1. Animals are either osmoregulators, which maintain constant internal solute concentrations even in varying external environments, or osmoconformers, which match internal solute concentrations to their surroundings.
2. Insects and arthropods use Malpighian tubules to remove nitrogenous waste from hemolymph and balance water and solute concentrations, while vertebrates use kidneys which filter blood and remove wastes through specialized tubules.
3. The kidney facilitates ultrafiltration through the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule, then the nephron selectively reabsorbs useful substances and balances water through structures like the loop of Henle and collecting duct under hormonal control.
In primitive vertebrates, such as the lancelet (petromyzon), the circulating fluid moves without a heart as the central organ of circulation.
In fishes’ single-circuit system, the gills and the heart are placed in series. The two-chambered heart supplies the blood to gills with pressures that exceed those in the arteries. Largely devoid of gravity, fish depend on water for respiration, fluid balance, thermoregulation, reproduction, and fin development.
The amphibians are adapted to life in water only during early stages of their development. Transition to land is marked by loss of fins and gills, and the emergence of tail and limbs.
Adaptation to air respiration introduces a fundamental change in the structure of the cardiovascular system. The heart and the lung are joined by a newly formed pulmonary circulation placed in parallel with the systemic circulation. In contrast to fish, the circulatory loops cross and assume the shape of a lemniscate (figure-eight or ∞-shaped curves).
The heart acquires a new chamber, the left atrium, while a common ventricle is shared between the pulmonary and systemic loops. Amphibians continue to depend for temperature, reproduction, and part of their respiratory needs on water (skin respiration).
Through the development of complicated organ systems such as thermoregulation, respiration, excretion, inner reproduction, and locomotion, mammals have attained a high degree of environmental liberation.
The cardiovascular system consists of two anatomically separate, but functionally unified, parts—the systemic and pulmonary circulations—placed in series.
In addition to an independent inner watery environment, mammals have developed an “inner atmosphere,” reflected primarily in the partial pressure of oxygen and nitrogen in the blood that parallels the atmospheric pressure.
The essential new feature of the mammalian circulation is a pressurized arterial compartment. The similarity of arterial pressure across the mammalian species suggests that the pressure as such does not serve the blood propulsion.
Vertebrate Circulatory Systems:
transport gases, nutrients, waste products, hormones, heat, & various other materials
consist of heart, arteries, capillaries, & veins:
Arteries
carry blood away from the heart
have muscular, elastic walls
terminate in capillary beds
Capillaries
have very thin walls (endothelium only)
are the site of exchange between the blood and body cells
Veins
carry blood back to the heart
have less muscle in their walls than arteries but the walls are very elastic
begin at the end of capillary beds
Heart
a muscular pump (cardiac muscle)
contains a pacemaker to regulate rate but rate can also be influenced by the Autonomic Nervous System
The main function of gills is respiration...In gills, there are many hair like projections called gill filaments..in gill filaments, there are number of lamella, from transfer of gases and water occur..
Specialities in Birds respiratory system: Air sacs, specialized parabronchi , Unidirectional flow
Benifits of air sacs, Benefit of 2 respiratory cycles
Bird-like respiratory systems in dinosaurs
Rate of breathings in birds
In primitive vertebrates, such as the lancelet (petromyzon), the circulating fluid moves without a heart as the central organ of circulation.
In fishes’ single-circuit system, the gills and the heart are placed in series. The two-chambered heart supplies the blood to gills with pressures that exceed those in the arteries. Largely devoid of gravity, fish depend on water for respiration, fluid balance, thermoregulation, reproduction, and fin development.
The amphibians are adapted to life in water only during early stages of their development. Transition to land is marked by loss of fins and gills, and the emergence of tail and limbs.
Adaptation to air respiration introduces a fundamental change in the structure of the cardiovascular system. The heart and the lung are joined by a newly formed pulmonary circulation placed in parallel with the systemic circulation. In contrast to fish, the circulatory loops cross and assume the shape of a lemniscate (figure-eight or ∞-shaped curves).
The heart acquires a new chamber, the left atrium, while a common ventricle is shared between the pulmonary and systemic loops. Amphibians continue to depend for temperature, reproduction, and part of their respiratory needs on water (skin respiration).
Through the development of complicated organ systems such as thermoregulation, respiration, excretion, inner reproduction, and locomotion, mammals have attained a high degree of environmental liberation.
The cardiovascular system consists of two anatomically separate, but functionally unified, parts—the systemic and pulmonary circulations—placed in series.
