are some recommendations which can be dispensed for the current situation of floods in Kalu river basin.
This webinar was jointly organized by the African Union (AU), the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and The World Bank on October 15, 2020. More info: http://bit.ly/IDAWM20
This is lesson 6 of IKS taught to Master level students on Indigenous Irrigation Systems at the Faculty of Agriculture, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka
Kalu river basin is the 2nd largest river basin in Sri Lanka which covers 2766km2 of land. Much of the catchment area of the river is located in the highest rainfall area in the country. The average annual rainfall of the area is around 4000mm. The basin has steep gradient in upper part of the land and mild gradient in lower areas.The lower flood plains suffer from frequent floods during south-western monsoon season. The lower areas are densely populated and the land is a potential area for paddy cultivation.
Kalu river basin is a highest vulnerable location for floods. Frequent flooding along the Kalu Ganga is a common phenomenon that people live around the banks of Kalu Ganga and its tributaries experience every year.
The floods occur basically due to the high amount of rainfall in the catchment area and due to the gradient differences of the river. The gradient is very low in downstream of Rathnapura to upper stream of Kalutara town. This low gradient is inadequate to provide the sufficient velocity for the water to move downstream. The narrow gap or the bottleneck in Ellagawa area of the river retains the water for several days in the Ratnapura District before it releases to Kalutara District. Heavy extraction of river sand and the lack of proper constructions of infrastructures are also major causes for floods in Kalu river basin.
Program for Hydro-Meteorological Disaster Mitigation for Secondary Cities in South and South East Asia (PROMISE) recognized Kalutara as a secondary city that suffers annually due to floods and designed program to suit the needs of the city. Hazard mapping and vulnerability assessment, Kalu Ganga river flood forecasting and warning system, Demonstration activities as a measure for disaster preparedness and mitigation, Micro credit scheme as a measure of mitigation of flood impacts on the livelihood of urban poor, Activities to build the community awareness on flood risk management are some mitigation methods for floods.
Educating people more about the floods, having a proper flood alert system & Meteorological alert system, building a series of levees to prevent flood water spilling into low lying areas building a bypass canal which will take surplus water around Ratnapura town back to the river preventing the town from getting flooded, building a reservoir at Malwala several kilometers upstream from the town, Diversion of Kalu Ganga to Ruhuna, Having proper technological construction systems are some recommendations which can be dispensed for the current situation of floods in Kalu river basin.
This webinar was jointly organized by the African Union (AU), the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and The World Bank on October 15, 2020. More info: http://bit.ly/IDAWM20
This is lesson 6 of IKS taught to Master level students on Indigenous Irrigation Systems at the Faculty of Agriculture, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka
crop yield response to water, importance of water in plant life, relation between yield and water, functional relation of crop yield and water, yield response function, yield response factor, yield response curve, factors affecting yield response curve, production function of irrigation water
Sri Lankan traditional knowledge in adaptation to climate changeDr. P.B.Dharmasena
Presentation made at the Workshop on “Conservation and Utilization of Local Varieties, Traditional Knowledge Associated with Genetic Resources and Agriculture”, held on 9th January 2017 at Oak Ray Regency Hotel, Kandy organized jointly by Department of Agriculture (DOA) Sri Lanka and the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) Japan, Biodiversity for Adaptation to Climate Change (BACC) Project and Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition (BFN )Project, Department of Agriculture’
This is lesson 2 for Three Day Residential Training Workshop on Cascade Water Resources Development and Management prepared for Climate Resilient Integrated Water Management Project Project
crop yield response to water, importance of water in plant life, relation between yield and water, functional relation of crop yield and water, yield response function, yield response factor, yield response curve, factors affecting yield response curve, production function of irrigation water
Sri Lankan traditional knowledge in adaptation to climate changeDr. P.B.Dharmasena
Presentation made at the Workshop on “Conservation and Utilization of Local Varieties, Traditional Knowledge Associated with Genetic Resources and Agriculture”, held on 9th January 2017 at Oak Ray Regency Hotel, Kandy organized jointly by Department of Agriculture (DOA) Sri Lanka and the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) Japan, Biodiversity for Adaptation to Climate Change (BACC) Project and Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition (BFN )Project, Department of Agriculture’
This is lesson 2 for Three Day Residential Training Workshop on Cascade Water Resources Development and Management prepared for Climate Resilient Integrated Water Management Project Project
El Parque Natural de Gorbeia (con la mítica Cruz en la cima), los embalses de Urrunaga y Ullíbarri-Gamboa, las cuevas de Mairuelegorreta, un pedacito del Parque Natural de Urkiola... La naturaleza se desborda en Gorbeia, el destino turístico que comparten Álava y Bizkaia y que está enmarcado en la Cuadrilla de Zuia (Gorbeia sur, Álava) y en la Comarca de Arratia-Nerbioi (Gorbeia norte, Bizkaia).
Michael Brown
Mental Health Cop and Inspector at West Midlands Police
Michael Brown is an Inspector at West Midlands Police and has been a vocal support of more discussion on the relationship between mental health and the police. Mr Brown started the blog following work he was doing on mental health-related projects with the Association of Chief Police Officers (Acpo) aimed at improving the force's response to incidents when someone presented with a mental health problem.
Michael Brown set up a blog and twitter account to represent the uncertain and ongoing debate about the role of the police, the legal structures within which we must operate particularly with regard to mental health. Mr Brown said that the blog should help those who do not feel they receiving enough training on mental health issues within the police force.
The Mental Health Cop blog now has over 20,000 followers made up of other of officers, psychiatrists, social workers, health professionals, lawyers and mental health service users. Through his blog he won the Mark Hanson Digital Media Award at Mind's Media Awards.
Workshop Title: Contain, not restrain - de-escalating police responses to psychiatric emergency
The workshop will explore, in the context of previous untoward events and critical events, how the police can better contain, rather than restraint their way out of psychiatric emergency incidents. With a focus on dignity and human rights, the workshop will draw on the combined learning from health and mental health criminal justice over the last fifteen years.
Joanne Coulson
Lead Behaviour Co-ordinator, The National Autistic Society
Jo has worked for people with a diagnosis of autism for twelve years, starting as a support worker whilst studying for a psychology degree and moving onto working in behaviour support following completion of an MSc Analysis and Intervention in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities. Jo started working at The National Autistic Society in 2007 as a behaviour co-ordinator, whilst there she became a Board Certified Behaviour Analyst and started working at the Lead Behaviour Co-ordinator, developing consistent implementation of positive behaviour support that is data driven.
How positive behaviour support can reduce the use of restraint (Thurs AM)
Using a case study Joanne will explore how a functional assessment following the positive behaviour support model can be used to reduce the use of restrictive interventions. The workshop will include a brief summary of positive behaviour support including functional assessment and implementation. The case study will include data on behaviour presentation, quality of life and restrictive practices both pre and post intervention to indicate the impact that the developed interventions had.
