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Learning, Memory, and Representation (in Cognitive Science)
This document discusses cognitive systems and distributed cognition. It provides examples of cognitive systems including the human brain, computer systems, software programs, and social groups. It also discusses how cognition is distributed across internal mental representations, external environmental representations, and social interactions between people and technologies.
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Learning, Memory, and Representation (in Cognitive Science)
- 1. CGSC 1001 Mysteries ofMind by Jim Davies jim@jimdavies.org 1
- 2. environment Cognitive System perception action Transforms things inthe environment to internal representations Turns desires to act into physical changes in the environment 2
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- 6. People and artifacts The world action perception Sensors, sensory organs,etc. Actuators, software effects, body 6
- 7. Polleverywhere.com Which is adescription of a distributed cognitive system and its environment? (DCS/Environment) 7
- 8. 1 2 34 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 X Y 3 7 4 7 5 7 6 7 7 7 6 6 4 5 5 5 6 4 7 4 3 3 7 3 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 (object 3) (3 less-than 4) (3 more-than 2) (is-prime 3) (is-number 3) (img345987 is-symbol 3) (img838727 is-symbol 3) Etc. Neuron J783gtjg Jnd7y3nh8 Dnbtvv893n etc… 8
- 9. Animal Software Distributed System Brain,Long-term memory, Short- term memory Databases, symbols Paper, brain, disk, environmental manipulations 9
- 10. Sensory Memory Short TermMemory Long Term Memory Sensory memory is like a scratch pad (for vision), or a bit of recording tape (for hearing), that can be overwritten with new things. It is re- written every few seconds by new perceptions. Short Term Memory is a temporary store. Some things from it end up becoming long term memories. Probably stored here forever, though we might have trouble with retrieval. 10
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- 12. We don’t knowmuch about where declarative long term memories are stored. The hippocampus appears to be important for transforming short term into long term memories. Procedural memory appears to happen in the cerebellum, the basal ganglia, and the motor cortex. 12 Image courtesy of HowStuffWorks.com
- 13. Computer Memory • Disk •Flash Memory But who cares? This description is not at the cognitive level. 13 Software Memory • Hash tables • Schemata • Frames • Scripts • Logical sentences • Bitmaps • Activation patterns • Weights in links To a cognitive scientist, this is interesting stuff.
- 14. Examples: • Books • Brains •Fingers • Notes • Arrows and signs • Etc. 14
- 15. 02.5 How doesa meeting remember? 15
- 16. Learning is changingmemory with the purpose of preparing a mind for better action in the future. We’ll go over several kinds of learning. 16
- 17. Diminution of abehavioural response with repeated stimulation. E.g., the first time you hear a loud noise, you might jump, but afterward you stop jumping. 17
- 18. The more someonepokes you, the more it bugs you. At first you get very hungry when you skip lunch, but after a few weeks you aren’t. After living in the old house for a while, you learn where to avoid stepping so that the floorboards don’t creak. After tasting lots of Indian food, you come to expect it to be spicy. 18
- 19. When a behaviouralresponse is amplified by repeated exposure to a stimulus. E.g., at first you can barely feel a vibrating phone in your pocket, but eventually you become very sensitive to it. 19
- 20. Learning to associatetwo previously unrelated stimuli. Typically, this means that you learn to behave similarly to stimulus B as you do to stimulus A. E.g., the dog learns that when you pick up the leash, a walk is soon to follow. Also, Pavlov’s salivating dogs. 20
- 21. A child learnsnot to touch the stove because it burns her. After hearing the same joke a few times, you stop laughing at it. You learn that the capitol of France is Paris in a textbook. You eat a new food and then get sick because of the flu. However, you develop a dislike for the food and feel nauseated whenever you smell it. 21
- 22. Positive reinforcement (thestrongest) • Someone smiles at you when you hold the door for him or her. Negative reinforcement • A baby screams until you give them candy. Then she stops. (Adult learning NR, baby learning PR) Positive punishment • You get burned by touching the hood of a car in the sun. Negative punishment • Your parents cut off your allowance because you lied. 22