In addition to an independent inner watery environment, mammals have developed an “inner atmosphere,” reflected primarily in the partial pressure of oxygen and nitrogen in the blood that parallels the atmospheric pressure.
The essential new feature of the mammalian circulation is a pressurized arterial compartment. The similarity of arterial pressure across the mammalian species suggests that the pressure as such does not serve the blood propulsion.
Vertebrate Circulatory Systems:
transport gases, nutrients, waste products, hormones, heat, & various other materials
consist of heart, arteries, capillaries, & veins:
Arteries
carry blood away from the heart
have muscular, elastic walls
terminate in capillary beds
Capillaries
have very thin walls (endothelium only)
are the site of exchange between the blood and body cells
Veins
carry blood back to the heart
have less muscle in their walls than arteries but the walls are very elastic
begin at the end of capillary beds
Heart
a muscular pump (cardiac muscle)
contains a pacemaker to regulate rate but rate can also be influenced by the Autonomic Nervous System
The main function of gills is respiration...In gills, there are many hair like projections called gill filaments..in gill filaments, there are number of lamella, from transfer of gases and water occur..
Specialities in Birds respiratory system: Air sacs, specialized parabronchi , Unidirectional flow
Benifits of air sacs, Benefit of 2 respiratory cycles
Bird-like respiratory systems in dinosaurs
Rate of breathings in birds
Excretion in various invertebrates and vertebrates is dealt as per the PG syllabus prescribed by Vijayanagara Sri Krishnadevaraya University Ballari. It is useful for the PG students studying animal physiology as the core subject under zoology. It gives a overall picture of excretion to the teacher who is teaching animal physiology to the collegiate and university levels.
The male and female reproductive systems develop initially embryonically "indifferent", it is the product of the Y chromosome SRY gene that makes the "difference".
♂ - Male ♀ - Female
The reproductive organs are developed from the intermediate mesoderm.
The permanent organs of the adult are preceded by a set of structures which are purely embryonic, and which with the exception of the ducts disappear almost entirely before the end of fetal life.
These embryonic structures are the mesonephric ducts (also known as Wolffian ducts) and the paramesonephric ducts, (also known as Müllerian ducts). The mesonephric duct remains as the duct in males which gives rise to seminal vesical, epididymes and vas deferens, and the paramesonephric duct as that of the female.
Importantly its sex chromosome dependence, late embryonic/fetal differential development, complex morphogenic changes, long time-course, hormonal sensitivity and hormonal influences make it a system prone to many different abnormalities.
Gonads:
Gonads Produce eggs and sperm cells, transport and sustain egg and sperm cells, nurture developing offspring, and produce hormones.
The gonads, ovary or testis, also develop in the intermediate mesoderm.
They originally form as swellings that lie just ventral to the anterior mesonephric kidney.
A mullarian duct also develops in the intermediate mesoderm near the mesonephric duct.
Due to fusion or failure of 1st ridge to differentiate, some vertebrates (agnathans, some female lizards & crocodilians, & most female birds) have a single testis or ovary.
Hormones cause differentiation of early gonads into either testes or ovaries.
As males develop the mesonephric duct makes connection with the testis as the primary sperm conducting duct, and the mullerian duct is lost.
The basic fundamental plan of the aortic arches is similar in different vertebrates during embryonic stages.
But in adult the condition of the arrangement is changed either being lost or modified considerably.
The number of aortic arches is gradually reduced as the scale of evolution of vertebrates is ascended.
The embryonic aortic arches were basically six pairs.
But with progressive evolution , there has been consequent reduction in numbers of aortic arches.
In the basic pattern the major arterial channels consists of
A ventral aorta emerging from the heart and passing forward beneath the pharynx
A dorsal aorta paired above the pharynx and passing caudal above the digestive tract.
Six pairs of aortic arches connecting ventral aorta to with the dorsal aorta.
1st aortic arch= Mandibular aortic arch
2nd Aortic arch= hyoid aortic arch
3rd ,4th ,5th and 6th aortic arches in case of aquatic animal , known as branchial aortic arches.