Bioethanol market: growing rapidly for E85 ethanolPuja Pritam
The Bioethanol Market is a rapidly growing market with high use of biofuel ethanol and biodiesel as fuels in various end user applications for clean environment in various regions across the globe.
IRJET-Towards Conservation of World Famous Dal Lake – A Need of HourIRJET Journal
Mudasir Ahmad Wani, Ashit Dutta, M. Ashraf Wani, Umer Jan Wani, "Towards Conservation of World Famous Dal Lake – A Need of Hour", International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET), Vol2,issue-01 March 2015. e-ISSN:2395-0056,p-ISSN:2395-0072. www.irjet.net,published by Fast Track Publications
Abstract
Lakes play an important role in the economy of a region. Dal Lake has historically been the centre of Kashmiri civilization and has played a major role in the economy of Kashmir through its attraction of tourists as well as its utilization as a source of food and water. Preservation of world famous Dal Lake hence, is need of hour. The aim of this study is identification and monitoring of effluent discharge and to suggest strategies for prevention of water pollution of Dal Lake. A descriptive methodology utilizing observational site survey, study of relevant records and interview technique for identification and monitoring of effluent discharge taking place into Dal Lake was carried out. Accordingly, Strategies for treatment of effluents discharged are suggested for prevention of water pollution of Dal Lake. The study revealed that effluent discharge taking place into the Dal Lake pollutes its water on daily basis. Pollutants that enter in Dal Lake are sewage and sullage, agriculture runoff, detergents and soaps, soil erosion from catchment areas, animal waste, solid wastes and wastes from houseboats, hotels and business establishments. The study is unique in that it reports on important issue of environmental degradation of world famous Dal Lake. Various measures proposed for conservation of lake including afforestation and control of grazing animals in the catchment area, removal of house boats and hotels and rehabilitation of their owners and inhabitants living in and around Dal at a suitable place, removal of excess weeds on continuous basis, construction of sanitation latrines for villagers, reducing use of chemical pesticides, avoiding use of commercial fertilizers, installation of STPs, restoring “Nallah Mar” and continuous monitoring of lake environment are expected to reduce the pollution and hence, preservation of the lake.
The most important challenges the world faces today is Water Resources management. Humans in meeting their demand for water, extract vast quantities from rivers, lakes, wetlands, and underground aquifers to supply the requirements of cities, farms, and industries by disturbing the environment and eco balance. Freshwater is a finite, vulnerable and essential resource. As water is an economic good, its development and management should be based on a participatory and sustainable approach, involving all relevant stakeholders. Accordingly peoples must involve themselves and play a central role in the provision, management and safeguarding of water in conjunction with the surrounding environment.
Scenario of Water Bodies (Lakes) In Urban Areas- A case study on Bellandur La...IOSR Journals
Abstract: Environment is made up of natural factors like air, water and land. Each and every human activities
supports directly/indirectly by natural factors. India is facing a problem of natural resource scarcity, especially
of water in view of population growth and economic development. Due to growth of Population, advancement in
agriculture, urbanization and industrialization has made surface water pollution a great problem and decreased
the availability of drinking water. Many parts of the world face such a scarcity of water. Lakes are important
feature of the Earth’s landscape which are not only the source of precious water, but provide valuable habitats
to plants and animals, moderate hydrological cycles, influence microclimate, enhance the aesthetic beauty of
the landscape and extend many recreational opportunities to humankind .For issues, perspectives on pollution,
restoration and management of Bellandur Lake Falls under Bangalore Metropolitan city is very essential to
know their status but so far, there was no systematic environmental study carried out. Hence now the following
studies are essential namely Characteristics, Status, Effects (on surrounding Groundwater, Soil, Humans
health, Vegetables, Animals etc.,), resolving the issues of degradation, preparation of conceptual design for
restoration and management.
INDIAN SCENARIO OF WATER RESOURCES - AN OVERVIEW, INTEGRATED WATER MANAGEMENT...Venkataraju Badanapuri
Water is life sustaining liquid. It is one of the most important natural resources which is essential for the existence of living organisms and things including humans and wildlife, food production, food security, sustainable development and alleviate the poverty of the country. Despite of having blessed with enormous water resources (e.g., Mt. Himalaya’s originated Holy River Ganges, and its several tributaries from the north, Kaveri River in the south, ever rain forests [e.g., Mousinram near Cherrapunji], world’s tastiest waters of the Siruvani River in Coimbatore, Western Ghats Basin, network of fresh water resources etc.,), “water problem” is huge ‘a big threat and cross cut problem in India’. Water is most essential and widely distributed key resource to meet the basic need for livelihoods,
Viability, method and device for horticultural crops with brackish and marine...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
The method that humanity has adopted to hydrate and thus give life to the plants, imitating the model that was most visible, is the rain. However, the great secret to the contribution of nutrients to the vegetables, the irrigation itself, is on earth, in the groundwater layers and aquifers that hoard and administer the water, keeping every drop of rain and distributing the water through the basins, underground rivers, watering indirectly from the mountain to the sea. The key is in the different circulation velocities of the groundwater because of the nature of the substrates. However, agriculture has taken irrigation from above as we know it and has focused especially on drainage capacity. From this point of view, saline water is not beneficial for irrigated agriculture, but may be the only source of irrigation water in large arid regions, especially in developing countries, where the extreme scarcity of freshwater and the rapidly growing population require more water. When considering the possibility of watering with seawater without desalinating, always by means of capillarity systems, it is essential to take into consideration the different strata of soils, the distance to the groundwater, the composition of seawater, the capacity of drainage, chemical reactions of the soil with salts, etc. The modification of any of these parameters can produce effects of salinization, loss of humidity or desertification among others. This study presents the accumulated experience through the joint collaboration between the Centre for Research in Security and food Control of the Polytechnic University of Catalonia (CRESCA) and the Aqua Maris Foundation in capillary irrigation and it proposes a system and device that allows the controlled development of different vegetal species using brackish and seawater.
Determination of pH, Dissolved Oxygen, Sulphate, Phosphate and Total Hardness...Hanieh Farzaneh
Sampling of the Physico-chemical factors from two stations on the surface water of Kukkarahalli Lake in Mysore City-India was carried out biweekly over a period of 3 months of 2014. The aims were to determine some Physico chemical parameters of water pollution. Temperature was measured using mercury in glass thermometer. Dissolved oxygen was determined by modified Winkler azide method while Phosphate was determined by Vendo Molybdate Method, Estimation of Sulphate as Sulphur in sample by Nephelometric Method, measurements of total hardness by Complexometric Method. The result revealed that the major causes of water quality deterioration were related to excess usage of fertilizers and chemicals for increasing yield of the crop or releasing the sewage into the lake, due to cumulative effect of human activities where in sewage disposal oxygen is used in decomposing these organic water, eutrophication which causes algal bloom and therefore inability of oxygen to adequately dissolved in the water or the lentic nature of the site where was no serious upturns. As this Lake also used to be a source of water supply to the city of Mysore, and today is a house of different variety of birds, animals, plants and fishes it is very essential to stop sewage disposal and illegal excessive land encroachments to eliminate the eutropohication of the lake, which this results of the Physico-chemical examination of this lake could be helpful in the management of the lake for its water quality and fisheries.
