This document discusses different types of sensors used in robotics. It begins by defining what a sensor is and the basic principle of transduction where a physical property is converted to an electrical signal. It then covers various transduction methods for sensing different physical properties like temperature, light, sound, position etc. It classifies sensors as internal state sensors that measure robot parameters and external sensors that observe the environment. Examples of commonly used sensors for robot navigation like infrared, ultrasonic, touch and vision sensors are provided along with their applications and limitations. The document provides a taxonomy for selecting appropriate sensors based on task requirements and sensor attributes.
This document provides an introduction to sensors used in robotics. It discusses the need for robots to incorporate sensors to enable them to work in unstructured environments and interact safely with humans. Various types of sensors are described, including proximity sensors, tactile sensors, vision sensors, and others. Proximity sensors discussed include photoelectric, inductive, capacitive, and ultrasonic sensors. Tactile sensors can detect properties like pressure and texture. Vision sensors allow robots to process images. The document also covers topics like sensor classification, selection criteria, and specific sensors like bend sensors, infrared sensors, and ultrasonic rangefinders.
This document discusses different types of industrial sensors used in automatic control systems. It describes contact versus non-contact sensors, with contact sensors having physical contact with the measured parameter and non-contact or proximity sensors not requiring contact. The document then covers various types of industrial sensors including proximity, position, force, vibration, inductive, capacitive, and optical sensors. It provides examples of applications and working principles for each sensor type.
Proximity sensors are contactless sensors that detect the presence or movement of nearby objects without physically touching them. They work by sensing electromagnetic fields (inductive), capacitance changes (capacitive), ultrasonic waves (ultrasonic), or infrared light (IR). Proximity sensors have a long service life since they have no moving parts, can detect objects in various environments and conditions, and are used in a wide range of applications including smartphones, industrial automation, and more. The ideal proximity sensor quickly and accurately detects objects without being affected by surface properties or environmental factors.
This document discusses different types of robotic sensors. It begins by differentiating between proximity sensors, which detect how close an object is, and tactile sensors, which detect properties like touch and force. It then lists five desirable features for robotic sensors: accuracy, precision, operating range, speed of response, and reliability. The document explains how ultrasonic sensors work using diagrams, emitting sound waves and measuring their return time to compute distances.
This document provides an overview of sensors used in robots. It discusses that sensors allow robots to perceive their environment and perform tasks reliably. The document then describes various types of internal sensors like position, velocity, force sensors and external sensors like proximity, range finding, color and motion sensors. It provides details on specific position sensors like potentiometers, optical encoders, LVDTs and magnetic sensors. The document also discusses velocity sensors such as encoders and tachometers. Finally, it mentions new developments in sensor technology including MEMS, MOEMS and smart sensors, and provides an example of the humanoid robot ASIMO which utilizes various sensors for functions like vision, balance and intelligence.
Acoustic and range sensors are devices that convert sound or electromagnetic waves into electrical signals. Acoustic sensors detect sound waves using a diaphragm that vibrates and converts the motion into electrical signals through piezoelectricity, electromagnetism, or capacitance. Range sensors measure distance by emitting a signal and calculating the time or other properties of the reflected signal. Common types include ultrasonic, infrared, laser, and radar sensors. These sensors have applications in robotics, automation, transportation, and more due to their ability to detect objects and environments.
Proximity sensors detect objects without physical contact using various technologies like inductive, capacitive, ultrasonic and optical. Inductive sensors detect metallic objects using a coil and oscillator to create a magnetic field. Capacitive sensors detect metallic and nonmetallic objects by measuring capacitance changes between the sensor and object. Ultrasonic sensors use sound waves above human hearing range, while optical sensors use light beams reflected off objects. Key features of good sensors include precision, accuracy, response speed, operating range, reliability, easy calibration and low cost.
This document provides an introduction to sensors used in robotics. It discusses the need for robots to incorporate sensors to enable them to work in unstructured environments and interact safely with humans. Various types of sensors are described, including proximity sensors, tactile sensors, vision sensors, and others. Proximity sensors discussed include photoelectric, inductive, capacitive, and ultrasonic sensors. Tactile sensors can detect properties like pressure and texture. Vision sensors allow robots to process images. The document also covers topics like sensor classification, selection criteria, and specific sensors like bend sensors, infrared sensors, and ultrasonic rangefinders.
This document discusses different types of industrial sensors used in automatic control systems. It describes contact versus non-contact sensors, with contact sensors having physical contact with the measured parameter and non-contact or proximity sensors not requiring contact. The document then covers various types of industrial sensors including proximity, position, force, vibration, inductive, capacitive, and optical sensors. It provides examples of applications and working principles for each sensor type.
Proximity sensors are contactless sensors that detect the presence or movement of nearby objects without physically touching them. They work by sensing electromagnetic fields (inductive), capacitance changes (capacitive), ultrasonic waves (ultrasonic), or infrared light (IR). Proximity sensors have a long service life since they have no moving parts, can detect objects in various environments and conditions, and are used in a wide range of applications including smartphones, industrial automation, and more. The ideal proximity sensor quickly and accurately detects objects without being affected by surface properties or environmental factors.
This document discusses different types of robotic sensors. It begins by differentiating between proximity sensors, which detect how close an object is, and tactile sensors, which detect properties like touch and force. It then lists five desirable features for robotic sensors: accuracy, precision, operating range, speed of response, and reliability. The document explains how ultrasonic sensors work using diagrams, emitting sound waves and measuring their return time to compute distances.
This document provides an overview of sensors used in robots. It discusses that sensors allow robots to perceive their environment and perform tasks reliably. The document then describes various types of internal sensors like position, velocity, force sensors and external sensors like proximity, range finding, color and motion sensors. It provides details on specific position sensors like potentiometers, optical encoders, LVDTs and magnetic sensors. The document also discusses velocity sensors such as encoders and tachometers. Finally, it mentions new developments in sensor technology including MEMS, MOEMS and smart sensors, and provides an example of the humanoid robot ASIMO which utilizes various sensors for functions like vision, balance and intelligence.
Acoustic and range sensors are devices that convert sound or electromagnetic waves into electrical signals. Acoustic sensors detect sound waves using a diaphragm that vibrates and converts the motion into electrical signals through piezoelectricity, electromagnetism, or capacitance. Range sensors measure distance by emitting a signal and calculating the time or other properties of the reflected signal. Common types include ultrasonic, infrared, laser, and radar sensors. These sensors have applications in robotics, automation, transportation, and more due to their ability to detect objects and environments.
