The document summarizes key aspects of ancient Egyptian cosmologies from Heliopolis, Memphis, and Thebes. It reveals that while the cosmologies had local variations, they all regarded the gods' power in creation as inseparable. Additionally, they served to explain the origins of the physical universe as well as philosophical foundations. Specifically, the cosmologies reveal Egyptian views of the gods as creators, the pharaoh's role in upholding ma'at (order), and the importance of fertility represented by the annual flooding of the Nile.
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A Brief Comparison Of Ancient Egyptian Cosmogonies
1. RELS584 (Religions of the Ancient Near East)
Essay 1
Karel Giffen (220159844)
âCritically compare at least two of the ancient Egyptian cosmologies being Heliopolis, Memphis, and Thebes.
What do they reveal about ancient Egyptian views regarding the origins and nature of the gods, humanity,
and the cosmos?â
Ancient Egyptian cosmologies can vary depending on time, place, and the individual
localised loyalties of various Egyptian cities and regions.1
What is reasonable, however, is that
despite minor localised differences, all ancient Egyptian cosmologies regarded the
inseparability of deific power as mirrored through the divine act of creation as sacrosanct. 2
Moreover, such cosmologies are perhaps not intended as a literal explanation for the origins of
the universe, though this is perhaps modern academic objectivity, but rather serve to explain
not only the origins of the physical universe, but the foundations of key ideologies and
philosophies; an exercise in curiosity fundamental and common to all ancient peoples.3
The
cosmologies of Heliopolis, Memphis, and Thebes are amongst the most well attested of ancient
Egyptian creation myths, and it is from among these cosmologies that the most reasonably
confident deductions concerning ancient Egyptian beliefs around the origins and nature of the
gods, humanity, and the cosmos can be gleaned. Such beliefs include the role of myth as a
unifying force over the Egyptian peoples, especially during times of turmoil,4
the enduring
impermeability of the forces of djet and neheh,5
the primacy of the Pharaoh as a champion of
maâat, an enduring force from creation,6
and the importance of fecundity and prosperity in an
1
David A. Leeming, Creation Myths of the World: An Encyclopedia (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2009), 103.
2
Glenn S. Holland, Gods in the Desert: Religions of the Ancient Near East (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield
Publishers, Inc., 2009), 18.
3
Donald B. Redford, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, vol. 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001),
469.
4
Geraldine Pinch, Egyptian Myth: A Very Short Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 51.
5
Holland, Gods in the Desert, 19.
6
Henri Frankfort, Kingship & the Gods: A Study of Ancient Near Eastern Religion as the Integration of Society &
Nature (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), 51.
2. otherwise arid geography dependent on the reliable and regular inundation of the Nile, by
which the ritual acts of the gods and goddesses become symbolic of fertility and the
continuation of life and agriculture in Egypt.7
It is through discussion of direct evidence from
the ancient Egyptian cosmologies and other relevant primary texts that an understanding of
their contributions to understanding of these mentioned themes shall be garnered.
The cosmology of Heliopolis demonstrates the concept of myth as a unifying force for the
Egyptians, especially during times of turmoil, through the smiting of the serpent Apophis. In
this episode, Atum having conceived the universe, the serpent Apophis stands as a symbol of
abhorrence in an otherwise perfect world conceived of Atum, âhe [Apophis] is one who has
fallen into into the flames, Apophis (Apep), with a knife on his head. He is not to be seenâ.8
Having rent Apophisâ ruin to the flames, Atum declares this victory in the name of the god Ra,
ââŠO Rey Behold, I have driven away your enemyâŠâ, before exhorting Ra in order that he, in
the same way that Atum smote Apophis, âdrive away, consume, and burn-up every enemy of
Pharaohâ, further declaring that the name of every enemy of the Pharaoh, including their
families, be inscribed on wax papyrus and ritualistically burnt,9
symbolic of Atumâs triumph
over Apophis, the primordial enemy. Thus, Apophis, born of the afterbirth of Ra, is symbolic
not only of a spiritual enemy, who stands as the direct counterpart to the power of Maâat â
natural, eternal, divine justice â but also comes to be symbolic of the Pharaoh, and thus Egyptâs
physical enemies; rebellions, usurpers, and foreign invaders.10
The symbolism that the serpent
Apohpis should represent Egyptâs physical and divine foes is more explicit in the cosmology
of Thebes. âThe foe has been speared⊠the rebels are massacred by his [Amun-Raâs] swordâŠ
the enemies of the Lord of All are overthrown, his foes in heaven and earth are no more⊠You
are triumphant, Amon-Reyâ. 11
Thus, this account differs in that instead of Atum slaying
Apophis in the name of Ra, it is the twin god Amun-Ra himself who smites Apophis. Moreover,
7
Holland, Gods in the Desert, 26.
