Crisis intervention and hostage negotiation involves recognizing the psychological dynamics of hostage takers and survivors. Most hostage situations are unplanned domestic disputes involving emotionally disturbed individuals. Negotiators aim to safely resolve 95% of situations through de-escalation, rapport building, information gathering, containment, and persuading the hostage taker to surrender peacefully. The REACT and SAFE models provide frameworks for intervention and communication strategies.

1. Crisis/Hostage Negotiation
Chapter Fifteen

2. Background
Crisis intervention is the core of hostage negotiation
Most crises involving barricade situations occur in the home,
are unplanned, and involve males who are enraged by
domestic disputes
12% involve hostages
52% of all hostage takings are instigated by mentally ill or
emotionally disturbed individuals
Violence is rising in the workplace and acts of hostage
taking occur there

3. Background
Psychological dynamics of people who survive being
held hostage are not unlike those of victims of
battering, coerced prostitutes, and abused children
It is not uncommon for potential suicides and
domestic violence situations to end up as barricade or
hostage situations
As a result of crisis intervention theory and
techniques, more than 95% of crisis/hostage situations
are resolved peacefully

4. Dynamics of Hostage Taking
Types of Hostage Takers
Instrumental
Expressive
The Mentally Disturbed
The Schizophrenic Personality
The Bipolar Personality
The Inadequate/Dependent Personality
The Antisocial Personality
The Borderline Personality

5. Dynamics of Hostage Taking
Other Hostage Takers
The Estranged Person
The Institutionalized Individual
The Wronged Person
Alcohol and Substance Abuse
Stages and Dynamics of a Hostage Situation
Alarm
Crisis
Accommodation
Stockholm Syndrome
Resolution

6. Intervention Models
REACT
Recognition of needed conditions
Engagement builds rapport and facilitates ventilation and
validation
Assessment continuously evaluates the physical risks to all parties
Contracting/Controlling
Facilitating an agreement on how to resolve the incident
Planning out how it will be resolved
Helping the perpetrator with his or her ambivalence
Controlling how the surrender will occur so that nothing goes wrong
Gaining surrender of the hostage taker and release of the hostages
Terminating/Transferring is arranging for follow-up care

7. Intervention Models
S.A.F.E.
Substantive issues are the initial demands made
by the subject and the return demands of the
negotiator.
Attunement is the degree of relational trust,
respect, and desire to cooperate with another
party.
Face is the self-image of the parties that is either
threatened or honored (saving face).
Emotion is the degree of emotional distress
experienced by both parties.

8. Intervention Strategies
Communication Techniques
Cultural Factors
Recognition and Assessment
Controlling and Contracting
Transferring
Containing the Scene
Inner and outer perimeters are secured around the hostage scene and
a command post is established in the inner perimeter
Gathering Information
The most important and time-sensitive information that the
negotiator needs is a profile of the hostage taker
Who are the hostages?
What are the specifications of the hostage site?

9. Intervention Strategies
Stabilizing the Situation
Contain and stabilize the situation
Calm the hostage taker and build rapport
Allow the hostage taker the opportunity to ventilate
feelings
Use “I” statements and reflective summaries
Persuading the Hostage Taker to Give Up
Start by negotiating smaller issues first be clear that the
hostage taker gets nothing without giving something in
return
The Crisis Worker as Consultant
Controversial issue

10. The Role of the Negotiator
Ensure your own safety.
Avoid soliciting demands the negotiator cannot or will not
keep.
Listen for and remember clues regarding the perpetrator’s
emotional state so you can pass that information on to the
negotiator.
Do not offer anything to the perpetrator of a material
nature.
Minimize the seriousness of the perpetrator’s crime.
Do not refer to anybody as “hostage.”
Do not try to trick the hostage taker or be dishonest.

11. The Role of the Negotiator
Never give an absolute no or yes to a demand.
Do not be creative in making suggestions or putting
thoughts in the perpetrator’s mind.
If the perpetrator seems suicidal, ask about it, and
adopt a suicide prevention mode.
No relatives, friends, bosses, or anybody else needs to
be brought to the scene unless the negotiator
decides to do so later. If they are already at the scene,
it is probably best to get them away from it.
Do not offer to exchange yourself.

12. If You are Held Hostage
Do not be a hero.
Follow instructions.
Do not speak unless spoken to.
Do not make suggestions.
Try to rest and eat.
Carefully weigh escape options.
Request aid if needed.
Be observant.
Do not be argumentative.
Be patient.

13. If You are Held Hostage
Avoid standing out.
Treat captives with deference and respect.
Do not slight the seriousness of the situation by
attempting to inject humor into it.
Be careful of trickery.
Do not embarrass your captors.
Keep your confidence and self-esteem.
Keep to routines.
Use fantasy, day dreaming, and future planning.
When rescue comes, follow the rescuers’ directions
precisely.

14. Intervention After Release
Stockholm Syndrome
Acute Stress Disorder
Postincident Interview
Crisis Intervention With Hostage Survivors
Initial Debriefing
Subsequent Intervention Procedures
Crisis Intervention with the Hostage Negotiator