Proximity sensors detect objects without physical contact using various technologies like inductive, capacitive, ultrasonic and optical. Inductive sensors detect metallic objects using a coil and oscillator to create a magnetic field. Capacitive sensors detect metallic and nonmetallic objects by measuring capacitance changes between the sensor and object. Ultrasonic sensors use sound waves above human hearing range, while optical sensors use light beams reflected off objects. Key features of good sensors include precision, accuracy, response speed, operating range, reliability, easy calibration and low cost.
This document discusses sensors used in IoT applications. It begins by defining sensors as input devices that convert physical quantities into electrical signals. Common sensor types are then described, including temperature, proximity, infrared, pressure, light, ultrasonic, gas, humidity, tilt, and flow sensors. The document classifies sensors as active or passive, and analog or digital. It provides examples of real-world sensor applications in aircraft flight control systems. Overall, the document provides a high-level overview of different sensor types and their uses in IoT and automated systems.
The document discusses various types of proximity sensors including inductive, capacitive, photoelectric, magnetic, infrared, and ultrasonic sensors. It provides definitions and descriptions of how each sensor works, including common components, detection ranges, and applications. For example, it explains that inductive sensors detect metallic objects using magnetic fields while capacitive sensors detect non-metallic objects by measuring changes in capacitance. Common applications mentioned include parking sensors, engine sensors, and conveyor systems.
Introduction to the importance of sensors in robotics.pptxsyeedsalmansakib
This document provides an overview of sensors for robotics. It defines a sensor as a device that detects physical variables in a system or environment. Sensors are classified by the physical quantities they measure, including mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, optical, and chemical quantities. The document discusses specifications of sensors such as accuracy, resolution, sensitivity, and dynamic range. It also covers attributes like operating principle, data format, intelligence level, and environmental durability. Sensors are categorized as active or passive, and exteroceptive, proprioceptive, or interoceptive based on their function. Finally, examples of simple practical sensors that can be purchased are provided.
Robot sensors allow robots to sense their environment and interact with it. The document discusses different types of sensors like infrared, ultrasonic, visual, and chemical sensors. It explains what each sensor can detect such as light, sound, temperature, and chemicals. Examples of specific sensors are provided along with their functions and typical costs. The document aims to give an overview of the variety of sensors available for robots and what capabilities they provide.
unit-2-sensors (1) and its types is device that receives and responds to a si...DrPArivalaganASSTPRO
Robot sensors allow robots to sense their environment and interact with it. The document discusses different types of sensors like touch, vision, sound, and chemical sensors. It explains what each sensor type can detect and provides examples. Common sensors mentioned include infrared, ultrasonic, color, and magnetic sensors. The document aims to give an overview of the variety of sensors available and how they enable robot abilities like awareness, interaction, goal-seeking, and self-preservation.
This document provides an overview of sensors for robotics applications. It discusses why robots need sensors to collect information about their environment through sensing, planning and acting. It describes different types of sensors categorized by their working mechanism, including active and passive sensors, exteroceptive and proprioceptive sensors, and sensors based on different mediums like electromagnetic radiation, sound, touch, and chemicals. Common sensors like encoders, tilt sensors, light sensors, temperature sensors, potentiometers, and cameras are presented with examples. The document concludes with questions about applying various sensors in robotics.
This document discusses microwave sensors and their applications. Microwave sensors use electromagnetic waves in the microwave frequency range to sense targets and environments. They have advantages like all-weather operation and the ability to penetrate materials. The document describes different types of microwave sensors like Doppler radar sensors, continuous wave radar sensors, and imaging radar sensors. It also discusses applications in areas such as weather forecasting, automotive systems, medical imaging, and more. Finally, it covers future trends in microwave sensor technology such as miniaturization and higher frequencies.
1. Sensors are devices that detect physical parameters and convert them into signals that can be processed by systems. Common sensors measure temperature, pressure, velocity, rotation, flow, and other variables.
2. Sensors are needed in industry to monitor machinery and prevent failures, in the environment to detect hazards, and for safety and security applications like fire detection.
3. Common sensors used in robotics include position sensors, proximity sensors, range sensors, tactile sensors, and force sensors. Position sensors like LVDTs and RVDTs convert linear or angular displacement into electrical signals.
Photoelectric sensors detect objects using light. They have a light emitter and receiver - when light is interrupted by an object, the receiver detects the change and outputs an electrical signal. There are different types of photoelectric sensors including through-beam, retroreflective, and proximity sensors. Through-beam sensors detect when a light beam between an emitter and receiver is blocked. Retroreflective sensors bounce light back from a reflector to the receiver. Proximity sensors detect when light is reflected off an object and into the receiver.
Photoelectric sensors detect objects using light. They have a light emitter and receiver. When light is interrupted or reflected by an object, the receiver detects the change and outputs an electrical signal. There are different types including through-beam, retroreflective, and proximity sensors. Through-beam sensors detect when a light beam is blocked between separate emitter and receiver. Retroreflective sensors use a reflector to bounce light back to the receiver located with the emitter. Proximity sensors detect when light reflects off an object and into the receiver, which is located with the emitter.
This document provides an overview of infrared sensors. It discusses that infrared sensors can detect infrared radiation emitted or reflected by objects and are used to sense characteristics of the surrounding environment. The key elements of an infrared detection system are an infrared transmitter, transmission medium, and infrared receiver. Common applications of infrared sensors include proximity sensors, item counters, burglar alarms, and human body detection. The advantages are low power requirements and simple circuitry, while the disadvantages include a line of sight requirement and short range.
Radar using ultrasonic sensor and arduino.pptxrobel38
This document describes a radar system project using an ultrasonic sensor. It contains sections on the components, block diagram, circuit diagram, working principle, and applications. The system uses an Arduino, ultrasonic sensor, and servo motor to detect objects and determine their distance, position, and angle. It improves on earlier designs by powering components from the microcontroller and displaying output with polar coordinates. The document discusses how radar technology detects objects like aircraft and its uses in applications such as air traffic control and defense systems.
The document discusses different types of proximity sensors. It focuses on inductive, capacitive, and optical/photoelectric proximity sensors. For inductive sensors, it describes how they detect metallic objects using electromagnetic fields to induce eddy currents. Capacitive sensors can detect both metallic and non-metallic objects by measuring changes in capacitance. Optical proximity sensors use a light emitter and detector, and can operate in through-beam, retroreflective, or diffuse reflection modes to detect objects. Common applications of proximity sensors include mobile devices, conveyor systems, parking systems, and more.
This document provides information on various sensor types including their working principles, specifications, and applications. It discusses color sensors, DHT11 humidity and temperature sensors, PIR motion sensors, LDR light sensors, joystick sensors, RFID sensors, ultrasonic sensors, IR sensors, gas sensors, fingerprint sensors, and soil moisture sensors. For each sensor, it describes the key components, how it detects the measured property, technical specifications, and common uses.