Determination of pH, Dissolved Oxygen, Sulphate, Phosphate and Total Hardness...Hanieh Farzaneh
Sampling of the Physico-chemical factors from two stations on the surface water of Kukkarahalli Lake in Mysore City-India was carried out biweekly over a period of 3 months of 2014. The aims were to determine some Physico chemical parameters of water pollution. Temperature was measured using mercury in glass thermometer. Dissolved oxygen was determined by modified Winkler azide method while Phosphate was determined by Vendo Molybdate Method, Estimation of Sulphate as Sulphur in sample by Nephelometric Method, measurements of total hardness by Complexometric Method. The result revealed that the major causes of water quality deterioration were related to excess usage of fertilizers and chemicals for increasing yield of the crop or releasing the sewage into the lake, due to cumulative effect of human activities where in sewage disposal oxygen is used in decomposing these organic water, eutrophication which causes algal bloom and therefore inability of oxygen to adequately dissolved in the water or the lentic nature of the site where was no serious upturns. As this Lake also used to be a source of water supply to the city of Mysore, and today is a house of different variety of birds, animals, plants and fishes it is very essential to stop sewage disposal and illegal excessive land encroachments to eliminate the eutropohication of the lake, which this results of the Physico-chemical examination of this lake could be helpful in the management of the lake for its water quality and fisheries.
On Earth water has too many forms and variety which
are necessary specifically for particular geographical as well as
environmental surroundings. Below 1% of the world's fresh
water (0.007% of all water on earth) is reachable for direct
human uses. Water pollutions now become a part of concern and
disquiet in country like India. Large parts of water which are life
supportive get contaminated because of illegal activities of human
beings. Water effluence is a major problem globally. It is the
leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases, and that it
accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. In
addition to the acute problems of different problems in
developing countries, industrialized countries continue to
struggle with water pollution problems as well. There are many
inorganic metals which are contaminating water bodies which
serve life to large part of India, Arsenic (As) is one of the biggest
threats for water bodies. High toxicity of Arsenic poses a serious
risk not only to ecological systems but also for human health.
There is availability of sophisticated techniques for arsenic
removal from contaminated water, development of new
laboratory based techniques along with cost reduction and
enhancement of conventional techniques are essential for the
benefit of common people. This paper is based on the future
aspects, for removal of Arsenic from drinking water or the water
of different rivers like Ganga, Gomti and Yamuna etc which
humans are consuming for domestic purpose. Demograph
estimate that around 52 millions peoples are drinking ground
water with arsenic concentrations above the guidelines of World
Health Organization. WHO proposed a parameter or MIC for
Arsenic i.e. of 10 parts per billion (ppb) or 0.010 Mg/L, it is found
that level of Arsenic has been increased vigorously in many
rivers. Objective is to apply Bioremediation technique with the
help of batch culture that needs Bioremediators to detoxify
contaminated water and helps in maintaining the original quality
of water.
UNDERSTANDING WHAT GREEN WASHING IS!.pdfJulietMogola
Many companies today use green washing to lure the public into thinking they are conserving the environment but in real sense they are doing more harm. There have been such several cases from very big companies here in Kenya and also globally. This ranges from various sectors from manufacturing and goes to consumer products. Educating people on greenwashing will enable people to make better choices based on their analysis and not on what they see on marketing sites.
Characterization and the Kinetics of drying at the drying oven and with micro...Open Access Research Paper
The objective of this work is to contribute to valorization de Nephelium lappaceum by the characterization of kinetics of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum. The seeds were dehydrated until a constant mass respectively in a drying oven and a microwawe oven. The temperatures and the powers of drying are respectively: 50, 60 and 70°C and 140, 280 and 420 W. The results show that the curves of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum do not present a phase of constant kinetics. The coefficients of diffusion vary between 2.09.10-8 to 2.98. 10-8m-2/s in the interval of 50°C at 70°C and between 4.83×10-07 at 9.04×10-07 m-8/s for the powers going of 140 W with 420 W the relation between Arrhenius and a value of energy of activation of 16.49 kJ. mol-1 expressed the effect of the temperature on effective diffusivity.
WRI’s brand new “Food Service Playbook for Promoting Sustainable Food Choices” gives food service operators the very latest strategies for creating dining environments that empower consumers to choose sustainable, plant-rich dishes. This research builds off our first guide for food service, now with industry experience and insights from nearly 350 academic trials.
"Understanding the Carbon Cycle: Processes, Human Impacts, and Strategies for...MMariSelvam4
The carbon cycle is a critical component of Earth's environmental system, governing the movement and transformation of carbon through various reservoirs, including the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms. This complex cycle involves several key processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and carbon sequestration, each contributing to the regulation of carbon levels on the planet.
Human activities, particularly fossil fuel combustion and deforestation, have significantly altered the natural carbon cycle, leading to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and driving climate change. Understanding the intricacies of the carbon cycle is essential for assessing the impacts of these changes and developing effective mitigation strategies.
By studying the carbon cycle, scientists can identify carbon sources and sinks, measure carbon fluxes, and predict future trends. This knowledge is crucial for crafting policies aimed at reducing carbon emissions, enhancing carbon storage, and promoting sustainable practices. The carbon cycle's interplay with climate systems, ecosystems, and human activities underscores its importance in maintaining a stable and healthy planet.
In-depth exploration of the carbon cycle reveals the delicate balance required to sustain life and the urgent need to address anthropogenic influences. Through research, education, and policy, we can work towards restoring equilibrium in the carbon cycle and ensuring a sustainable future for generations to come.
Natural farming @ Dr. Siddhartha S. Jena.pptxsidjena70
A brief about organic farming/ Natural farming/ Zero budget natural farming/ Subash Palekar Natural farming which keeps us and environment safe and healthy. Next gen Agricultural practices of chemical free farming.