- 23. Making a behaviourmore or less likely to happen in the presence of a stimulus depending on reward, punishment, or taking away a reward or aversive stimulus. Mnemonic: Positive = Present, Negative = Remove, Reinforce = Make more likely, Punish = Make less likely. 23 Adding feedback Removing feedback Encouraging behaviour Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Diminishing behaviour Punishment (positive punishment) Extinction (negative punishment)
- 24. Practice involves doingsomething over and over and learning how to do it better. It uses reinforcement and punishment to hone the skill. Play is theorized to be a form of practice for future events (chasing, fighting, caretaking, manipulating objects, etc.) Motor skills (that is, moving your body) gets easier because of automatization. • It becomes “instinct,” fast, unconscious, and automatic. For most of you, tying your shoes is automatized. 24
- 25. A time-sensitive learningin an animal that is insensitive to behavioural outcomes. E.g., a goose learning who its mother is happens 13-16 hours after hatching. 25
- 26. Learning that happensby observing another individual do something. E.g., copying Michael Jackson dance moves on YouTube. Some have tried to get robots to do this. Much of cultural learning (called “enculturation”) is observational, but some is explicitly taught. 26
- 27. When someone tellsyou something. E.g., how to start a web browser, or that orcas are mammals. It can be read or heard aloud. We also get facts by figuring them out, but this is better described as “reasoning” or “inference” than “learning.” 27
- 28. Genetic • When environmentschange very slowly Cultural learning (imitation) • When environments change relatively quickly • Content Bias Imitate the best idea • Prestige bias Imitate the most successful • Conformist bias Imitate the most common ways of doing things Individual learning (figuring out for yourself, perhaps influenced by the Baldwin effect) • When environments change very rapidly, there is reduced cultural transmission Of course, cultures are subject to natural selection as well. Evolution is substrate-neutral. 28
Editor's Notes
- #2 The Space Shuttle Atlantis, backdropped against clouds over Earth, is pictured after it undocked from the International Picture: Space Station at 7:50 a.m. CDT, Sept. 17, 2006. The STS-115 astronauts completed six days, two hours and two minutes of joint operations with the station crew. Image from Wikimedia Commons.
- #4 We’ll mostly be talking about human beings in this class, but for many of the things we will talk about the issues will be the same for many animals.
- #9 Eye picture: By Woodwalker, with a retouche by Poxnar [CC-BY-SA-3.0 (www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons Camera picture: By Justin Smelley [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons
- #10 We can describe memory, as many things in cognition, at different levels of explanation. In animals, including humans, we can describe memory’s location, biologically (e.g., in the hippocampus). We can also describe if functionally (e.g., long-term and short-term).
- #12 Image: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/File:Overview_Memory.jpeg Working Memory is Baddeley’s refined theory of short term memory. The working memory for facts is commonly thought to have 5-9 slots, one for each “chunk.” A chunk is a bit of working memory. The letters M, L, K, J, F, K each might be a chunk, but if you noticed that they were initials (MLK, JFK) then you could store them as two chunks. Some research suggests that there are more like four slots in WM. Baddeley thinks there are separate working memories for audition (hearing) and vision. Some people think that WM is like what we said short term memory—that is, a temporary buffer that holds it before it goes into LTM. This is the gateway model. The workspace model thinks that WM is a separate buffer from LTM. Things get shuffled in and out of it as the task demands. That is, it holds copies of information in LTM. The unitary model holds that WM is simply the activated parts of LTM.
- #13 Image courtesy of HowStuffWorks.com (permission granted in June 7, 2011 email.
- #14 For memory, most cognitive science is interested in the structure of knowledge at the cognitive level. It’s the level above the implementation level (e.g., neurons, or disks).
- #26 Pictured is famous scientist Konrad Lorenz, leading around geese who learned through imprinting who their mother was at an early age.
- #27 Atkeson tried to get a robot to learn to balance an object on a pole by watching a person do it. In 1997, anyway, it was really hard. Atkeson, C. G. and S. Schaal (1997). Robot Learning From Demonstration, Machine Learning: Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Conference (ICML '97), Edited by Douglas H. Fisher, Jr. pp. 12-20, Morgan Kaufmann, San Francisco, CA, 1997.
- #29 For more information on prestige bias and conformist bias, see Richerson and Boyd 2008, esp. kindle location 2187