This document discusses different types of proximity sensors, including inductive, capacitive, ultrasonic, and optical proximity sensors. It provides details on the working principles, components, advantages, and applications of each sensor type. Inductive proximity sensors detect metallic objects using a coil and oscillator. Capacitive sensors detect both metallic and non-metallic objects by measuring capacitance changes. Ultrasonic sensors use ultrasonic sound waves to detect objects, while optical sensors use infrared or visible light and can operate in a through-beam or reflective configuration. The document concludes by noting common applications of proximity sensors in machinery, automotive, and other industrial sectors.
The document discusses sensors used in aircraft autopilot systems. An automatic flight control system uses various sensors to monitor speed, height, position, doors, obstacles, fuel and maneuvers. A computer receives data from these sensors, compares it to pre-designed values, and provides control signals to engines, flaps, and rudders to enable smooth autonomous flight. Sensors provide input to computers, which are the system's brains, and mechanics provide the outputs to control aircraft systems.
Sensors are physical devices that measure physical quantities like light, temperature, and pressure. They provide input to a robot's perceptual system, including internal proprioception and external exteroception. Sensors are subject to noise and errors due to inherent uncertainties in physical measurement. Sensors can be simple, like switches that detect open or closed circuits, or complex, requiring higher levels of processing like signal processing or computation to extract useful information. Examples include bump sensors, odometers, sonars, speech recognition, and computer vision. Sensor inputs allow robots to perceive the world and determine what actions to take.
Sensors are devices that detect physical phenomena and convert them into electrical signals. They are classified based on their conversion phenomenon and output type. Common sensor types include temperature, light, pressure, motion, and gas sensors. Sensors play a crucial role in applications like industrial automation, healthcare, consumer electronics, and environmental monitoring by enabling real-time data collection and process monitoring. Recent research trends focus on developing sensors for IoT, flexible/wearable devices, nanotechnology, and machine learning applications.
The document discusses different types of sensors, their applications, and limitations. It describes several common sensor types including capacitive, magnetic, photocell, laser rangefinder, sonar, radar, Doppler effect, and passive thermal infrared sensors. Sensors are used across many industries including textiles to detect properties such as light, motion, pressure, and temperature. They have applications in machines, vehicles, manufacturing quality control, and medical and security devices.
This document discusses sensors used in IoT applications. It begins by defining sensors as input devices that convert physical quantities into electrical signals. Common sensor types are then described, including temperature, proximity, infrared, pressure, light, ultrasonic, gas, humidity, tilt, and flow sensors. The document classifies sensors as active or passive, and analog or digital. It provides examples of real-world sensor applications in aircraft flight control systems. Overall, the document provides a high-level overview of different sensor types and their uses in IoT and automated systems.
The document discusses various types of proximity sensors including inductive, capacitive, photoelectric, magnetic, infrared, and ultrasonic sensors. It provides definitions and descriptions of how each sensor works, including common components, detection ranges, and applications. For example, it explains that inductive sensors detect metallic objects using magnetic fields while capacitive sensors detect non-metallic objects by measuring changes in capacitance. Common applications mentioned include parking sensors, engine sensors, and conveyor systems.
Introduction to the importance of sensors in robotics.pptxsyeedsalmansakib
This document provides an overview of sensors for robotics. It defines a sensor as a device that detects physical variables in a system or environment. Sensors are classified by the physical quantities they measure, including mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, optical, and chemical quantities. The document discusses specifications of sensors such as accuracy, resolution, sensitivity, and dynamic range. It also covers attributes like operating principle, data format, intelligence level, and environmental durability. Sensors are categorized as active or passive, and exteroceptive, proprioceptive, or interoceptive based on their function. Finally, examples of simple practical sensors that can be purchased are provided.
Robot sensors allow robots to sense their environment and interact with it. The document discusses different types of sensors like infrared, ultrasonic, visual, and chemical sensors. It explains what each sensor can detect such as light, sound, temperature, and chemicals. Examples of specific sensors are provided along with their functions and typical costs. The document aims to give an overview of the variety of sensors available for robots and what capabilities they provide.
unit-2-sensors (1) and its types is device that receives and responds to a si...DrPArivalaganASSTPRO
Robot sensors allow robots to sense their environment and interact with it. The document discusses different types of sensors like touch, vision, sound, and chemical sensors. It explains what each sensor type can detect and provides examples. Common sensors mentioned include infrared, ultrasonic, color, and magnetic sensors. The document aims to give an overview of the variety of sensors available and how they enable robot abilities like awareness, interaction, goal-seeking, and self-preservation.
This document provides an overview of sensors for robotics applications. It discusses why robots need sensors to collect information about their environment through sensing, planning and acting. It describes different types of sensors categorized by their working mechanism, including active and passive sensors, exteroceptive and proprioceptive sensors, and sensors based on different mediums like electromagnetic radiation, sound, touch, and chemicals. Common sensors like encoders, tilt sensors, light sensors, temperature sensors, potentiometers, and cameras are presented with examples. The document concludes with questions about applying various sensors in robotics.
This document discusses microwave sensors and their applications. Microwave sensors use electromagnetic waves in the microwave frequency range to sense targets and environments. They have advantages like all-weather operation and the ability to penetrate materials. The document describes different types of microwave sensors like Doppler radar sensors, continuous wave radar sensors, and imaging radar sensors. It also discusses applications in areas such as weather forecasting, automotive systems, medical imaging, and more. Finally, it covers future trends in microwave sensor technology such as miniaturization and higher frequencies.
1. Sensors are devices that detect physical parameters and convert them into signals that can be processed by systems. Common sensors measure temperature, pressure, velocity, rotation, flow, and other variables.
2. Sensors are needed in industry to monitor machinery and prevent failures, in the environment to detect hazards, and for safety and security applications like fire detection.
3. Common sensors used in robotics include position sensors, proximity sensors, range sensors, tactile sensors, and force sensors. Position sensors like LVDTs and RVDTs convert linear or angular displacement into electrical signals.
Photoelectric sensors detect objects using light. They have a light emitter and receiver - when light is interrupted by an object, the receiver detects the change and outputs an electrical signal. There are different types of photoelectric sensors including through-beam, retroreflective, and proximity sensors. Through-beam sensors detect when a light beam between an emitter and receiver is blocked. Retroreflective sensors bounce light back from a reflector to the receiver. Proximity sensors detect when light is reflected off an object and into the receiver.
Photoelectric sensors detect objects using light. They have a light emitter and receiver. When light is interrupted or reflected by an object, the receiver detects the change and outputs an electrical signal. There are different types including through-beam, retroreflective, and proximity sensors. Through-beam sensors detect when a light beam is blocked between separate emitter and receiver. Retroreflective sensors use a reflector to bounce light back to the receiver located with the emitter. Proximity sensors detect when light reflects off an object and into the receiver, which is located with the emitter.