Diabetes is a rapidly and serious health problem in Pakistan. This chronic condition is associated with serious long-term complications, including higher risk of heart disease and stroke. Aggressive treatment of hypertension and hyperlipideamia can result in a substantial reduction in cardiovascular events in patients with diabetes 1. Consequently pharmacist-led diabetes cardiovascular risk (DCVR) clinics have been established in both primary and secondary care sites in NHS Lothian during the past five years. An audit of the pharmaceutical care delivery at the clinics was conducted in order to evaluate practice and to standardize the pharmacists’ documentation of outcomes. Pharmaceutical care issues (PCI) and patient details were collected both prospectively and retrospectively from three DCVR clinics. The PCI`s were categorized according to a triangularised system consisting of multiple categories. These were ‘checks’, ‘changes’ (‘change in drug therapy process’ and ‘change in drug therapy’), ‘drug therapy problems’ and ‘quality assurance descriptors’ (‘timer perspective’ and ‘degree of change’). A verified medication assessment tool (MAT) for patients with chronic cardiovascular disease was applied to the patients from one of the clinics. The tool was used to quantify PCI`s and pharmacist actions that were centered on implementing or enforcing clinical guideline standards. A database was developed to be used as an assessment tool and to standardize the documentation of achievement of outcomes. Feedback on the audit of the pharmaceutical care delivery and the database was received from the DCVR clinic pharmacist at a focus group meeting.
Artificial Reefs by Kuddle Life Foundation - May 2024punit537210
Situated in Pondicherry, India, Kuddle Life Foundation is a charitable, non-profit and non-governmental organization (NGO) dedicated to improving the living standards of coastal communities and simultaneously placing a strong emphasis on the protection of marine ecosystems.
One of the key areas we work in is Artificial Reefs. This presentation captures our journey so far and our learnings. We hope you get as excited about marine conservation and artificial reefs as we are.
Please visit our website: https://kuddlelife.org
Our Instagram channel:
@kuddlelifefoundation
Our Linkedin Page:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/kuddlelifefoundation/
and write to us if you have any questions:
info@kuddlelife.org
Willie Nelson Net Worth: A Journey Through Music, Movies, and Business Venturesgreendigital
Willie Nelson is a name that resonates within the world of music and entertainment. Known for his unique voice, and masterful guitar skills. and an extraordinary career spanning several decades. Nelson has become a legend in the country music scene. But, his influence extends far beyond the realm of music. with ventures in acting, writing, activism, and business. This comprehensive article delves into Willie Nelson net worth. exploring the various facets of his career that have contributed to his large fortune.
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Introduction
Willie Nelson net worth is a testament to his enduring influence and success in many fields. Born on April 29, 1933, in Abbott, Texas. Nelson's journey from a humble beginning to becoming one of the most iconic figures in American music is nothing short of inspirational. His net worth, which estimated to be around $25 million as of 2024. reflects a career that is as diverse as it is prolific.
Early Life and Musical Beginnings
Humble Origins
Willie Hugh Nelson was born during the Great Depression. a time of significant economic hardship in the United States. Raised by his grandparents. Nelson found solace and inspiration in music from an early age. His grandmother taught him to play the guitar. setting the stage for what would become an illustrious career.
First Steps in Music
Nelson's initial foray into the music industry was fraught with challenges. He moved to Nashville, Tennessee, to pursue his dreams, but success did not come . Working as a songwriter, Nelson penned hits for other artists. which helped him gain a foothold in the competitive music scene. His songwriting skills contributed to his early earnings. laying the foundation for his net worth.
Rise to Stardom
Breakthrough Albums
The 1970s marked a turning point in Willie Nelson's career. His albums "Shotgun Willie" (1973), "Red Headed Stranger" (1975). and "Stardust" (1978) received critical acclaim and commercial success. These albums not only solidified his position in the country music genre. but also introduced his music to a broader audience. The success of these albums played a crucial role in boosting Willie Nelson net worth.
Iconic Songs
Willie Nelson net worth is also attributed to his extensive catalog of hit songs. Tracks like "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain," "On the Road Again," and "Always on My Mind" have become timeless classics. These songs have not only earned Nelson large royalties but have also ensured his continued relevance in the music industry.
Acting and Film Career
Hollywood Ventures
In addition to his music career, Willie Nelson has also made a mark in Hollywood. His distinctive personality and on-screen presence have landed him roles in several films and television shows. Notable appearances include roles in "The Electric Horseman" (1979), "Honeysuckle Rose" (1980), and "Barbarosa" (1982). These acting gigs have added a significant amount to Willie Nelson net worth.
Television Appearances
Nelson's char
Willie Nelson Net Worth: A Journey Through Music, Movies, and Business Ventures
A Major Irrigation Project (Accelerated Mahaweli Programme) and the Chronic Kidney Disease of Multifactorial Origin in Sri Lanka
1. International Journal of Environmental & Agriculture Research (IJOEAR) [Vol-1, Issue-6, October- 2015]
Page | 16
A Major Irrigation Project (Accelerated Mahaweli Programme)
and the Chronic Kidney Disease of Multifactorial Origin in Sri
Lanka
Stanley Weeraratne1
, Sunil J. Wimalawansa2
1
Emeritus Professor of Agronomy, Ruhuna University, Sri Lanka
2
Professor of Medicine, Cardio Metabolic Institute, Somerset, New Jersey, U.S.A.
Abstract— The Mahaweli River is the longest river in Sri Lanka. In 1978, the government of Sri Lanka launched the
Accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme, under the purview of Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka, the largest
irrigation program in the country. It is a multi-purpose development scheme designed for the generation of hydroelectricity,
irrigation, and water for domestic consumption. Since the mid-1990s, a major, non-infectious epidemic of chronic kidney
disease of multifactorial origin (CKDmfo) has been reported in Sri Lanka for which no cause has been identified. This
disease predominantly affects dry zonal, agricultural regions, particularly the North Central Province (NCP). During the
past two decades, thousands of people have died due to this disease. This article assesses whether there is a relationship
between this environmental impact from this major irrigation project and the deadly disease of CKDmfo. Water in the
Mahaweli River is known to be polluted with various compounds, including phosphates coming from the excessive use of
fertiliser in the hill country. However, the levels of phosphate in the Mahaweli River and in the NCP reservoirs are less than
0.15 mg/L. Such levels can cause ecological harm but are not a threat to human health nor causes renal failure. In addition,
there are large regions outside the Mahaweli-fed localities where people are affected with CKDmfo. Thus, it is unlikely that
water from the Mahaweli River itself is directly related to the occurrence of CKDmfo, but its harmful environmental impact
is noticeable. Nevertheless, excess phosphates can cause algae blooms and cyanobacterial growth in water bodies, which
harm aquatic lives and the ecology. Thus, governments and society must take responsibility and initiate actions to minimise
environmental harm, protect and preserve the watersheds, curb the overuse of agrochemicals, and preserve water quality
and the environment for current and future generations.
Running header: “River Mahaweli and CKDmfo”
Keywords— Agribusiness, Agrochemicals, CKDu, Dry zone, Environment, Fertiliser, Pollution, Phosphate, Premature
deaths.
