Need to replace Furrow Irrigation system by Drip Irrigation system to Improve...ijsrd.com
The Aim of this paper is to replace furrow Irrigation system by Drip irrigation system to improve qualitative parameters of cotton crop at its different physiological stages. (Germination, Initial Vegetative, Flowering, Boll development and Maturity).As we are knowing furrow irrigation system requires more water than drip irrigation system. Our region is affected with drought once in every four year. Cotton crop needs continuous water for duration of 140 to 160 days in between May to October. In month of May and June water table is going down and all Water resources are at its bottom level during season of summer.
Presentation by Dr Sultan Ahmed, Director of Natural Resources Management and Research, Department of Environment, Government of Bangladesh at CCAFS webinar 'Exploring GHG mitigation potential in rice production' on 18 September 2014.
Participatory irigation management under tanks_ K. Sivasubramaniam_2013India Water Portal
In this presentation, K. Sivasubramaniam from the Madras Institute of Development Studies brings out the importance of tanks in irrigation and need for them to be managed effectively. He takes up the case of the Tamil Nadu - Irrigated Agriculture Modernisation and Water-bodies Restoration and Management (IAMWARM) project and discusses his research findings.
Maximizing Water Productivity of Maize using Alternate Furrow Irrigation at C...Premier Publishers
Nowadays, water availability is a major limiting factor for development of agriculture in arid and semiarid areas. Under conditions of scarce water supply and drought, irrigation practices demand the maximum use of every drop of water to maximize water productivity for irrigated crops. A field experiment with a split-plot design was carried out to evaluate the combined effect of three furrow irrigation techniques and three irrigation levels treatments on maize grain yield and water productivity at Mekhoni Agricultural Research center (MeARC), Raya valley district. Irrigation was applied through furrows in three ways as the main plots: conventional furrow irrigation (CFI), alternate furrow irrigation (AFI), and fixed furrow irrigation (FFI). In CFI, irrigation was applied to every furrow at each irrigation event; in AFI irrigation was applied to alternate furrows which were dry in the preceding irrigation cycle, while in FFI, irrigation was applied to fixed furrows throughout the growing season. Each irrigation technique was further divided into three sub-irrigation treatments: two deficit irrigation levels 75% and 50% ETc and a control of 100% ETc as sub-plot were investigated. Results showed that maximum water productivity was obtained under the AFI system without a trade-off in grain yield and considerably save water. Hence, it is recommended as efficient irrigation technique in areas with limited water resources.
Soil moisture distribution pattern under surface subsurface drip irrigationArpna bajpai
Moisture distribution pattern is one of the basic requirements for efficient design and management of an irrigation system. The knowledge of moisture distribution pattern helps in the effectiveness of drip irrigation
26nov16 a low_cost_drip_irrigation_system_for_adoption_in_jhum_areas_in_nagal...IWRS Society
A LOW COST DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM FOR ADOPTION IN JHUM AREAS IN NAGALAND FOR FOOD SECURITY.
National Workshop on‐ Challenges in Irrigation Management for Food Security
Markkinointi vuonna 2017: tee edes nämä Julia Saarter
W3 Group Finland Oy:lla 5.1.2017 pitämäni asiakastilaisuus, jossa asiakkailla hyvin erilaiset lähtötasotiedot markkinoinnista ja hyvin erilainen tekemisen taso yrityksessään.
Need to replace Furrow Irrigation system by Drip Irrigation system to Improve...ijsrd.com
The Aim of this paper is to replace furrow Irrigation system by Drip irrigation system to improve qualitative parameters of cotton crop at its different physiological stages. (Germination, Initial Vegetative, Flowering, Boll development and Maturity).As we are knowing furrow irrigation system requires more water than drip irrigation system. Our region is affected with drought once in every four year. Cotton crop needs continuous water for duration of 140 to 160 days in between May to October. In month of May and June water table is going down and all Water resources are at its bottom level during season of summer.
Presentation by Dr Sultan Ahmed, Director of Natural Resources Management and Research, Department of Environment, Government of Bangladesh at CCAFS webinar 'Exploring GHG mitigation potential in rice production' on 18 September 2014.
Participatory irigation management under tanks_ K. Sivasubramaniam_2013India Water Portal
In this presentation, K. Sivasubramaniam from the Madras Institute of Development Studies brings out the importance of tanks in irrigation and need for them to be managed effectively. He takes up the case of the Tamil Nadu - Irrigated Agriculture Modernisation and Water-bodies Restoration and Management (IAMWARM) project and discusses his research findings.