This document provides an overview of infrared sensors. It discusses that infrared sensors can detect infrared radiation emitted or reflected by objects and are used to sense characteristics of the surrounding environment. The key elements of an infrared detection system are an infrared transmitter, transmission medium, and infrared receiver. Common applications of infrared sensors include proximity sensors, item counters, burglar alarms, and human body detection. The advantages are low power requirements and simple circuitry, while the disadvantages include a line of sight requirement and short range.
Radar using ultrasonic sensor and arduino.pptxrobel38
This document describes a radar system project using an ultrasonic sensor. It contains sections on the components, block diagram, circuit diagram, working principle, and applications. The system uses an Arduino, ultrasonic sensor, and servo motor to detect objects and determine their distance, position, and angle. It improves on earlier designs by powering components from the microcontroller and displaying output with polar coordinates. The document discusses how radar technology detects objects like aircraft and its uses in applications such as air traffic control and defense systems.
The document discusses different types of proximity sensors. It focuses on inductive, capacitive, and optical/photoelectric proximity sensors. For inductive sensors, it describes how they detect metallic objects using electromagnetic fields to induce eddy currents. Capacitive sensors can detect both metallic and non-metallic objects by measuring changes in capacitance. Optical proximity sensors use a light emitter and detector, and can operate in through-beam, retroreflective, or diffuse reflection modes to detect objects. Common applications of proximity sensors include mobile devices, conveyor systems, parking systems, and more.
This document provides information on various sensor types including their working principles, specifications, and applications. It discusses color sensors, DHT11 humidity and temperature sensors, PIR motion sensors, LDR light sensors, joystick sensors, RFID sensors, ultrasonic sensors, IR sensors, gas sensors, fingerprint sensors, and soil moisture sensors. For each sensor, it describes the key components, how it detects the measured property, technical specifications, and common uses.
This document discusses different types of proximity sensors, including inductive, capacitive, ultrasonic, and optical proximity sensors. It provides details on the working principles, components, advantages, and applications of each sensor type. Inductive proximity sensors detect metallic objects using a coil and oscillator. Capacitive sensors detect both metallic and non-metallic objects by measuring capacitance changes. Ultrasonic sensors use ultrasonic sound waves to detect objects, while optical sensors use infrared or visible light and can operate in a through-beam or reflective configuration. The document concludes by noting common applications of proximity sensors in machinery, automotive, and other industrial sectors.
The document discusses sensors used in aircraft autopilot systems. An automatic flight control system uses various sensors to monitor speed, height, position, doors, obstacles, fuel and maneuvers. A computer receives data from these sensors, compares it to pre-designed values, and provides control signals to engines, flaps, and rudders to enable smooth autonomous flight. Sensors provide input to computers, which are the system's brains, and mechanics provide the outputs to control aircraft systems.
Sensors are physical devices that measure physical quantities like light, temperature, and pressure. They provide input to a robot's perceptual system, including internal proprioception and external exteroception. Sensors are subject to noise and errors due to inherent uncertainties in physical measurement. Sensors can be simple, like switches that detect open or closed circuits, or complex, requiring higher levels of processing like signal processing or computation to extract useful information. Examples include bump sensors, odometers, sonars, speech recognition, and computer vision. Sensor inputs allow robots to perceive the world and determine what actions to take.
Sensors are devices that detect physical phenomena and convert them into electrical signals. They are classified based on their conversion phenomenon and output type. Common sensor types include temperature, light, pressure, motion, and gas sensors. Sensors play a crucial role in applications like industrial automation, healthcare, consumer electronics, and environmental monitoring by enabling real-time data collection and process monitoring. Recent research trends focus on developing sensors for IoT, flexible/wearable devices, nanotechnology, and machine learning applications.
The document discusses different types of sensors, their applications, and limitations. It describes several common sensor types including capacitive, magnetic, photocell, laser rangefinder, sonar, radar, Doppler effect, and passive thermal infrared sensors. Sensors are used across many industries including textiles to detect properties such as light, motion, pressure, and temperature. They have applications in machines, vehicles, manufacturing quality control, and medical and security devices.
Literature Review Basics and Understanding Reference Management.pptxDr Ramhari Poudyal
Three-day training on academic research focuses on analytical tools at United Technical College, supported by the University Grant Commission, Nepal. 24-26 May 2024
Electric vehicle and photovoltaic advanced roles in enhancing the financial p...IJECEIAES
Climate change's impact on the planet forced the United Nations and governments to promote green energies and electric transportation. The deployments of photovoltaic (PV) and electric vehicle (EV) systems gained stronger momentum due to their numerous advantages over fossil fuel types. The advantages go beyond sustainability to reach financial support and stability. The work in this paper introduces the hybrid system between PV and EV to support industrial and commercial plants. This paper covers the theoretical framework of the proposed hybrid system including the required equation to complete the cost analysis when PV and EV are present. In addition, the proposed design diagram which sets the priorities and requirements of the system is presented. The proposed approach allows setup to advance their power stability, especially during power outages. The presented information supports researchers and plant owners to complete the necessary analysis while promoting the deployment of clean energy. The result of a case study that represents a dairy milk farmer supports the theoretical works and highlights its advanced benefits to existing plants. The short return on investment of the proposed approach supports the paper's novelty approach for the sustainable electrical system. In addition, the proposed system allows for an isolated power setup without the need for a transmission line which enhances the safety of the electrical network
A review on techniques and modelling methodologies used for checking electrom...nooriasukmaningtyas
The proper function of the integrated circuit (IC) in an inhibiting electromagnetic environment has always been a serious concern throughout the decades of revolution in the world of electronics, from disjunct devices to today’s integrated circuit technology, where billions of transistors are combined on a single chip. The automotive industry and smart vehicles in particular, are confronting design issues such as being prone to electromagnetic interference (EMI). Electronic control devices calculate incorrect outputs because of EMI and sensors give misleading values which can prove fatal in case of automotives. In this paper, the authors have non exhaustively tried to review research work concerned with the investigation of EMI in ICs and prediction of this EMI using various modelling methodologies and measurement setups.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
Harnessing WebAssembly for Real-time Stateless Streaming PipelinesChristina Lin
Traditionally, dealing with real-time data pipelines has involved significant overhead, even for straightforward tasks like data transformation or masking. However, in this talk, we’ll venture into the dynamic realm of WebAssembly (WASM) and discover how it can revolutionize the creation of stateless streaming pipelines within a Kafka (Redpanda) broker. These pipelines are adept at managing low-latency, high-data-volume scenarios.