I. INTRODUCTION
Water contamination issues are not new to Sri Lanka (Mertens, Fernando et al. 1990, Dharmagunawardhane HA 1993,
Guruge and Tanabe 2001), where industrial development and colonization have occurred since the 1950s in areas that
previously were forested, particularly in the North Central Province (NCP). This development together with the accelerated
Mahaweli project started in the mid-1970s have dramatically altered the ecology of the NCP (Panabokke 2000).
Conserving water is particularly crucial to agriculture because irrigation accounts for more than 70% of freshwater use.
Planners need to think of ways to improve crop efficiency with minimal use of water. In the ever-increasing demand for
water for irrigation, such efforts are central to meeting future nutrient needs in a sustainable manner. Man-made water
conservation structures (known as tanks or reservoirs) traditionally made of earthen dams are a key resource used in
agriculture, especially in the dry zonal areas. Both small and large tanks are important not only for agriculture but also for
many other human needs in these regions.
Over the past few decades, freshwater resources have been endangered, not only by over-exploitation but also by neglect,
poor management, and man-made pollution, including industry effluents; all of this has led to ecological degradation
(Burkart 2007). Nevertheless, naturally occurring and man-made contaminations exhibit marked geographical variations
(Anonymous 1979), whereas climate changes exacerbate ill health (Mertens, Fernando et al. 1990, Baumgarten, Steinnes et
al. 2009). Degradation of watersheds and catchment areas in wooded and hilly country, deforestation, and the consequent
soil erosion have led to harmful ecological changes and the need to dredge canals and reservoirs, which contaminates soil
(Wimalawansa 2015a).
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History of irrigation systems in Sri Lanka:
In the early 20th century, several key publications reported on the major irrigation schemes in the country (Brohier 1934,
Brohier 1937, De Silva 1987, Rajapakse 2013), including the historical aspects of the development of ancient irrigation
schemes and irrigation heritage in Sri Lanka (Brohier 1934, Brohier 1937, Fernando 1979, Perera 1984 ). In addition,
Arumugam provided constructional details of each major irrigation scheme in the country (Arumugam 1969). The
construction of Sri Lankan ancient irrigation systems dates to King Parakrama Bahu the Great (1153–1186 AD) (Nicholas
1954-55), who constructed one of the largest man-made reservoirs in Sri Lanka, the Parakrama Sammudraya in
Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka.
Ancient Sri Lankan irrigation systems are considered a cultural and economic heritage and a model for water and soil
conservation ecosystems. Almost all of the reservoirs in Sri Lanka, with the exception of those recently constructed for the
generation of hydroelectricity, support agricultural and food production in the country.
The ancient and current reservoir systems of Sri Lanka are a culturally integral part of the country and its agriculture-based
economy, and the diversity of the reservoirs is unparalleled elsewhere in the world (Mendis 2002). In addition to being the
heart of the supply of irrigation water, the network of small and large reservoirs is an important fishery resource and income
for the local communities in Sri Lanka.
The 28 major rivers in the country discharge a total of 36,089 × 106 m3, or 92.5% of the total discharge, to the sea
(Manchanayaka 1999). The Mahaweli River is the longest river in Sri Lanka, and its basin covers approximately one sixth of
the island (De Silva 1985). Paddy cultivation occupies 12% of the land (800,000 hectares) in Sri Lanka and is highly
connected with water management. The role of water in the ricepaddy ecosystem goes beyond providing water to the roots
of paddy plants. It is a way of life to villagers.
By controlling the flow of water into terraced fields, the farmers are able to create several important cycles. The cycles of wet
and dry phases alter soil pH and include a cycle of aerobic and anaerobic conditions in the soil that regulates the activity of
micro-organisms and micro-nutrients, and fosters the growth of nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria, minimizes growth of weeds,
and controls pests (Dharmasena 2009). The contrast between the hydraulic engineering perspective and the ecosystems
perspective lies in a fundamental difference in perception of water. To hydraulic engineers, water is inanimate and active,
whereas to farmers and agro-scientists, including ecologists, water is animate and passive (Mendis 2002).
TABLE 1
THE MAJOR RESERVOIRS IN SRI LANKA
Source: Amarasiri, S. L., 2008 (Amarasiri 2008) and http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0028e/t0028e03.htm.
Reservoir Associated river Period (year) of construction (A.D.)
Senanayake Samudraya Gal Oya 1952
Victoria Mahaweli Ganga 1984
Randenigala Mahaweli Ganga 1988
Maduru Oya Mahaweli Ganga 1983
Kotmale Mahaweli Ganga 1985
Kantalai Own catchment 604–614
Minneriya Amban Ganga 274–301
Parakrama Samudraya Amban Ganga 1153–1186
Iranamadu Kanaganayan Aru 1922
Rajangana Kala Oya 1957
Kalawewa Dambulla Oya 455–473
Padaviya Mora Oya 531–551
Nachchaduwa Malwathu Oya 531–551
Nuwerawewa Malwathu Oya 114–136
Mahakanadarawa Maradankadawela Oya 274–301
Bowatenne Mahaweli Ganga 1976
Giant’s Tank Malwathu Oya 455–473
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Development of Mahaweli River [Ganga] irrigation systems:
Sri Lanka has more than 18,000 reservoirs. Basic information about some of these reservoirs, listed according to their
capacity, is provided in Table 1 (Manchanayaka 1999, Amarasiri 2008). Some of the reservoirs are more than 2,000 years
old, reflecting Sri Lanka’s long history of agricultural irrigation. Table 1 provides information on large reservoirs in Sri
Lanka, their feeder rivers, and the period in which they were built.
In 1978, the government of Sri Lanka launched the Accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme, which encompass
seven administrative districts; covers approximately one sixth of the island. It facilitated the establishment of several new
settlements under the purview of Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka, which was established in 1979 by an act of Parliament.
It is a multi-purpose development scheme that incorporates some existing reservoirs into the system and also involves the
construction of a number of major reservoirs for the generation of hydroelectricity, irrigation, and domestic water
consumption.
The Mahaweli River development also consists of two other river basins (i.e., the Maduru Oya and Kala Oya basins; see
Figure 1). It is a multi-purpose development scheme that incorporates some existing reservoirs but also involves the
construction of a number of major reservoirs for the generation of hydroelectricity and for irrigation (De Silva 1985).
FIGURE 1: CASCADE OF LARGE RESERVOIRS IN SRI LANKA SUPPLIED BY THE MAHAWELI RIVER
[modified from http://www.mahawelicomplex.lk/sys.htm; and (Wimalawansa 2015b)].
II. THE ACCELERATED MAHAWELI DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
When the Accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme was launched, seven reservoirs were developed simultaneously,
with assistance from a number of foreign countries, to provide irrigation and generate hydroelectric power. The programme
covered around 25,500 sq. km. of land in the administrative districts of Nuwara Eliya, Kandy, Matale, Badulla, Polonnaruwa,
Anuradhapura, and Vavuniya (Manchanayaka 1999).