Maximizing Water Productivity of Maize using Alternate Furrow Irrigation at C...Premier Publishers
Nowadays, water availability is a major limiting factor for development of agriculture in arid and semiarid areas. Under conditions of scarce water supply and drought, irrigation practices demand the maximum use of every drop of water to maximize water productivity for irrigated crops. A field experiment with a split-plot design was carried out to evaluate the combined effect of three furrow irrigation techniques and three irrigation levels treatments on maize grain yield and water productivity at Mekhoni Agricultural Research center (MeARC), Raya valley district. Irrigation was applied through furrows in three ways as the main plots: conventional furrow irrigation (CFI), alternate furrow irrigation (AFI), and fixed furrow irrigation (FFI). In CFI, irrigation was applied to every furrow at each irrigation event; in AFI irrigation was applied to alternate furrows which were dry in the preceding irrigation cycle, while in FFI, irrigation was applied to fixed furrows throughout the growing season. Each irrigation technique was further divided into three sub-irrigation treatments: two deficit irrigation levels 75% and 50% ETc and a control of 100% ETc as sub-plot were investigated. Results showed that maximum water productivity was obtained under the AFI system without a trade-off in grain yield and considerably save water. Hence, it is recommended as efficient irrigation technique in areas with limited water resources.
Soil moisture distribution pattern under surface subsurface drip irrigationArpna bajpai
Moisture distribution pattern is one of the basic requirements for efficient design and management of an irrigation system. The knowledge of moisture distribution pattern helps in the effectiveness of drip irrigation
26nov16 a low_cost_drip_irrigation_system_for_adoption_in_jhum_areas_in_nagal...IWRS Society
A LOW COST DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM FOR ADOPTION IN JHUM AREAS IN NAGALAND FOR FOOD SECURITY.
National Workshop on‐ Challenges in Irrigation Management for Food Security
Markkinointi vuonna 2017: tee edes nämä Julia Saarter
W3 Group Finland Oy:lla 5.1.2017 pitämäni asiakastilaisuus, jossa asiakkailla hyvin erilaiset lähtötasotiedot markkinoinnista ja hyvin erilainen tekemisen taso yrityksessään.
The study examined the characteristics of the Sumanpa stream’s Flow-Duration-Frequency Curve statistics for a period of 25years (1985-2009) and compared the 1990-1999 and 2000-2009 Flow-Duration-Curves. The high, low and mean Flow-Duration-Curves were also analysed. The discharge records were analysed to develop a general quantitative characterization of the stream’s flow variability. Streamflow data was generated from daily stage data using the rating curve model developed at the stream’s gauge station. Flow-Duration-Frequency-Curves were developed using the Weibull plotting position and used to analyse the catchment’s surface and groundwater storage and stream’s flow characteristics. The approach placed the midpoints of the moist, mid-range, and dry zones of the curves at 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles, respectively. The high zone was centered at the 5th percentile, while the low zone was centered at the 95th percentile. For 95% of the time, the streamflowequalled or exceeded 0.14 m3s-1, at 5% it equalled or exceeded 45 m3s-1 and at 50% flow equalled or exceeded 5.53 m3s-1.
A study was conducted at a sawah site in Ghana to examine the relationship between landscape
position and some selected soil properties with the aim of generating adequate data for modeling
landscape relationships and to aid both researchers and farmers in taking critical management
decisions. Soil properties namely total porosity, moisture content, infiltration rates, hydraulic
conductivity, sand content, silt content, clay content, gravel concentration, bulk density, soil pH, total
nitrogen, soil organic matter and cation exchange capacity were collected and analysed. Data were
collected at the foot slopes, middle slopes and at the upper slopes from four major landuses (maize, oil
palm, natural vegetation and plantain) in the study area. Simple statistical parameters such as mean
and standard deviation were used to analyse the data. Moisture content, total porosity, soil pH, organic
matter and carbon and total nitrogen increased downslope whilst sand content, clay content, bulk
density occurred at upper slopes decreased downslope. Management practices appeared to have
influenced infiltration rate, hydraulic conductivity and silt content.
Inland valleys are being used under the Sawah technology for rice production to reduce rice imports to
Ghana. Sawah technology is assumed to benefit from geological fertilization. However, there is no
quantitative information on runoff and sediment flows in the agricultural watershed of Ghana. This
study was carried out at Biemso in the southern part of the country. The aim was to estimate runoff and
sediment transport using the water erosion prediction project (WEPP) model (version 2006.500), from
hillslope to the valley bottom where rice is cultivated using the Sawah technology. A digital elevation
model (DEM) was created from ground survey and used to select the various plots (hillslopes) and to
select slope input parameters. Four plots (hillslopes) were selected for the model simulation. Data on
local daily values of rainfall and on minimum and maximum temperatures were used to set a CLIGEN
model station file to determine climate input parameters for the model. Rainfall characteristics (erosivity
and distribution) were analysed. Soil erodibility was also determined. Soil and crop management input
parameters required by the model were identified and or estimated from field measurements and
secondary sources. The model was run for two management scenarios: Fallow and continuous maize
systems. The results of the simulation showed that 2.9 to 3.9 and 6.8 to 10.2 t/ha/year of sediments were
eroded from upper catchment to valley bottom under fallow system and maize, respectively. The range
of values for runoff produced under fallow was 17.4 to 40 mm whereas that under maize system is 158.7
to 233.62 mm. The study has shown that land use system in the study area has a great influence on
geological fertilization. In addition, the valley bottom where rice is produced under the Sawah system is
enriched with organic matter from upslope.