1. What is Sensing ?
• Collect information about the world
• Sensor - an electrical/mechanical/chemical
device that maps an environmental attribute to a
quantitative measurement
• Each sensor is based on a transduction
principle - conversion of energy from one form
to another
4. Extended ranges and modalities
• Vision outside the RGB spectrum
– Infrared Camera, see at night
• Active vision
– Radar and optical (laser) range measurement
• Hearing outside the 20 Hz – 20 kHz range
– Ultrasonic range measurement
• Chemical analysis beyond taste and smell
• Radiation: a, b, g-rays, neutrons, etc
7. Solar Cell
Digital Infrared Ranging
Compass
Touch Switch
Pressure Switch
Limit Switch
Magnetic Reed Switch
Magnetic Sensor
Miniature Polaroid Sensor
Polaroid Sensor Board
Piezo Ultrasonic Transducers
Pyroelectric Detector
Thyristor
Gas Sensor
Gieger-Muller
Radiation Sensor
Piezo Bend Sensor
Resistive Bend Sensors
Mechanical Tilt Sensors
Pendulum Resistive
Tilt Sensors
CDS Cell
Resistive Light Sensor
Hall Effect
Magnetic Field
Sensors
Compass
IRDA Transceiver
IR Amplifier Sensor
IR Modulator
Receiver
Lite-On IR
Remote Receiver
Radio Shack
Remote Receiver
IR Sensor w/lens
Gyro
Accelerometer
IR Reflection
Sensor
IR Pin
Diode
UV Detector
Metal Detector
8. Sensors used in robot
navigation
• Resistive sensors
– bend sensors, potentiometer, resistive photocells, ...
• Tactile sensors
– contact switch, bumpers…
• Infrared sensors
– Reflective, proximity, distance sensors…
• Ultrasonic Distance Sensor
• Inertial Sensors (measure the second derivatives of position)
– Accelerometer, Gyroscopes,
• Orientation Sensors
– Compass, Inclinometer
• Laser range sensors
• Vision
• Global Positioning System
9. Classification of Sensors
• Internal state (proprioception) v.s. external state
(exteroceptive)
– feedback of robot internal parameters, e.g. battery
level, wheel position, joint angle, etc,
– observation of environments, objects
• Active v.s. non-active
– emitting energy into the environment, e.g., radar,
sonar
– passively receive energy to make observation, e.g.,
camera
• Contact v.s. non-contact
• Visual v.s. non-visual
– vision-based sensing, image processing, video
camera
10. 10
• In general, robotic sensors can be divided into two classes:
i. Internal state sensors - device being used to measure the
position, velocity and acceleration of the robot joint and/or
end-effector. These devices are potentiometer, tachometers,
synchros, resolvers, differential transformers, optical
interrupters, optical encoders and accelerometer.
ii. External state sensors – device being used to monitor the
relationship between the robot kinematics and/or dynamics
with its task, surrounding, or the object being manipulated.
Robotic Sensor Classification
11. 11
Sensor Selection/Sensing Taxonomy
• There are many different types of robot sensors available and
there are many different parameter measured by these sensors.
• The application process, should be carried out in a top down
manner, starting with task requirements, and going through
several levels of analysis, eventually leading to the selection of a
specific device.
• A taxonomy for sensing to aid this process consists of five levels of
refinement leading to sensor selection:
1. Specification of task requirements :eg localization, slippage detection,
size confirmation, inspection, defect testing.
2. Choice of modality :eg,vision, force, tactile
3. Specification on sensor attributes :eg,output, complexity, discrete or
continuous variable, imaging or non-imaging, local or global
4. Specification of operational parameters :eg size, accuracy, cost
5. Selection of mechanism :eg switching devices, inductive sensors, CCD
vision imaging
12. 12
•Some tasks requirements features:
•Insertion Monitoring
•Assembly Verification
•Detection of Reject Parts
•Recognition of Part Types
•Assembly Test Operations
•Check Gripper/Tool Operation
•Location & Orientation of Parts
•Workspace Intrusion Detection
•Check Correct Manipulation of Parts
•Analysis of Spatial Relations Between Parts
13. 13
Some typical sensor
operational data:
• Ultrasonics
• Resistive Effects
• Capacitive Efects
• Piezo-Electric Effects
• Visible Light Imaging
• Photo-Electric & Infrared
• Mechanical Switching
• Inductive Effects
• Thermal Effects
• Hall Effect
Primary physical mechanisms
employed in sensors:
Cost
Range
Accuracy
Repeatability
Power Requirements
Output Signal Specification
Processing Reuirements
Sensitivity
Reliability
Weight
Seze
16. I
• It is a technique of detecting the presence or
absence of an object with electronic
noncontact sensors.
• Typical application of proximity sensors
includes:
ש Object detection
ש Collision avoidance
ש Object verification & counting
• Commonly available proximity sensors are:
1. Photoelectric/optical sensors
2. Inductive proximity sensors
3. Capacitive proximity sensors
4. Ultrasonic proximity sensors
16
17. Bend Sensors
• Resistance = 10k to 35k
• As the strip is bent, resistance increases
Potentiometers
• Can be used as position sensors for
sliding mechanisms or rotating shafts
• Easy to find, easy to mount
Light Sensor (Photocell)
• Good for detecting direction/presence of
light
• Non-linear resistance
• Slow response to light changes
Resistive Sensors
Resistive Bend Sensor
Photocell
Potentiometer
R is small when brightly
illuminated
18. Sensor
Measure bend of a joint
Wall Following/Collision
Detection
Weight Sensor
Sensors
Sensor
Applications
19. Inputs for Resistive Sensors
Voltage divider:
You have two resisters, one
is fixed and the other
varies,
as well as a constant
voltage
V
micro
R1
R2
Vsense
Comparator:
If voltage at + is greater than
at -, digital high out
+
-
Binary
Threshold
V
V
R
R
R
Vsense
2
1
2
A/D converter
Digital I/O
20. Infrared Sensors
• Intensity based infrared
– Reflective sensors
– Easy to implement
– susceptible to ambient light
• Modulated Infrared
– Proximity sensors
– Requires modulated IR signal
– Insensitive to ambient light
• Infrared Ranging
– Distance sensors
– Short range distance measurement
– Impervious to ambient light, color and reflectivity of object
21. Intensity Based Infrared
• Easy to implement (few components)
• Works very well in controlled environments
• Sensitive to ambient light
time
voltage
time
voltage
Increase in ambient light
raises DC bias
Break-Beam sensor
Reflective Sensor
22. IR Reflective Sensors
• Reflective Sensor:
– Emitter IR LED + detector photodiode/phototransistor
– Phototransistor: the more light reaching the phototransistor, the
more current passes through it
– A beam of light is reflected off a surface and into a detector
– Light usually in infrared spectrum, IR light is invisible
• Applications:
– Object detection,
– Line following, Wall tracking
– Optical encoder (Break-Beam sensor)
• Drawbacks:
– Susceptible to ambient lighting
• Provide sheath to insulate the device from outside lighting
– Susceptible to reflectivity of objects
– Susceptible to the distance between sensor and the object
23. Modulated Infrared
• Modulation and Demodulation
– Flashing a light source at a particular frequency
– Demodulator is tuned to the specific frequency of light flashes.