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Under this major programme, a series of reservoirs and hydroelectricity plants were developed. This facilitated the
establishment of several new settlements. The dams related to the hydropower generation were constructed and managed by
the Sri Lanka Electricity Board. Figure 2 illustrates the reservoirs in the upper Mahaweli region created specifically for the
generation of hydroelectricity.
FIGURE 2: CASCADE OF RESERVOIRS CONSTRUCTED IN THE RECENT PAST FOR THE GENERATION OF HYDROELECTRICITY
BY TAPPING THE UPPER CATCHMENT REGION OF THE MAHAWELI RIVER IN SRI LANKA
[modified from http://www.mahawelicomplex.lk/sys.htm]
FIGURE 3: THE (A) MAHAWELI ACCELERATED PROGRAMME REGION IN THE NORTH CENTRAL PROVINCE AND (B)
LOCATIONS OF THE MAJOR RIVERS IN SRI LANKA (FROM PUBLIC DOMAIN).
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Irresponsible farming practices in the hill country and actions of the corporate sector have led to sediments, phosphate,
agrochemicals, and other toxins in the water of the Mahaweli River in the NCP region (Bandara, Wijewardena et al. 2010,
Bandara, Wijewardena et al. 2011). The extended Mahaweli River basin and the irrigation supplied by it covers most of the
areas in the NCP affected by chronic kidney disease of multifactorial origin (CKDmfo), which is also known as CKDu
(unknown/uncertain origin) (Figure 3). For the other major rivers in Sri Lanka, except for the River Walawe, water coming
from the hill country drains directly to the sea, without being tapped for irrigation or drinking purposes. No water-related
major health outbreaks have been observed in these other river basins.
Environmental pollution is escalating in emerging economies such as Sri Lanka and is aggravated by anthropogenic
activities, such as new construction, mining, and deforestation (which exacerbate soil erosion) and the irresponsible use of
agrochemicals, especially the overuse of phosphate fertiliser. This has led to leaching of large amounts of phosphates from
farmlands into streams and the eutrophication of reservoirs, which has become an important environmental issue in the dry
zones in Sri Lanka. The following section describes the phosphate eutrophication of reservoirs in the NCP secondary to the
overuse of phosphate fertiliser in the hill country, where the Mahaweli River originates.
Mahaweli River and phosphate eutrophication of reservoir water:
Cyanobacterial algae blooms in reservoirs in the NCP are caused by the overuse of phosphate fertilisers by farmers; this
environmental damage has its roots in government subsidies for fertiliser. Fertilisers are provided at a subsidised rate mostly
to small-scale paddy farmers, but vegetable cultivators, particularly potato farmers in the Hill Country, routinely use amounts
of fertiliser that far exceed the Department of Agriculture’s recommended levels for cultivation. These fertilisers are used in
addition to organic fertilisers, such as cow dung.
Water contamination with plant nutrients, primarily phosphates and nitrates, occurs because of the excessive use of fertiliser
(Codd, Morrison et al. 2005, Ibelings and Chorus 2007), but in some instances pollution may occur secondary to human or
animal sewage (e.g., pig farming) (Carpenter 2005). The continuous addition of phosphorous to farmlands leads to
phosphorous pollution in water bodies (Carpenter 2005, Carpenter 2008, Wimalawansa 2015b). Excess phosphate leaches
from the farm soil in fields into streams and ends up in reservoirs, causing cyanobacterial blooms (Metcalf, Hyenstrand et al.
2000, Pereira, Dias et al. 2004, Codd, Morrison et al. 2005, Ibelings and Chorus 2007).
Phosphate fertilisers are made by treating rock phosphates with strong acids, such as concentrated sulphuric acid, to make
them water-soluble. Rock phosphate normally contains heavy metals (Wimalawansa 2015b). The process of solubilizing
rock phosphate (P) also solubilizes heavy metals.
Over the past three decades, Mahaweli River water has become polluted with various compounds, including phosphate.
However, the levels of phosphate in the Mahaweli River or the reservoirs (phosphate levels less than 0.15 mg/L) fed by it do
not cause direct harm to humans. Large areas of the country outside of the Mahaweli River water-fed localities, including
Polpithigama in Kurunagala district, Mahiyangana in Badulla district, Trincomalee, and Vavuniya, are affected by CKDmfo.
Thus, it is unlikely that water from the Mahaweli River itself is directly related to the CKDmfo in Sri Lanka. Because
polluted water causes harm to aquatic lives and the environment, governments and society must take responsibility and
initiate actions to protect and preserve the precious watersheds, curb the overuse of agrochemicals, and preserve water
quality and the environment for current and future generations. Figure 4 illustrates the regions that are covered by the
Mahaweli development programme.
As indicated in Figure 3, the Mahaweli project covers around 25,000 sq km, which is about 38% of the total land area of Sri
Lanka. The Mahaweli River has its source in four small streams. Three of these converge to form Kotmale Oya, and the
other, Dick Oya, converges to form Mahaweli proper. The project proposed to use 5,800 million cubic meters of water from
the annual flow of the Mahaweli River for agricultural development of around 364,000 ha in the dry zone. In 1968, the
estimated cost of the entire project was approximately Rs. 6,700 million.
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FIGURE 4: AREAS COVERED BY THE ORIGINAL MAHAWELI MASTER PLAN AND THE MODIFIED/CURRENT MAHAWELI
SCHEMES IN SRI LANKA. THE PROJECT INCLUDED 11 POWER STATIONS; THE INSTALLED CAPACITY OF THE STATIONS
WAS 508 MEGAWATTS, WITH TOTAL POWER OUTPUT OF 2,037 MILLION KW/H/YEAR. THE MAIN RESERVOIRS,
RANDENIGALA AND VICTORIA, SUPPLY IRRIGATION WATER FOR THE MAHAWELI RIVER BASIN, AND MORAGAHAKANDA,
POLGOLLA, AND KOTMALE FOR THE NCP. THE IRRIGATION AREAS INCLUDED IN THE MASTER PLAN ARE GROUPED INTO
14 IRRIGATION SYSTEMS. EIGHT OF THESE (A, B, C, D-1, D-2, E, F, G) ARE LOCATED IN THE BASIN OF THE MAHAWELI
GANGA AND MADURU OYA, WITH A TOTAL IRRIGATED AREA OF 470,000 ACRES. THE REMAINING FIVE SYSTEMS (H, I, M,
K, J) ARE IN THE NORTHCENTRAL PART.
[Modified from Nawaratne, N.C.M., 2013; (Navaratne 2013).]
Effects of large-scale settlements and irrigation projects on the environment:
Despite the harmful consequences of development, some planners continue to push for massive structural projects and water-
management systems, while giving inadequate attention to clean water and sanitation, the environment, and human needs
(Wimalawansa 2014b). Such projects continue to add stress and damage the environment and human health (UNDP-HDR
2013).