8
âThe Cosmology of Heliopolisâ, Brian E. Colless, accessed November 3, 2021,
https://sites.google.com/site/collesseum/heliopolis.
9
Ibid.
10
Mark D. Janzen, âThe Iconography of Humiliation: The Depiction & Treatment of Bound Foreigners in New
Kingdom Egyptâ (PhD diss., University of Memphis, 2013), 17.
11
âThe Cosmology of Thebesâ, Brien E. Colless, accessed November 13, 2021,
https://sites.google.com/site/collesseum/thebes.
4. horizon of heaven. Mine is yesterday, and I know tomorrow. Who is he? Yesterday is Osiris;
tomorrow is Rey, on that day when the enemies of the Lord of the Universe are annihilated and
his Son Horus is made rulerâ.17
This passage demonstrates a duality between Atum and Ra,
whose existence is both dependent and interdependent on one another. Both appear as creators
of the cosmos and whose myth cycles are both transformative and transcendent. That is, Atum
and Ra appear as the same solar god of creation, yet in their myth cycle, they transform
depending on their function within the cosmos, culminating in the final assimilation with Osiris
as god of the dead following their murder at the hands of Seth, after which Atum and Ra are
evenged by their son Horus. âAtum in his sun disk⊠Yesterday is Osiris, tomorrow is Ra, on
that day on which the rebels against the Lord of All are slaughtered and when his son Horus
was appointedâ.18
The role of Pharaoh as preserver of djet and neheh is further demonstrated
in the Memphite cosmology, whereby the 8th
century BC Pharaoh Shabaka is credited with
restoring monuments and inscriptions dedicated to the god Ptah, of whom held a cult centre at
Memphis. âHis Majesty copied this text out anew in the House of his father Ptah-South-of-His-
Wall, having found it to be a work of the ancestors, which had become worm-eaten, so tht it
could not be understood from the beginning to the ending. His Majesty copied it out anew⊠in
order that his name might endureâŠâ19
. Thus, throughout the cosmologies, the belief that the
Pharaoh is the direct son of the gods is consistent, however wat may differ from region to
region is the exact god in question from whom Pharaoh is descent. During the 6th
Dynasty of
the Old Kingdom (OK), the relationship between Pharaoh and the solar deity, and this deityâs
status as a âroyal godâ is strengthened through extensive royal patronage at Heliopolis, cult-
centre of Ra and Atum during the OK.20
Moreover, through continued architectural investment
at Heliopolis throughout the OK, this demonstrates that Egyptâs early Pharaohs were eager to
consolidate their rule through capitalising on the notion of a divine kingship,21
whereby despite
17
âThe Cosmology of Heliopolisâ.
18
âBook of the Dead Chapter 17â, University College London, accessed November 6, 2021,
https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/literature/religious/bd17.html.
19
âThe Cosmology of Memphisâ, Brian E. Colless, accessed 14 November, 2021,
https://sites.google.com/site/collesseum/memphis.
20
Massimiliano Nuzzolo & JaromĂr KrejÄĂ, âHeliopolis & the solar cult in the third millennium BCâ, Egypt & the
Levant 27 (2017), 375.
21
Lisa K. Sabbahy, âBackground to ancient Egyptâ, in Kingship, Power, & Legitimacy in Ancient Egypt: From the
Old Kingdom to the Middle Kingdom, ed. Lisa K. Sabbahy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2020), 22.
5. occupying only the mortal realm of history, the Pharaoh and their descendants come to be
viewed as the son of Ra, and thus taking their place within the cyclical nature of neheh and
djet; physically temporal, yet the institution of Pharaonic rule as part of Egyptâs eternal cosmic
order and the Pharaohâs role as defender of the god very much consolidated, this function
having been exemplified through Pharaoh Shabakaâs restoration of Ptahite monuments, thus
ensuring that Shabakaâs reputation within neheh and that of his ancestors is protected, but as
well as contributing to the overall obligations of djet.