(32kHz~45kHz)
– Flashes of light can be detected even if they are very week
– Less susceptible to ambient lighting and reflectivity of objects
– Used in most IR remote control units, proximity sensors
Negative true
logic:
Detect = 0v
No detect = 5v
24. IR Proximity Sensors
• Proximity Sensors:
– Requires a modulated IR LED, a detector module with built-in modulation
decoder
– Current through the IR LED should be limited: adding a series resistor in
LED driver circuit
– Detection range: varies with different objects (shiny white card vs. dull
black object)
– Insensitive to ambient light
• Applications:
– Rough distance measurement
– Obstacle avoidance
– Wall following, line following
limiter demodulator
bandpass filter
amplifier
comparator
integrator
25. IR Distance Sensors
• Basic principle of operation:
– IR emitter + focusing lens + position-sensitive detector
Location of the spot on the detector
corresponds to the distance to the target
surface, Optics to covert horizontal distance to
vertical distance
Modulated IR
light
26. IR Distance Sensors
• Sharp GP2D02 IR Ranger
– Distance range: 10cm (4") ~ 80cm (30").
– Moderately reliable for distance measurement
– Immune to ambient light
– Impervious to color and reflectivity of object
– Applications: distance measurement, wall
following, …
28. Range Finder
• Time of Flight
• The measured pulses typically come form
ultrasonic, RF and optical energy sources.
– D = v * t
– D = round-trip distance
– v = speed of wave propagation
– t = elapsed time
• Sound = 0.3 meters/msec
• RF/light = 0.3 meters / ns (Very difficult to
measure short distances 1-100 meters)
29. Ultrasonic Sensors
• Basic principle of operation:
– Emit a quick burst of ultrasound (50kHz), (human hearing: 20Hz to
20kHz)
– Measure the elapsed time until the receiver indicates that an echo is
detected.
– Determine how far away the nearest object is from the sensor
D = v * t
D = round-trip distance
v = speed of propagation(340 m/s)
t = elapsed time
Bat, dolphin, …
30. Ultrasonic Sensors
• Ranging is accurate but bearing has a 30 degree
uncertainty. The object can be located anywhere in the arc.
• Typical ranges are of the order of several centimeters to 30
meters.
• Another problem is the propagation time. The ultrasonic
signal will take 200 msec to travel 60 meters. ( 30 meters
roundtrip @ 340 m/s )
31. Ultrasonic Sensors
• Polaroid ultrasonic ranging system
– It was developed for auto-focus of cameras.
– Range: 6 inches to 35 feet
Ultrasonic
transducer
Electronic board
Transducer Ringing:
transmitter + receiver @
50 KHz
Residual vibrations or
ringing may be interpreted
as the echo signal
Blanking signal to block
any return signals for the
first 2.38ms after
transmission
http://www.acroname.com/robotics/info/articles/sonar/sonar.html
32. Operation with Polaroid Ultrasonic
• The Electronic board supplied has the following I/0
– INIT : trigger the sensor, ( 16 pulses are transmitted )
– BLANKING : goes high to avoid detection of own
signal
– ECHO : echo was detected.
– BINH : goes high to end the blanking (reduce blanking
time < 2.38 ms)
– BLNK : to be generated if multiple echo is required
t
33. Ultrasonic Sensors
• Applications:
– Distance Measurement
– Mapping: Rotating proximity scans (maps the
proximity of objects surrounding the robot)
chair
Robot
chair
Doorway
Scan moving from left to right
Length
of
Echo
Scanning at an angle of 15º apart can achieve best results
35. Laser Ranger Finder
• Range 2-500 meters
• Resolution : 10 mm
• Field of view : 100 - 180 degrees
• Angular resolution : 0.25 degrees
• Scan time : 13 - 40 msec.
• These lasers are more immune to Dust and
Fog
http://www.sick.de/de/products/categories/safety/
37. • Tactile sensing includes any form of sensing which
requires physical touching between the sensor and
the object to be sense.
• The need for touch or tactile sensors occurs in many
robotic applications, from picking oranges to loading
machines. Probably the most important application
currently is the general problem of locating,
identifying, and organizing parts that need to be
assembled.
• Tactile sensor system includes the capability to detect such things as:
1. Presence
2. Part shape, location, orientation, contour examination
3. Contact are pressure and pressure distribution
4. Force magnitude, location, and direction
5. Surface inspection : texture monitoring, joint checking, damage detection
6. Object classification : recognition, discrimination
37
38. • The major components of a tactile/touch
sensor system are:
1. A touch surface
2. A transduction medium, which
convert local forces or moments
into electrical signals.
3. Structure
4. Control/interface
38
39. • It is the transduction method in
tactile sensor design which has
received the most attention. It
is concerned with the change in
resistance of a conductive
material under applied
pressure.
• This technique involves
measuring the resistance either
through or across the thickness
of a conductive elastomer. Most
elastomers are made from
carbon- or silicon-doped rubber.
39
Resistive
Resistive Tactile Element –
Resistance Measured Through
The rubber
40. • Advantages:
1. Wide dynamic range
2. Durability
3. Good overload tolerance
4. Compatibility with integrated
circuitry, particularly VLSI.
• Disadvantages:
1. Hysteresis in some designs.
2. Elastromer needs to be optimized
for both mechanical and electrical
properties.
3. Limited spatial resolution
compared with vision sensors.
4. Larger numbers of wires may have
to be brought away from the
sensor.
5. Monotonic response but often not
linear.
40
Resistive Tactile Element –
Resistance Measured Across the rubber
41. Piezoelectric & Pyroelectric Effects
• Piezoelectric effect is the
generation of a voltage across a
sensing element when pressure
applied to it. The voltage generated
is proportionally related to the
applied pressure. No external
voltage is required, and a
continuous analogue output is
available from such sensor.
• A pyroelectric effect is the
generation of a voltage when the
sensing element is heated or
cooled.
• Polymeric materials with
piezoelectric and pyroelectric
properties are appropriate for use
with sensors.
41
Piezoelectric/Pyroelectric
Effects Tactile element
42. • Advantages:
1. Wide dynamic range
2. Durability
3. Good mechanical properties of piezoelectric from pyroelectric materials
4. Temperature as well as force sensing capabilities
• Disadvantages:
1. Difficult of separating piezoelectric from pyroelectric effects
2. Inherently dynamic - output decay to zero for constant load
3. Difficult of scanning elements
4. Good solution are complex
42
43. CAPACITIVE TECHNIQUE
• Tactile sensors within this category are concerned with measuring
capacitance, which made to vary under applied load.