When rainfall is unpredictable, river flow patterns change in uncertain ways; flood and/or prolonged droughts become
frequent; vegetation, crops, and all aquatic lives are affected; and additional electricity and expensive infrastructure are
needed for treating and distributing clean water. Many recent examples suggest that planners continue to use outdated
rainfall and climatic data to plan mega projects, disregarding the human and environmental consequences (Wilson 2010,
Fischhendler, Cohen-Blankshtain et al. 2013).
The burning of fossil fuels and at times petrochemicals contaminates the environment, particularly via agricultural equipment
and vehicles, which affect local water supplies (Wimalawansa 2015). Such water contamination has made industrial nations
more dependent on increasingly expensive energy and water purification plants, both of which drain precious foreign
exchange. Building new power plants that utilise coal or fossil fuel would further add to the environmental pollution and
exacerbate the occurrence of non-communicable diseases (Noyes, McElwee et al. 2009, Castleden, Shearman et al. 2011).
7. International Journal of Environmental & Agriculture Research (IJOEAR) [Vol-1, Issue-6, October- 2015]
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A fair balance is needed between the pursuit of happiness and economic advances, and the planning and implementation of
future population needs and settlements. At each stage of development, planners must include provisions for protecting the
environment, with overall human well-being and public health issues considered as priorities (Wimalawansa 2015).
Poor water quality affects health of humans in the region:
Because of large-scale deforestation and fast-flowing modern irrigation systems, dredging has become a routine part of the
maintenance of canals and reservoirs in Sri Lanka. Dredging is expensive, disturbs the ecology, and contaminates surface
water with unwanted substances such as heavy meals that have been settled on the bottom of canals and reservoirs for
hundreds of years. These subtle water contaminations may not be readily detected by random or even stratified water
sampling and testing (Chandrajith, Nanayakkara et al. 2011a, WHO-CKDu-Final Report: Jayathilaka N 2013 ) unless the
timing of the sampling is done with proximity to the dredging.
When applied to soils, urea yield ammonium, which undergoes nitrification to form nitrates in alkaline soils. Exposure to
excessive amounts of nitrates, especially in children could cause methemoglobinaemia (blue baby syndrome) (Speijers
2011). High nitrate content in water has been reported in waters in Kalpitiya and Jaffna regions, but not in the NCP in Sri
Lanka.
III. CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE OF MULTIFACTORIAL ORIGIN (CKDMFO)
Since the mid-1990s, a major, non-infectious epidemic of chronic kidney disease of multifactorial origin (CKDmfo)
(Wimalawansa 2014) has emerged in Sri Lanka for which no cause has been identified (Wimalawansa 2013b). This disease
has killed thousands of people; it has killed more than the 46,000 people thought to have died in Sri Lanka during the 2004
tsunami (Wimalawansa 2013).
The disease predominantly affects agricultural regions, flat lands in the dry zone areas of the country, where more than a
third of vegetable and rice farming is done (Wimalawansa 2014a, Wimalawansa 2014c). Many investigators have suggested
contamination of water in this region as a probable factor in the development of the epidemic (Chandrajith, Nanayakkara et
al. 2011a, Nanayakkara, Senevirathna et al. 2014, Redmon, Elledge et al. 2014, Wanigasuriya 2014).
Approximately 7% of the households in the NCP region have a pipe-borne water supply, and more than 90% of the affected
families consume water from shallow wells, tube wells, or streams (Wimalawansa 2015). Many investigators have suggested
contamination of surface water in this region as a probable factor in the development of the epidemic (Chandrajith,
Nanayakkara et al. 2011a, Senevirathna, Abeysekera et al. 2012).
One example is the increasing incidence of non-communicable diseases in the region, in part because of surface water and
groundwater contamination attributed to the excessive use of plant nutrients (phosphate, nitrates), organic matter, and
excessive agrochemicals applied in farmlands that are local and those hundreds of miles upstream on the Mahaweli River
(Paez-Osuna 2001, Krauss, Gallenberger et al. 2011, Nair 2011, Sarkar, Patil et al. 2011). The disease is predominantly
affecting those residing in the lowland regions (below 270-meter elevation from the sea level) with an annual rainfall of less
than 200 cm/year (average annual rainfall in the dry zone is around 150 cm/year in Sri Lanka, most occurring within a 3-
month period).
Most of the NCP region has a crystalline complex of rocks with limited shallow groundwater and surface aquifers
(Panabokke 2003, Panabokke 2007). These surface water sources are constantly fed by the seepage from cascade systems of
small and large reservoirs and streams located at higher elevations (Panabokke 1959, Panabokke 2003, Panabokke 2007).
Most rural communities in this region use surface water from shallow wells as the main drinking water source together with
tube wells (Chandrajith, Nanayakkara et al. 2011a). The concentration of agrochemicals, heavy metals, and other
contaminants in surface water (thus shallow wells) is known to vary temporally and spatially in the region and can spread
though the surface water aquifer (Wimalawansa 2015).
Current issues in the NCP:
Various components of the CKDmfo in Sri Lanka have been discussed in recent years (WHO-CKDu-Final Report:
Jayathilaka N 2013 , Wimalawansa 2014, Wimalawansa 2015). Recent articles have focused on the excessive use of
chemical fertiliser that contaminates water bodies and reservoirs (Chandrajith, Dissanayake et al. 2005, Chen, Krage et al.
2008, Chandrajith, Nanayakkara et al. 2011a, Dharma-Wardana, Amarasiri et al. 2014), exposure of farmers to
organophosphate pesticides (Wimalawansa 2014), and pollution of drinking sources, including well water (Athuraliya,
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Abeysekera et al. 2011, Wimalawansa 2014a, Wimalawansa 2015b), with fluoride, heavy metals, and other agents (Bandara,
Senevirathna et al. 2008, Wanigasuriya, Peiris-John et al. 2011, WHO-CKDu-Final Report: Jayathilaka N 2013 ).
Understanding the contamination of well water is relevant in the NCP because approximately 70% of NCP inhabitants drink
from shallow wells (Chandrajith, Nanayakkara et al. 2011a) (Figure 1), and more than 85% of those with the disease
consumed water from such wells (Wimalawansa 2015).
The researchers argued that the higher cadmium levels in the local reservoir water reported by a few are secondary to higher
soil cadmium levels in the NCP region, coming from the waters of the Mahaweli River (Bandara, Wijewardena et al. 2010).
Considering this, they suggested that the cascade irrigation system that is fed by the Mahaweli River leads to an increase in
dietary cadmium intake through food, thus contributing to CKDmfo (Bandara, Senevirathna et al. 2008, Bandara,
Wijewardena et al. 2010). However, this has not been proven.