In the agroecological zone of the Biemso basin in the Ashanti Region of Ghana, soil erodibility
and rainfall erosivity patterns were estimated. The study aimed at investigating the temporal
variability of rainfall erosivity using the Fournier Index Method and assessing the soil
erodibility parameters of a Sawah site using the WEPP model. Four plots representing the
major land uses in the area for maize, oil palm, natural vegetation and plantain cultivation
were selected. Results showed that soil organic matter content ranged from 1.95 to 5.52%;
sand ranged from 14.34 to 31.86 %; silt ranged from 31.63 to 68.77%; clay ranged from 16.04
to 20.08% and very fine sand from 3.38 to 8.84%. The derived interrill erodibility (Ki) values
ranged from 44.26 to 51.70 kg s m-4 under all land uses considered at the study site and soils
in the study area were moderately resistant to erosion by raindrops. The derived rill erodibility
(Kr) values ranged from 0.005 to 0.012 s m-1 under all land uses considered at the study site.
Rill erodibility values were higher at the foot slopes under all land uses except under Oil Palm
land use. Rainfall values exceeded the 20-25 mm threshold value for erosive rains. Erosivity
values determined for the study site revealed a moderate erosion risk in the major rainy season
(April-July); low erosion risk in the minor rainy season (August-October ) and very low erosion
risk in the dry season (November-March). It is recommended that soil and land management
practices that would reduce water erosion during the major rainy season should be implemented
such as bunding, mulching and contour farming.
Comparing the performance of a home-made bottle drip to a commercial drip sys...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
A study was conducted in which lettuce (Lactucasativa L.) was grown in a plot at the Faculty of Agriculture at Luyengo Campus of the University of Eswatini to compare three different irrigation methods on the production of marketable heads of lettuce. The performance of lettuce under a commercial drip tape was compared with a home-made bottle drip and a hand watering can as used typically by rural people in the country. The commercial drip had emitters discharging 2 liters per hour and therefore 2 liters per hour was applied with both the home-made bottle drip and the watering can during irrigation. The irrigation frequency was every after two days for all the treatments. The plot sizes were 1.5 m x 4.0 m and there were four replications per treatment. There were eighteen lettuce plants per plot. The lettuce was grown for a period of four weeks and then harvested whole. Yield parameters measured included the plant height (cm), leaf area index (LAI), root length (cm) and the fresh head mass (grams). Significant differences (P < 0.01) between treatments were obtained for fresh lettuce head mass and root length. The commercial drip treatment had largest fresh mass at 226.8 g. It was followed by bottle drip at 184.8 g. The control had the lowest yield at 165.3 g. There were no significant differences between treatments for plant height and leaf area index. It was concluded that the home-made bottle drip irrigation method could be recommended for rural people who cannot afford to buy the commercial drip system for the production of vegetables for household consumption.
pillow irrigation is the advance stage of the drip irrigation and furrow irrigation where the weed control can be done without any expenditure and mechanical work
PRELIMINARY STUDY ON NUTRIENT REMOVAL OF DAIRY WASTEWATER BY PILOT SCALE SUBS...paperpublications3
Abstract: This study was conducted to examine the nutrient removal efficiency of pilot scale Constructed Wetland (CW) designed to treat dairy wastewater. Two pilot scale fiber glass wetland units were constructed to function as Subsurface Horizontal Flow (SSHF) CWs. A gravel based medium was layered for inlets and outlets of each unit. Constructed Wetland bed was filled with sand and the upper layer was filled with compost: top soil mixture (1:2). Both units were planted with Schoenoplectus grossus (Giant bulrush).After establishing plants for three months, the treatment unit was saturated with seven Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) loads of diluted and neutralized dairy wastewater ranging from 5g/m2d , 16g/m2d, 20g/m2d, 24g/m2d,33g/m2d, 48g/m2d and 186 g/m2d. Seven days were maintained as effective retention time under each BOD load. Control unit was maintained without the addition of dairy wastewater. Samples were collected from the inlets and outlets of each unit and analyzed for BOD, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD),Total Nitrogen (TN) and Total Phosphorous (TP).Removal efficiencies of BOD, COD, TN and TP were calculated. The results of this study showed BOD removal efficiencies in the range of 30%-100%, COD removal efficiencies in the range of 75%-92%, TN removal efficiencies in the range of 40%-100% and for TP in the range of 0%-100% with respect to studied loading rates. Based on these results this paper suggests that this type of pilot scale SSHF CWs planted with Scheonoplectus grossus is appropriate for removal of BOD, COD, TN and TP in dairy wastewater arising from small and medium sector dairy industries.