• The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor depends upon the
separation of the plates and their area, so that a sensor using an
elastomeric separator between the plates provides compliance such
that the capacitance will vary according to applied load.
43
45. • Advantages:
1. Wide dynamic range
2. Linear response
3. Robust
• Disadvantages:
1. Susceptible to noise
2. Some dielectrics are temperature sensitive
3. Capacitance decreases with physical size ultimately limiting spatial
resolution.
45
46. Mechanical Transduction
• A Linear Potentiometer
• Advantages:
1. Well known Technology
2. Good for probe application
• Disadvantages:
1. Limited spatial resolution
2. Complex for array construction
46
Mechanical Transducer
A linear Potentiometer
47. Magnetic Transduction Methods
• Sensors using magnetic
transduction are divided into two
basic categories:
Groups together sensors which use
mechanical movement to
produce change in magnetic flux.
• Advantages:
1. Wide dynamic range
2. Large displacements possible
3. Simple
• Disadvantages:
1. Poor spatial resolution
2. Mechanical problems when
sensing on slopes.
47
Magnetic tactile Element
48. 2. Concerns magnetoelastic
materials which show a change
in magnetic field when
subjected to mechanical stress.
• Advantages:
1. Wide dynamic range
2. Linear response
3. Low hysteresis
4. Robust
• Disadvantages:
1. Susceptible to stray field and
noise.
2. A.C. circuit required
48
Magneto resistive tactile Element
49. Optical Transduction Methods
• Advantages:
1. Very high resolution
2. Compatible with vision
sensing technology
3. No electrical interference
problems
4. Processing electronics can
be remote from sensor
5. Low cabling requirements
• Disadvantages:
1. Dependence on elastomer
in some designs – affects
robustness
2. Some hysteresis
49
Optical Tactile Element
Pressure to light Transduction
51. • Vision is the most powerful robot sensory capabilities.
Enables a robot to have a sophisticated sensing mechanism
that allows it to respond to its environment in intelligent and
flexible manner. Therefore machine vision is the most
complex sensor type.
• Robot vision may be defined as the process of extracting,
characterizing, and interpreting information from images of
a three-dimensional world. This process, also known as
machine or computer vision may be subdivided into six
principle areas. These are:
1. Sensing : the process that yields visual image
2. Preprocessing : deals with techniques such as noise reduction and
enhancement of details
3. Segmentation : the process that partitions an image into objects of
interest
4. Description: deals with that computation of features for example size or
shape, suitable for differentiating one type of objects from another.
5. Recognition: the process that identifies these objects (for example
wrench, bolt, engine block, etc.)
6. Interpretation: assigns meaning to an ensemble of recognized objects.
51
52. • The imaging component, the “eye” or sensor, is the first link in
the vision chain. Numerous sensors may be used to observe the
world. There are four type of vision sensors or imaging
components:
• 1. Point sensors
capable of measuring light only at a single point in space. These
sensor using coupled with a light source (such as LED) and used
as a noncontact ‘feeler’
It also may be used to create a higher – dimensions set of vision
Information by scanning across a field of view by using
mechanisms such as orthogonal set of scanning mirrors
52
IMAGING COMPONENTS
55. 2. Line Sensor
• Line sensors are one-dimensional
devices used to collect vision
information from a real scene in the
real world.
• The sensor most frequently used is
a “line array” of photodiodes or
charger-couple-device components.
• It operates in a similar manner to
analog shift register, producing
sequential, synchronized output of
electrical signals, corresponding to
the light intensity falling on an
integrated light-collecting cell.
55
Circular and cross configurations
of light sensors
56. • Line array may be used to image scene. E.g. by fixing the position of a straight-line
sensor and moving an object orthogonally to the orientation of the array, one may
scan the entire object of interest. 56
An automated robot sorting
system using
a line scan camera to generate
two-dimensional images.
57. 3. Planar Sensor
• A two dimensional configuration of the line-scan concept. Two generic
types of these sensors generally in use today are scanning
photomultipliers and solid-state sensors.
• Photomultipliers are represented by television cameras, the most
common of which is the vidicon tube, which essentially an optical-to-
electrical signal converter.
• In addition to vidicon tubes, several types of solid-state cameras are
available. Many applications require the solid-state sensors because of
weight and noise factor (solid-state arrays are less noisy but more
expensive). This is important when mounting a camera near or on the end-
effector of a robot.
57
58. 4. Volume Sensor
• A sensor that provide three-
dimensional information. The
sensor may obtain the
information by using the
directional laser or acoustic
range finders.
58
Schematic representation
of a triangulation range finder
59. IMAGE REPRESENTATION
• From the diagram below. F(x,y) is used to denote the two-dimensional
image out of a television camera or other imaging device.
• “x” and “y” denote the spatial coordinates (image plane)
• “f” at any point (x,y) is proportional to the brightness (intensity) of the
image at that point.
• In form suitable for computer processing, an image function f(x,y) must be
digitized both spatially and in amplitude (intensity). Digitization of the
spatial coordinates (x,y) will be known as image sampling, while amplitude
digitization is known as intensity or grey-level quantization.
• The array of (N, M) rows and columns, where each sample is sampled
uniformly, and also quantized in intensity is known as a digital image. Each
element in the array is called image element, picture element (or pixel).
59
60. Effects of reducing sampling grid size.
a) 512x512.
b) 256x256.
c) 128x128.
d) 64x64.
e) 32x32.
60
61. Effect produced by reducing the number of intensity levels while maintaining the
spatial resolution constant at 512x512. The 256-, 128- and 64-levels are of
acceptable quality.
a) 256, b) 128, c) 64, d) 32, e) 16, f) 8, g) 4, and h) 2 levels
61
62. ILLUMINATION TECHNIQUES
• Illumination of a scene is an important factor that often affects the
complexity of vision algorithms.
• A well designed lighting system illuminates a scene so that the complexity
of the resulting image is minimised, while the information required for
object detection and extraction is enhanced.
• Arbitrary lighting of the environment is often not acceptable because it
can result in low contras images, specular reflections, shadows and
extraneous details.
• There are 4 main illumination techniques for a robot work space :
62
63. ILLUMINATION TECHNIQUES
1. DIFFUSE-LIGHTING
• This technique is for smooth, regular
surface object. It is used where surface
characteristic are important.
• Example:
63
Diffuse-lighting technique
64. ILLUMINATION TECHNIQUES
2. BACKLIGHTING
• Produce black and white image.
This technique suited for
applications in which silhouettes
of object are sufficient for
recognition or other
measurement.