History may be repeating:
Centuries ago, the NCP region was home to a successful agricultural-based society. It had thousands of man-made
irrigations tanks (reservoirs) to support human needs, including agriculture. However, over a period of about two centuries,
the region was abandoned by the ruling kings and inhabitants, who moved from one region to another. For example, after
abandoning Anuradhapura, people moved to Pollonnaruwa, then to Kurunegala, Dambadeniya, and Yapahuwa (Rajapakse
2013, Wimalawansa 2015). Historians believe that such drastic migration of people and moving of the capital cities from
region to region was to protect kings from foreign invaders.
It has been documented that one of the key strategies used by the south Indian invaders in Sri Lanka was to destroy the vast
ancient irrigation systems in the NCP. The repeated destruction of large reservoirs devastated the livelihood of local people
and their agriculture and food supply. Because most of the land in the NCP region is flat, failure to repair these massive
man-made dams in a timely manner led to stagnation of water across the affected region (Wimalawansa 2015). This led to a
pandemic of malaria in the region. In the absence of mosquito control programmes and anti-malarial medications during that
era, peasants and rulers had no choice but to flee from region to region, first within the NCP, and then to central and southern
regions of the country. Thousands of cascade ancient tanks and irrigation systems were abandoned and overgrown with
jungle.
What is important is that all of these regions (kingdoms) abandoned at that time are now affected with CKDmfo. During the
mid-20th century, people were incentivised to move to this region, but the colonisation was carried out with little attention to
human needs. The regions are now the epicentre of CKDmfo (Wimalawansa 2015). These historic facts raise a number of
questions, including what is the real reason for the abandonment of this region centuries ago. It is not known if the migration
was caused by a pandemic of malaria or if the region was badly affected with a different serious disease similar to CKDmfo
or something else. It is not clear whether this is a sheer coincidence or history is repeating.
IV. STEPS TO BE TAKEN TO PREVENT THE SPREAD OF THIS DISEASE
Provision of and affordable access to clean water are essential to keeping a nation healthy. Lack of clean water and safe
sanitation increases the incidences of communicable and non-communicable disease. In Southeast Asian countries, 8.5% of
deaths are caused by diarrhoea; 88% of those deaths result from poor sanitation and dirty water (WHO and UNICEF)
(WHO/UNICEF 2010). While basic scientists solve most of the health issues, health and engineering professionals
implement preventative methods (Jayasinghe 2012).
Various aspects of detailed recommendations for the prevention and eradication of this deadly disease from Sri Lanka were
presented in three recent reviews on this subject (Wimalawansa 2014, Wimalawansa 2015, Wimalawansa 2015). Based on
current knowledge, we recommend implementation of additional broader steps to prevent CKDmfo:
1. Collect relevant data from the Divisional Secretariat/Grama Niladhari divisions where CKDmfo is prevalent. This
could be accomplished with the Grama Niladharis, Samurdhi, and Development Assistants in Divisional Secretariats
in collaboration with the Ministry of Health offices.
2. Conduct awareness programmes on water quality and its effect on CKDmfo in schools in the affected provinces and
include nutrition, nature studies, and environmental protection in the school curricula, in collaboration with the
Department of Education.
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3. The inequalities in the supply of drinking water should be overcome by implementing a programme to distribute
safe water to all in the affected and surrounding areas. Install reverse osmosis (RO) plants in all affected and
surrounding villages and use rainwater collections to supplement freshwater. In addition to supplying clean water,
authorities in provincial governments also must be accountable for monitoring drinking water quality.
4. Clean drinking water and safe sanitary facilities are basic human rights and should be provided as a priority not only
for the NCP but for the entire country.
5. Encourage farmers to use compost and other organic methods of farming, while reducing the reliance on inorganic
fertilisers through gradually reducing the fertiliser subsidy.
6. Enact clean water and clean air acts for Sri Lanka and enforce strict environmental protection laws in the country.
7. Conduct a prospective, multi-disciplinary, comprehensive, long-term research study across the entire region to
identify the causal factor(s) of CKDmfo and its genesis.
8. Implement a broader educational programme on the responsible use of agrochemicals, the use of protective gear
during the handling of chemicals, protecting the environment, and consuming a balanced diet.
9. Initiate a web-based, real-time, GIS-guided, web- or cloud-based surveillance programme, with interactive maps,
across the entire region.
10. Establish a fund to assist the patients and their families to procure the necessary services, medicine, and travel to
hospitals for dialysis and to support the education of children whose families are affected by the disease.
11. Establish a single, new legal authority for the prevention and eradication of CKDmfo; the entity should be a
government-funded, fully independent from ministries. CKD-Eradication Authority must have the authority to plan,
coordinate, raise funds, and implement all CKDmfo programmes in the country.
V. CONCLUSION
Since the mid-1990s, a major, non-infectious epidemic of chronic kidney disease of multifactorial origin (CKDmfo) has been
reported from a number of provinces in Sri Lanka. The disease predominantly affects agricultural regions in the dry zone.
Most of the affected families consume water from shallow wells, tube wells, or streams, which get seepage surface waters
from the Mahaweli River, the longest river in the country.
A number of reservoirs supply irrigated water to nearly 365,000 hectares in the dry zone via the Mahaweli Development
Programme. Over the past three decades, Mahaweli River water has become polluted with various compounds, including
phosphates, which coming from the excessive use of phosphate fertilisers in the hill country (Wimalawansa 2015). It is
speculated that drinking water from the Mahaweli River is contaminated with various pollutants, which may contribute to the
development of CKDmfo. However, the levels of phosphate (less than 0.15 mg/L) in the Mahaweli River and the reservoirs
fed by it can cause ecological imbalance but are not high enough to cause direct harm to human health.
There are large areas in the country affected with CKDmfo outside the Mahaweli water-fed localities, including Polpithigama
in Kurunagala district, Mahiyangana in Badulla district, Trincomalee, and Vavuniya. In addition, there is no scientific
evidence supporting that consuming Mahaweli River water causes CKDmfo. Thus, despite the high phosphate levels and
polluted water, it is unlikely that water from the Mahaweli River itself is directly related to CKDmfo in Sri Lanka.
Nevertheless, excess phosphates in the Mahaweli River may be causing the algae blooms and cyanobacterial growth in NCP
reservoirs. Because polluted water causes harm to aquatic lives and the ecology, governments and society must take
responsibility and initiate actions to protect and preserve the precious watersheds, curb the overuse of agrochemicals, and
preserve water quality and the environment for current and future generations.
CKDmfo is affecting the social and economic life of a large number of people in the country. The families of those who are
affected by this disease are in a desperate situation. It is necessary that the basic recommendations indicated here are
implemented as early as possible as the first step toward preventing this deadly disease. It is also essential to identify
sustainable solutions to the environmental degradation and consequent socio-economic and medical problems in the NCP and
entire country.
Conflicts of interest: There is no funding associated with this study, and the authors have no conflicts of interest.
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