ABSTRACT: Okra commonly called lady finger or bhindi is one of the most popular and extensively grown
vegetable crop all over India. Water and fertilizers plays a major role in okra production. Drip fertigation is
the technique which applies fertilizers with water by drip irrigation system. In the present paper, as reported by
different research workers throughout world drip fertigation in okra saves 20% to 61% of water, increases yield
by 13% to 76%, fertilizer saving from 15% to 30% and results in higher water use efficiency from 35.5% to 50.8
% as compared with traditional method. It is also economically viable with benefit to cost ratio varying from
1.41 to 2.99.
KEYWORDS: Drip fertigation, drip irrigation, water use efficiency, okra, yield
________________________________________________________________________________________
The aquaponics term derives from the words aquaculture and hydroponics, which by definition, has the meaning of aquatics organisms culture and plant breeding techniques without soil, respectively. This activity has how the main feature the sustainability, once the modality looks for the production with low water consumption and high exploitation of waste generated. The present study had as objective to describe the construction of the aquaponics pilot system. This way, based on the literature and acquired experience during the work, a step-by-step method was established for the assembly of the system. To verify the process efficiency, were analyzed the presence of total and thermotolerants coliforms, counting of facultative mesophiles and quantification of micro and macronutrients in leaves and roots of Xanthosoma sagittifolium. There was no presence of total and thermotolerants coliforms in leaves and roots of X. sagittifolium. In the count of facultative mesophiles the roots presented 6x104 CFU/g and the leaves 1.7x102 CFU/g. In the foliar analysis, 1430mg/kg of Fe was observed in the roots. It was concluded that the pilot project was successfully built and testing can be continued with new plants.
Integrated Effect of Mulching Materials and Furrow Irrigation Methods on Yiel...Premier Publishers
A field experiment was conducted at Werer, Middle Awash Valley during the dry season of the 2016-17, 2017-18 and 2018-19 to investigate the effects of mulching materials and furrow irrigation methods on onion yield and water productivity under semi-arid conditions. Split plot design with three replications, in which the irrigation methods (Conventional, Fixed and Alternate Furrow) were assigned to the main plot and the three mulching materials (no mulch, wheat straw and white plastic mulch), were to the sub-plot. Results indicate that marketable onion bulb yield and water use efficiency were affected by the main effect of furrow irrigation methods and mulching materials (p< 0.05). But the interaction of irrigation methods and mulch had no significant effect on marketable onion bulb yield and water use efficiency. The conventional furrow irrigation (10081.52kg ha-1) and wheat straw mulch (12121.63 kg ha-1) resulted in the maximum marketable bulb yield. The highest water use efficiency (3.27 kg/m3) was obtained from alternate furrow irrigation method with straw mulch. This suggests that under limited irrigation water, alternate furrow irrigation along with wheat straw mulch minimize evaporation loss; maximize water productivity and sustain onion production at Amibara and similar agro-ecology and soil type.
performance evaluation and characterization of wetted soil parameters of impr...IJEAB
Field study was conducted to evaluate the emission uniformity (EU), global coefficient of variation (CGv), emitter flow variation (Qvar) and distribution uniformity (DU), and determine the wetted radius (rw) on soil surface of improvised medi-emitters installed in a tomato field. Soil water content (SWC) at four layers was determined after different periods of irrigation. Radius of wetted soil surface was determined and predicted. Irrigation frequency had no significant effect on the average discharge rate of the medi-emitters throughout the growing cycle. Average Qvar and CGv were significantly (P=0.05) influenced by the frequency of application while the EU and DU did not significantly (P=0.05) differ among the treatments. There were significant differences in the average values of SWC in different soil layers under the different periods of irrigation. Both the observed and calculated rw on the soil surface were fitted with fourth order polynomial. The model performance parameters of MAE and RMSE between the calculated and observed radii were low, indicating good prediction. Medical infusion set can successfully replace the more expensive conventional emitters for drip irrigation system.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
CW RADAR, FMCW RADAR, FMCW ALTIMETER, AND THEIR PARAMETERSveerababupersonal22
It consists of cw radar and fmcw radar ,range measurement,if amplifier and fmcw altimeterThe CW radar operates using continuous wave transmission, while the FMCW radar employs frequency-modulated continuous wave technology. Range measurement is a crucial aspect of radar systems, providing information about the distance to a target. The IF amplifier plays a key role in signal processing, amplifying intermediate frequency signals for further analysis. The FMCW altimeter utilizes frequency-modulated continuous wave technology to accurately measure altitude above a reference point.
NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER IN CONDENSING HEAT EXCHANGERS...ssuser7dcef0
Power plants release a large amount of water vapor into the
atmosphere through the stack. The flue gas can be a potential
source for obtaining much needed cooling water for a power
plant. If a power plant could recover and reuse a portion of this
moisture, it could reduce its total cooling water intake
requirement. One of the most practical way to recover water
from flue gas is to use a condensing heat exchanger. The power
plant could also recover latent heat due to condensation as well
as sensible heat due to lowering the flue gas exit temperature.
Additionally, harmful acids released from the stack can be
reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation. reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation.
Condensation of vapors in flue gas is a complicated
phenomenon since heat and mass transfer of water vapor and
various acids simultaneously occur in the presence of noncondensable
gases such as nitrogen and oxygen. Design of a
condenser depends on the knowledge and understanding of the
heat and mass transfer processes. A computer program for
numerical simulations of water (H2O) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
condensation in a flue gas condensing heat exchanger was
developed using MATLAB. Governing equations based on
mass and energy balances for the system were derived to
predict variables such as flue gas exit temperature, cooling
water outlet temperature, mole fraction and condensation rates
of water and sulfuric acid vapors. The equations were solved
using an iterative solution technique with calculations of heat
and mass transfer coefficients and physical properties.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
We have compiled the most important slides from each speaker's presentation. This year’s compilation, available for free, captures the key insights and contributions shared during the DfMAy 2024 conference.
Forklift Classes Overview by Intella PartsIntella Parts
Discover the different forklift classes and their specific applications. Learn how to choose the right forklift for your needs to ensure safety, efficiency, and compliance in your operations.
For more technical information, visit our website https://intellaparts.com
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
2. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences (ASRJETS) (2016) Volume 26, No 2, pp 190-199
191
1. Introduction
Maize is the third most important cereal crop after wheat and rice and is recognized as a preferred staple food
for over 1.2 billion people living in developing countries across the globe [1]. In Ghana, it is the number one
crop, in terms of production and consumption, and accounts for 50-60% of total cereal production [2, 3]. Despite
the importance of maize in mitigating the present food insecurity in Ghana, productivity is mainly under rain-fed
conditions with uneven distribution and prolong and intermittent drought [4, 5]. Studies show that, due to the
unpredictable nature of rainfall in the country, maize production is prone to drought stress and has resulted in
significant yield loss [6, 7]. As its brief life cycle takes place in a critical time period for the availability of
water, irrigation plays a determining role in maize production.
Until the beginning of this millennium, maize had always been irrigated with highly inefficient methods. Still
today, in many parts of the world, including Ghana, maize is watered by flooding or lateral infiltration of the
furrows. The most commonly used method is sprinkling by self-propelled machines which need high flow rates
and energy, working at pressures in the order of 10-12 bar, giving water use efficiency levels about 60% [8].
In an attempt to increase maize yield and water use efficiency whilst reducing energy cost, drip irrigation has
recently been developed for the crop. The method offers an excellent alternative to sprinkler irrigation, and has
several advantages including more efficient use of water, less labour cost, less usage of fertilizer, less energy
requirement, reduced salinity risk, reduced soil erosion, equitable water distribution and higher crop production
[9, 10, 11]. Recent studies show that drip irrigation can increase maize yield by 40% providing high quality
grains as a result of fewer periods of water and nutrient stress [8].
This work has been done by [12] as a supplementary irrigation in a more humid environment and on a sandy-
clay soil. The objective of the study was to find out how the design, , a simple polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe
drip system with drip lines placed at different depths below the surface, will perform under 100 % irrigation (dry
season), in a forest-savannah transition zone of Ghana with Akposoe maize variety as a test crop.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Description of the study site
The study was carried out at the College of Agriculture Education (CAGRIC), University of Education,
Winneba, Multi-purpose Nursery. CAGRIC is located in the Ashanti Region at 57 km North of Kumasi on the
Kumasi-Ejura trunk road. Geographically, it lies within longitudes 0.05o
and 1.30o
West and latitudes 6.55o
and
7.30o
North. The annual rainfall ranges between 1270 mm and 1524 mm with the mean monthly being 91.2 mm.
The rainfall pattern in the area is bimodal (with two peaks). The mean monthly temperature is between 25 o
C
and 32 o
C [13].
2.2 Design of the system and calibration of flow
The drip irrigation system was designed using locally made and easily available materials such as : ½ inch Poly
3. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences (ASRJETS) (2016) Volume 26, No 2, pp 190-199
192
Vinyl Chloride (PVC) pipes, ½ inch end cup, ½ inch elbow, ½ inch plastic control taps, funnel, graduated cups
and 50 m long water hose. The system was designed using the following information as the basic guideline:
• Time of irrigation = 30 minutes
• Area to be irrigated = 240 m2
(4 plots of 10 m x 6 m)
• Crop (Maize) spacing= 0.75 m x 0.35 m
• Minimum Pressure head = 0.85 m
• Maximum pressure head = 1.15 m
Figure 1: Drip system design with crop (maize)
In order to obtain a uniform flow of water from the laterals for all the laid pipes, they were laid horizontally
using the spirit level. 16 drip holes of 2 mm diameter each per lateral of 6 m with an end cup fixed at the other
and joined to a pipe of 0.85 m height was set up and calibrated for uniformity of flow. The set up was connected
to the main pipe through the elbows joint to supply water from the storage tank to the main laterals through the
drip holes. Catch (collector) cans were placed on a leveled surface to make sure that there was even distribution
of water in the drip holes. A storage tank of 25litre capacity was used and placed at a height of 0.85m to serve as
the flow head (Figure 1).
4. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences (ASRJETS) (2016) Volume 26, No 2, pp 190-199
193
2.3 Field Procedure
Forty-three (43) PVC pipes of length 22.5 m each with end cups at the other ends were used. Drip holes of 2
mm diameter were made at a spacing of 0.35m on each pipe to correspond to the intra-row planting distance of
maize. Elbows were used to connect the extension pipes to the main lateral. A 0.06 m × 0.39 m geotextile
material and a flexible copper wire of 0.25 length were tightly fixed on the drip holes to ensure water flow out in
drips, which served to soak the medium and also to control drip flow tightly (See Figure 2). The P.V.C pipes
were laid at different depths of 0 cm, 20 cm and 40 cm.
Figure 2: Field layout
The experimental design consisted of a randomized arrangement of three water application depths. The layout
consisted of four blocks design (RCBD). The treatments were water application depth at 0 cm (T1), 20 cm (T2)
and 40 cm (T3). Each plot measured 6 m × 10 m. The field layout and blocking is shown in Figure 2. The time
ranges of individual growth as observed and adopted for the experiment based on the variety grown for the
experiment are shown in Table 1.
Figure 3: Lateral layout of the experimental field
5. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences (ASRJETS) (2016) Volume 26, No 2, pp 190-199
194
Table 1: Duration and period within the various growth stages
Growth stages Duration (days) Day after
planting
(days)
Period
Initial stage 14 14 January 8th
to January 21th
Crop development stage 24 38 January 22th
to February 14th
Mid stage 27 65 February 15 th
to March 12th
Late stage 20 85 March 13th
to April 1st
The Akposoi maize variety was planted at a spacing of 0.75 m x 0.35 m after the soil has been irrigated to 50%
field capacity. An inorganic fertilizer (NPK-15:15:15) was applied as recommended by Soil Research Institute
of the [14] CRI of CSIR (2011). Irrigation was scheduled for every three days. Five plants from each replicate
were randomly selected and tagged for measurements. Plant growth parameters such as plant height, leaf length,
leaf diameter, and stem girth were collected every week.. The results for all the treatments were statistically
analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA). A 5 % level of significance was used for all the analysis. In
order to evaluate the performance of the drip irrigation system, three widely-used parameters for measuring
emitter discharge uniformity (Flow variation, (Qvar), Uniformity coefficient (UC) and Coefficient of Variation
(CV)) were used and defined as follows:
𝑄𝑄𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 =
100×(𝑄𝑄 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚−𝑄𝑄 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚)
𝑄𝑄 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
……………………………………………………………(1)
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 = 100 × �1 − (
1
𝑛𝑛
∑ |𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖−𝑞𝑞�|𝑛𝑛
𝑖𝑖=1
𝑞𝑞�
)�
………………………………….………………..(2)
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 =
𝑆𝑆
𝑞𝑞�
………………………………………………………………………………. (3)
Where Qmax = maximum emitter (drip hole) flow rate, Qmin = minimum emitter (drip hole) flow rate, q =
discharge, 𝑞𝑞� = Mean discharge, n = number of (drip holes) emitters evaluated,
s = standard deviation of (drip flow) emitter flow rate,
3. Results and Discussions
3.1 Hydraulic Performance of the drip irrigation system
The hydraulic performance of the system is presented in Table 2. The calculated UC for the three levels of water
application ranged from 98% to 99.8%. According [15,16] classification, the water distribution of the system is
6. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences (ASRJETS) (2016) Volume 26, No 2, pp 190-199
195
excellent. However, the calculated CV and Qvar ranged from 19.8% to 23% and 57.56% to 60.60%
respectively. This, according to [17] classification, is below standard and does not agree with [18]. According to
[19], two effective factors on variation of the water pressure in trickle irrigation system are the pressure head
loss and the field topography. The pressure head was exposed to the atmosphere and the tap was turned off
whenever the laterals became full and this could affect the flow.