The motif of Pharaoh as defender of maâat is well attested throughout ancient Egypt. Maâat
is usually conveniently translated as, âtruthâ, or the, âright orderâ, but of which was inherent
since creation and of which the Pharaoh is obliged to uphold.22
Moreover, to obey maâat was
to see Egypt prosper; to deny maâat was to see Egypt subject to isft, conveniently translated as
chaos.23
Pharaohs would therefore go to great lengths to defend maâat and leave instructions
for their successors in order to maintain Egyptâs djet, even if an individual Pharaohâs reign and
thus their passage through neheh had come to pass in order that they may be remembered
positively for their contribution to Egypt. For example, during the OK, a common royal epithet
was, âpossessor of maâatâ, or, âhe who arises in maâatâ.24
The Instructions of Kagmeni dictate,
âdo maâat for the King, for maâat is what the King lovesâ.25
Furthermore, the Instruction of
Ptahotep (6th
Dynasty) indicate that, âthere is punishment for him who passes over its [maâatâs]
laws.26
Additionally the Instructions for Merikare (9th
Dynasty) indicate, âdo maâat so that you
may endure on earthâ.27
Maâat is a powerful concept associated with justice, not dissimilar to
that of other ancient cultures with similar beliefs. For example, the ancient Greek concept of
ÎŽÎčÎșÎź (dike), refers to the god-given concept of divine and mortal justice as posited by Hesiod
in the Theogony.28
Moreover, the Sanskrit à€à€Ÿà€żà€€ (dharma) refers to a legal and moral duty based
22
Frankfort, Kingship & the Gods, 51.
23
Redford, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, vol. 2, 319.
24
Ibid.
25
Ibid.
26
Ibid.
27
Ibid.
28
James Diggle, et. al., The Cambridge Greek Lexicon, vol. 1: A â I (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021),
379.
6. on oneâs social status, and is more commonly understood as natural or divine order.29
Moreover, that the king of these equivalent civilisations should be a defender of this natural
law and order is not unique to Egypt either. For example, should the ancient (i.e., Mycenaean)
Greek FÎŹÎœÎ±ÎŸ (wanax, or king) defend ÎŽÎčÎșÎź, he assures his people continued prosperity and
divine favour under Zeus.30
In Vedic India, à€§à€źà€°à„à€Șà€żà€€ (dharmapati) translates as, âlord of dharmaâ,
and was a term reserved for both kings and Indra, father of gods, thus connecting and
associating the king with divine law and order mandated by the gods.31
Clearly, the concept of
kingship as guardian of a divine natural law and order is prevalent throughout the ancient
world. In terms of the Heliopolitan cosmology, however, maâat is often understood to be the
daughter of the god Ra or Atum,32
as it was he who created all living things, including gods, as
well as the foundations of cosmic order, âhe is Rey, who created the names of the parts of his
body; and thus brought into being the gods in his retinue. I [he is] am the irrepressible oneâ.33
The Pharaoh, as son of Ra, and by extension, brother of the goddess Maâat being Raâs daughter,
was thus said to be especially imbued with maâat and thus held a particular responsibility to
act justly in order to defend maâat.34
Therefore, ancient Egyptian cosmologies such as from
Heliopolis serve to explain the origin of important concepts such as maâat as having always
existed, and begat from Ra or Atum as the first god. Maâat lays the divine foundations for
divine and mortal law and natural order which must be protected in order to save Egypt from
chaos and thus takes a prevalent place in not only cosmology, but ancient Egyptian wisdom
literature as referenced earlier involving words of advice on the importance and defence of
maâat from one Pharaoh to the next.
Fertility is another significant motif amongst ancient Egyptian cosmologies, and the Nile
as giver of life to the ancient Egyptians represents both forces of male and female fertility and
29
Antonia M. Ruppel, The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017),
35.
30
âThe Role of the Mycenaean Wanaxâ, Thomas G. Palaima, accessed 8 November, 2021,
https://sites.utexas.edu/scripts/files/2020/05/1995-TGP-TheNatureOfTheMycenaeanWanax.pdf.
31
Stephanie W. Jamison & Joel P. Brereton, The áčgveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India, vol. 1 (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2014), 624.
32
Frankfort, Kingship & the Gods, 51.
33
âThe Cosmology of Heliopolisâ.
34
Redford, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, vol. 2, 319.
7. sexual energy. The annual flooding of the Nile represents a vigorous and forceful maculine
energy reminiscent of the god Atumâs sacred masturbation by which he ejaculated the world
into being,35
âAtum is he who created by his masturbation in On (Heliopolis). He took his
phallus in his fist and aroused desire. Then a pair of twins was born, Shu and Tefnut⊠You
spat out what was Shu (god of air), and spurted out what was Tefnut (god of moistureâ36
.