• Example:
64
Backlighting technique
65. ILLUMINATION TECHNIQUES
3. STRUCTURED LIGHTING
• Consist of projecting points, stripes,
grids onto work surface.
• This lighting technique has 2
important advantages:
1. It establishes a known light pattern
on the work space and disturbances
of this indicate the presence of an
object, thus simplifying the object
detection problems.
2. By analysing the way which the light
pattern distorted, it is possible to
gain insight into three-dimensional
characteristics of the object.
65
Structured lighting technique
66. • The following figure illustrates the
structured lighting technique using two
light planes projected from different
directions, but converging on a single
stripe on the surface. The two light
sources guarantee that the object will
break the light stripe only when it is
directly below the camera.
• This technique is suitable for moving
object.
• Note: “The line scan camera sees only
the line on which the two light planes
converge, but two-dimension
information can be accumulated as the
object move past the camera”
66
3. STRUCTURED LIGHTING (cont.)
(a) Top view of two light planes
intersecting in a line sight
(b) Object will be seen by the camera only
When it interrupts both light planes
67. ILLUMINATION TECHNIQUES
4. DIRECTIONAL LIGHTING
• This method is used to inspection of
object surfaces.
• Defects on the surface such as scratches,
can be detected by using a highly directed
light beam (such as laser beam) and
measuring the amount of scatter
67
Directional lighting technique
68. ROBOT VISION SYSTEM
• There are several commercial packages that can be bought for vision processing work.
A typical hardware configuration is shown below.
• Based on the technique used, the robotic vision systems can be grouped into the
following major types:
1. Binary vision systems 4.Structured light vision systems
2. Gray-level vision systems 5.Character recognition vision systems
3. Ad hoc special-purpose vision systems
68
Vision system hardware
69. • A typical system will have facilities for controlling the camera remotely and perhaps
interfaces for remote lighting control.
• The main problem with commercial vision packages is that they have to be general purpose
in order to be applicable in many situations. This very requirement sometimes means that
they are not suitable or are over complicated for a particular robot task in hand.
• In industrial robot world, vision is not used in an exploratory sense but is used to confirm or
measure or refine existing known data.
• Whichever commercial vision system one purchases, one is likely to use it for applications
such as those listed in the next section.
69
71. VISION APPLICATIONS
• 1. OBJECT LOCATION
Used in object handling and processing:
-Position -Orientation
• 2. OBJECT PROPERTIES
Used in inspection, identification, measurement:
-Size -Area
-Shape -Periphery length / area ratio
-Texture -Repetition of pattern
-Properties of internal features
• 3. SPATIAL RELATIONS
Used in measurement and task verification
-Relative positions
-Relative orientations -Occlusions
-Alignments -Connectivity
• 4. ACTION MONITORING
Used in actuator control and verification:
-Direct feedback -Error measurement
-Action confirmation -Inspection
-Collision avoidance planning. 71
72. MISCELLANEOUS SENSORS
• There are several type of sensor that
can be used to determine the
position of robot joints like
potentiometer, optical encoder,
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT) Force & Torque
Sensors.
72
POSITION, VELOCITY&
ACCELERATION SENSORS
73. Potentiometer
• Potentiometer transducers can be
used to measure both linear and
angular displacement
73
(a) Potentiometer
(b) (b) Schematic diagram of the potentiometer
74. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• LDVT is a robust and precise
device which produce a
voltage output proportional
to the displacement of a
ferrous armature for
measurement of robot joints
or end-effectors. It is much
expensive but outperforms
the potentiometer
transducer.
74
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
75. Force & Torque Sensors
• Force transducers are often
based on displacement principles.
There various type force and
torque transducer available
commercially
75
A force-measuring device based on
a compression spring and LDVT.
76. 76
This figure illustrate a tension load cell.
It can be used to measure the force
required to pick up heavy load in industry
77. Force & Torque Sensors
• Force can be measured using
piezoelectric principle.
• Figure shows a load washer
type piezoelectric force
transducer. It is designed to
measure axial forces. It is
preloaded when
manufactured and can
measure both tensile and
compressive forces.
77
78. Force & Torque Sensors
• Measured using piezoelectric
principle.
• Figure shows a three-
component dynamometer
type piezoelectric force
transducer that measures
three orthogonal components
of force.
78
80. Incremental Optical Encoders
- direction
- resolution
grating
light emitter
light sensor
decode
circuitry
A
B A leads B
• Incremental Encoder:
• It generates pulses proportional to the rotation speed of
the shaft.
• Direction can also be indicated with a two phase encoder:
81. Absolute Optical Encoders
Gray Code
• Used when loss of reference is not possible.
• Gray codes: only one bit changes at a time ( less uncertainty).
• The information is transferred in parallel form (many wires are
necessary).
000
001
011
010
110
111
101
100
000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111
Binary
82. Other Odometry Sensors
• Resolver
• Potentiometer
= varying resistance
It has two stator windings
positioned at 90 degrees. The
output voltage is proportional to
the sine or cosine function of the
rotor's angle. The rotor is made
up of a third winding, winding C
83. Inertial Sensors
• Gyroscopes
– Measure the rate of rotation independent of the
coordinate frame
– Common applications:
• Heading sensors, Full Inertial Navigation systems (INS)
• Accelerometers
– Measure accelerations with respect to an inertial frame
– Common applications:
• Tilt sensor in static applications, Vibration Analysis, Full INS
Systems
84. Accelerometers
• They measure the inertia force generated
when a mass is affected by a change in
velocity.
• This force may change
– The tension of a string
– The deflection of a beam
– The vibrating frequency of a mass
85. Accelerometer
• Main elements of an accelerometer:
1. Mass 2. Suspension mechanism 3. Sensing element
High quality accelerometers include a servo loop to improve the
linearity of the sensor.
kx
dt
dx
c
t
d
x
d
m
F
2
2
86. Gyroscopes
• These devices return a signal proportional to the
rotational velocity.
• There is a large variety of gyroscopes that are based
on different principles
87. Global Positioning System (GPS)
Space Segment
http://www.cnde.iastate.edu/staff/swormley/gps/gps.h
24 satellites (+several spares)
broadcast time, identity, orbital
parameters (latitude, longitude,
altitude)
88. Global Positioning System (GPS)
Space Segment
http://www.cnde.iastate.edu/staff/swormley/gps/gps.h
24 satellites (+several spares)
broadcast time, identity, orbital
parameters (latitude, longitude,
altitude)
89. Noise Issues
• Real sensors are noisy
• Origins: natural phenomena + less-than-ideal
engineering
• Consequences: limited accuracy and
precision of measurements
• Filtering:
– software: averaging, signal processing algorithm
– hardware tricky: capacitor