Table 2: Performance criteria for evaluating the drip irrigation system
Quantity of Water
applied
(L)
Total time of Flow
(Sec)
Flow Variation
(Qvar) %
Uniformity
Coefficient
(UC) %
Coefficient of
Variation (CV)%
33 1923 57.62 99.8 19.9
75 4371 57.56 98.0 19.8
125 7285 60.60 98.0 23.0
3.2 Effect of water application on plant growth parameters
The variation of different depth of water application on maize growth parameters is presented from Figure 4 to
Figure 7. The soil was watered to field capacity by the designed irrigation system before sowing. From
germination to the end of week two (2), all three treatments had the same growth because they depended on the
food stored in the endosperm until the nodal root system developed later [20]. From week two (2) to three (3)
there was a drop in growth by all treatments because the starchy endosperm’s nourishment had been used up and
the seminal root system were elongating downward into the soil but not long enough for plants to absorb
sufficient water from the placement depth. From week three (3) to four (4), the seedlings were at six leaf stage
on the average and the nodal roots at this stage had elongated to assess enough water from the delivery points,
for maximum photosynthesis, hence the increased growth by all treatments.
Figure 4: Effect of depth of water application on maize leaf diameter
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
LeafDiameter(cm)
Weeks after planting
40cm Depth
20cm Depth
0cm Depth
7. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences (ASRJETS) (2016) Volume 26, No 2, pp 190-199
196
Figure 5: Effect of depth of water application on maize plant height
Figure 6: Effect of depth of water application on maize stem girth
Figure 7: Effect of depth of water application on number of leaves of maize
From week four (4) to five (5) there was a decrease in seedling growth which could be attributed to the fact that
there was a wider leaf diameter, more leaves and increase in nodal roots development which called for high
uptake of water and nutrients. Also, because irrigation was scheduled at three (3) days interval the high
evapotranspiration rate during the period made the top layer of the soil (0-15cm) dry up by the end of second
day. From week five (5) to seven (7) there was a sharp increase in growth in all treatments, because the seminal
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
PlantHeight(cm)
Weeks after Planting
40cm Depth
20cm Depth
0cm Depth
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
StemGirth(cm)
Weeks after Planting
40cm Depth
20cm Depth
0cm Depth
0
5
10
15
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
NumberofLeaves
Weeks after Planting
40cm Depth
20cm Depth
0cm Depth
8. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences (ASRJETS) (2016) Volume 26, No 2, pp 190-199
197
roots as well as the nodal root had developed enough to assess water and nutrients at the various placement
depths.
Even though there was an increase in growth in all the treatments from week five (5) to ten (10), there were
variations in the growth rates. For T1 the nodal roots assessed water at both the surface and below surface and
when there was water loss at the surface it was able to absorb water at the 20cm depth placement. Since the
nodal roots of T3 could not assess sufficient water and nutrients and had to rely on capillary action which is
slow, it was under stress which affected its photosynthetic processes leading to its least performance. From
week seven (7), the seedlings had tasseled and ear formation started. T1 performed better, in terms of growth
parameters of maize, than T2 and T3 because it was able to assess water at the surface as well as the zone of T2.
T3 performed the least because the length of nodal roots had not reached the water placement point and
therefore depended on capillary water. In general maize growth under the developed drip lines gave good result
in all the growth parameters. Plant height, stem girth, leaf diameter and number of leaves under designed drip
lines were statistically similar in all the treatment except the T3 depth.
3.3 Yield
The yield of dry grain at 13.5% moisture content was highest (5, 945 kg h-1
) from pipe placed at 20 cm depth
(T2) (Figure 7), agreeing with [12] even though he carried his research in a more humid zone with lower
evapotranspiration but similar soil conditions. The ANOVA showed no significant (P < 0.05) difference in yield
of dry grain between the depth of pipe placement of 40 cm, 20 cm and 0 cm. Water from the 20 cm depth pipes
were sustained by natural mulching by the top soil from the harsh weather conditions as reported by [21] who
indicated higher water use efficiency and yield in subsurface drip irrigation compared to surface.
Figure 8: Mass of dry grain at 13.5% moisture content (kg ha-1
) of the various treatments
4. Conclusion
The study has shown that the drip irrigation system designed using PVC pipes in [12] can apply irrigation water
efficiently under sandy loam and forest savanna transition conditions for proper growth and yield of maze under
100 % irrigation condition in the Forest-Savannah transitional zone of Ghana if only they are well designed and
maintained properly. However, the 20 cm subsurface placement had highest effects on the Akposoe maize in
5583
5945
4668
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
0cm 20cm 40cm
MassofDryGrainat13.5%
MoistureContent(kgh-1)
Soil Depth (cm)
9. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences (ASRJETS) (2016) Volume 26, No 2, pp 190-199
198
both growth parameters and yield, a confirmation of [12] publication. The water application uniformity was
found to be above 90%, which describes that the drip irrigation was designed on the basis of proper scaling and
dimensions. However the system may be improved by taking steps to reduce pressure head loss. It is only
applicable in the backyard garden.
5. Recommendations
1. A bigger central polytank may be used to supply water to minimize the flow variation and to
determine how much time could be saved from water application since filling individual tanks is time
consuming.