Moreover, if the flooding of the Nile represented the potent masculine energy resplendent of
Atumâs divine masturbation, then the Nileâs subsequent period of drought for the remainder of
the year can be interpreted as feminine, for drained of the god Atumâs seminal fluid, the
yawning banks of the Nile were in dire need of refilling and craved replenishing in order to
become a vessel of masculine creative energy once more.37
Such a perspective on the duality
of male and female creative and sexual energy is attested in other ancient Egyptian literature,
such as the wisdom piece The Instruction of Ptahotep (6th
Dynasty). In this piece, a husband is
exhorted to, âlove your [his] wife with ardour, fill her belly, clothe her back, ointment soothes
her body. Gladden her heart as long as you live, she is a fertile field for her lordâ.38
Thus, from
the Pyramid Texts, the Pharaoh was seen as the giver of fertility and preserver of all; âhe fills
the Two lands with his strength, he is Lifeâ,39
so too did ordinary Egyptians come to represent
this same force of masculine and feminine fertile energy, provided they were able to follow the
sound advice in the wisdom literature of Ptahotep as referenced previously.
In summary, ancient Egyptian cosmologies can vary significantly in time and place of
composition, however they hold similar themes, beliefs, and ideologies. Such beliefs held in
common include the idea that the Pharaoh should be a unifying and powerful force for ancient
Egypt as a symbol of divine and physical defence. This is exemplified through the allegory of
the smiting of Apophis, consistent with both the Heliopolitan and Theban cosmologies,
whereby Apophis represents a divine enemy contrary to maâat, but can also be symbolic of
35
Ashley N. Dawson, âReversal of gender in ancient Egyptian mythology: Discovering the Secrets of Androgynyâ,
Oglethorpe Journal of Undergraduate Research 1, no. 1 (2013): 3.
36
âThe Cosmology of Heliopolisâ.
37
Dawson, âReversal of gender in ancient Egyptian mythologyâ, 3.
38
Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings, vol. 1: The Old & Middle Kingdoms
(Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2006), 88.
39
Margaret A. Murray, Egyptian Religious Poetry (London: John Murray, 1949), 40.
8. Pharaohâs struggles against foreign enemies.40
These myths differ in that in the Heliopolitan
account, it is Atum who slays Apophis, and in the Theban, it is Amun who slays Apophis.41
This is a sound example of the localised nature of Egyptian creation myths. The eternal role of
djet and neheh are common throughout the Theban and Memphite cosmologies, whereby
Pharaoh exists as both a temporal and historical figure, yet their role as divine champion is
eternal. This is reflected in Pharaoh Shakabaâs restoration of Ptahite monuments and
inscriptions in the name of this god and of the Pharaohâs ancestors.42
In doing so, he secures
both the historical and eternal legacy of himself, his ancestors, and the god Ptah. The role of
Pharaoh as defender of maâat is discussed in the Heliopolitan cosmology, as well as wisdom
literature of varying dynasties which both remind that the god Ra is the eternal creator of the
gods, of humankind, law, and order, and that pharaohs will do well to live by maâat and instruct
their heirs as to how to protect maâat as well.43
Finally, the role of fertility and sexual power is
prominent in the Heliopolitan cosmology, as it is through the god Atumâs divine masturbation
that creation is achieved.44
Atumâs ejaculation is resplendent of the annual flooding of the Nile,
whereby it is this masculine energy that fertilises the parched, yawning banks of the Nile each
year to ensure life.45
Such beliefs around fertility also make their way into the wisdom literature
of ancient Egypt, such as the Instruction of Ptahotep, whereby husbands are directed to care
for, provide for, and to lend to their wives their generative energy.46
In summary, the ancient
Egyptian cosmologies describe a rich society whereby divine forces are eternal and must be
upheld by all, most of all the Pharaoh.
40
âThe Cosmology of Heliopolisâ.
41
âThe Cosmology of Thebesâ.
42
âThe Cosmology of Memphisâ.
43
Redford, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, vol. 2, 319.
44
âThe Cosmology of Heliopolisâ.
45
Dawson, âReversal of gender in ancient Egyptian mythologyâ, 3.
46
Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, 88.
9. Bibliography
Callender, Gae. âThe Middle Kingdom Renaissanceâ. In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt,
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