2. The system should be tried under fertigation and its long term effects on the soil and the geotextile
material at the various depths of placement of the pipes.
3. The design could be tested on vegetables.
References
[1] IITA. (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture) (2009). Cereals and Legumes Systems
[2] Breisinger, C., Diao, X., Thurlow, J. and Al. Hassan R. (2008). Agriculture for Development in Ghana.
International Food Policy Research Institute and University of Ghana, Paper to be presented at the
PEGNet Conference. Assessing Development Impact – Learning from Experience. Accra (Ghana), 11
– 12 Sep. 2008 Page 2.
[3] FAO Statistical Databases (2008). FAOSTAT: Agriculture Data. Available online:
http://faostat.fao.org
[4] PPMED. (1998). Annual sample survey of agriculture, Ghana (1997). Regional and District cropped
area, yield and production estimates. Agricultural statistics and Census Division, Policy Planning,
Monitoring and Evaluation Department, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Accra.
[5] SARI. (1996). Savanna Agricultural Research Institute. Annual Report.
[6] Ohemeng-Dapaah, S. (1994). Analysis of daily rainfall data and its application to maize production in
the transitional zone of Ghana. pp 173-179. In Progress in food grain research and production in semi-
arid Africa (Eds Menyonger et al.,) Proceedings, SAFGRAD Inter-works Conference, Niamey, Niger,
7-14 March, 1991.
[7] Kasei, C.N., Mercer-Quashie, H. and Sallah, P. Y. K.. (1995). Identifying probable dry periods in maize
production under a monomodal rainfall regime in Northern Ghana. pp 255-263. In Contributing to food
self-sufficiency: maize research and development in West and Central Africa (ed. Badu-Apraku et al.).
Proceedings of a regional maize workshop, May 29-Jun. 2, 1995, IITA. Cotonou, Benin
10. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences (ASRJETS) (2016) Volume 26, No 2, pp 190-199
199
[8] Abd El-Wahed, M.H., and Ali, E.A. (2013). Effects of irrigation system, amounts of irrigation water
and mulching on corn yield, water use efficiency and net profit. Agric. Water Manag., 120 (31), 64-71
[9] Feleafel, M.N. and Mirdad, Z.M. (2013). Optimizing the nitrogen, phosphorus and potash fertigation
rates and frequency for eggplant in arid regions. Int. J. Agric. Biol., 15(4), 737-742.
[10] Vijayakumar G., Tamilmani, D. and Selvaraj, P.K. (2010). Irrigation and fertigation scheduling under
drip irrigation in brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) crop. Int. J. Bio-res Management, 1(2), 72-76
[11] El-Hendawy, S.E., E.M. Hokam, and Schmidhalter, U. (2008). Drip irrigation frequency: the effects
and their interaction with nitrogen fertilization on sandy soil water distribution, maize yield and water
use efficiency under Egyptian conditions. J. Agron. Crop Sci., 194, 180-192
[12] Asenso, E. , Ofori, E. and Agyei-Agyare, W. (2015). Design and evaluation of simple pvc drip
irrigation system . LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing
[13] Meteorological Service Agency (2002). Annual Report.
[14] Crop Research Institute (CRI) (2011). Factsheet for Maize Production. CRI, Fomasua-Ashanti.
[15] ASAE. (1996). Field evaluation of microirrigation systems. EP405.1. ASAE Standards. Amer. Soc.
Agric. Engr., St. Joseph, MI. Pp. 756-759
[16] Merriam, J., and Keller, J., (1978). Farm Irrigation System Evaluation. A Guide for Management,
Agriculture and Irrigation Engineering Department, Utah State University. pp 120-230.
[17] Solomon, K.. (1979). Manufacturing variation of trickle emitter, Trans. ASAE 22(5): 1034-1038,
1043.
[18] Bralts, V.F., D.M. Edwards, and Wu, I.P. (1997). Drip irrigation design and evaluation based on
statistical uniformity concepts. Advances in irrigation. 4:67-117
[19] Valiahary, S., Sadraddini, A..S., Nazemi, A..H. and Heris, A..M. (2014). Field Evaluation of
Emission Uniformity for Trickle Irrigation Systems (Case Study: Sattarkhan Irrigation Network).
Agriculture Science Developments Vol(3), No (6), June, 2014. pp. 205-208.
[20] Vanderhoef, L. N., and Briggs, W. R. (1978). Red Light-inhibited Mesocotyl Elongation in Maize
Seedlings. I. The Auxin Hypothesis. Plant Physiology 61: 534-537.
[21] Lamm, F.R., and Camp, C.R. (2007). Subsurface drip irrigation. Microirrigation for crop production
design, operation and management, Eds. Lamm, F.R., Ayars, J.E., and Nakayama, F.S. Elsevier, Pp:
473-551.