Mechanisms of osmoregulation in fresh water and marine water invertebratesfaunafondness
Mechanisms of osmoregulation in fresh water and marine water invertebrates.
content :-
1. INTRODUCTION
2. DEFINITION OF OSMOREGULATION
3. TYPES OF INVERTEBRATES ACCORDING TO THE MEDIUM
4. CLASSIFICATION OF INVERTEBRATES ON THE BASIS OF 5. OSMOREGULATION
(I) OSMOCONFORMERS
(II) OSMOREGULATORS
6. MECHANISMS OF OSMOREGULATION
7. OSMOREGULATION IN FRESH WATER INVERTEBRATES
8. OSMOREGULATION IN MARINE WATER INVERTEBRATES
9. CONCLUSION
10.REFERENCE
for more refer to Faunafondness.com
This presentation includes mechanism of excretion, ultra filteration, Reabsorption, secretion into kidney. Formation of urine. as well as introduction of osmoregulation and mechanism in aquatic fishes including fresh water fish, marine fish, eusturine fish and migratory fish.
In aquatic animals such as fish respiration takes place through special respiratory organs called gills, however lung fish respiration takes place through lungs. Gills are present on both the sides of the head of fish. The gills are covered by gill covers also called operculum. When the fish open its mouth, water is drawn into the buccal cavity and passed through the gills. The gills contain special type of cells that absorb the oxygen present in water. The absorbed oxygen is then supplied to all the cells of body through blood. In the cells, oxygen is converted into carbon dioxide and returned back to gills through blood. Ultimately, the gills release the carbon dioxide in water passing through them.
Respiration in Fish
The gills of fish are very efficient; it is estimated gills can extract about 80% oxygen dissolved in water. In addition to the respiratory organs, the gills have an important role in maintaining the right balance of salts in the body.
The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder).In this system, the process of digestion has many stages, the first of which starts in the mouth. Digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components, until they can be absorbed and assimilated into the body.
Chewing, in which food is mixed with saliva begins the process of digestion. This produces a bolus which can be swallowed down the esophagus and into the stomach. Here it is mixed with gastric juice until it passes into the duodenum, where it is mixed with a number of enzymes produced by the pancreas. Saliva also contains a catalytic enzyme called amylase which starts to act on food in the mouth. Another digestive enzyme called lingual lipase is secreted by some of the lingual papillae on the tongue and also from serous glands in the main salivary glands. Digestion is helped by the mastication of food by the teeth and also by the muscular actions of peristalsis and segmentation contractions. Gastric juice in the stomach is essential for the continuation of digestion as is the production of mucus in the stomach.
Peristalsis is the rhythmic contraction of muscles that begins in the esophagus and continues along the wall of the stomach and the rest of the gastrointestinal tract. This initially results in the production of chyme which when fully broken down in the small intestine is absorbed as chyle into the lymphatic system. Most of the digestion of food takes place in the small intestine. Water and some minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon of the large intestine. The waste products of digestion (faeces) are defecated from the anus via the rectum.
Accssory respiratiory organs in fishesaadiihussain
Gills are primary respiratory organs in fishes, Extra branchial respiration is highly useful for survival when oxygen supplied by gills is not sufficient.
osmoregulation in invertebrates- it is a processes by which any organisms maintains the fluid and salt balance of its body, which is important for proper functioning of organs .
Evolutionary change in heart of vertebrates
Heart is situated ventral to the oseophagus in the pericardial section of the coelom.
Heart is a highly muscular pumping organ that pumps blood into arteries and sucks it back through the veins.
In vertebrates it has undergone transformation by twisting from a straight tube to a complex multi-chambered organ.
. There has been an increase in the number of chambers in heart during evolution of vertebrates.
The heart is covered by a transparent protective covering, called pericardium. It is a single layer in fish.
Within pericardium there is a pericardial fluid, protects the heart from the external injury.
The evolution of the heart is based on the separation of oxygenated blood from deoxygenated blood for efficient oxygen transport.
A powerpoint on the Human Excretory System, intended for the SA Grade 11 Life Sciences Syllabus. Includes information on kidneys, osmoregulation, nephrons, excretion, etc. Hope it helps :)
INTRODUCTION
The term urogenital refers to something that has both urinary and genital origins. The word urogenital is used because the urinary and reproductive systems in males merge.
These are grouped together because of their proximity to each other, their common embryological origin and the use of common pathways (ex. urethra).
Kidneys and urinary ducts form the urinary system.
The Urinary system performs two important homeostatic processes like excretion and osmoregulation. This system is intimately associated both anatomically, and in terms of embryonic origin with the genital system.
The genital system includes the gonads which generate gametes and the genital ducts that serve as passages for the gametes.
Though functionally different the two organ systems the urinary and the genital system are treated together as the urino- genital system, since both develop from the same segmental blocks of trunk mesoderm or adjacent tissues and share many of the ducts.
Thus although the two systems have nothing common functionally they are closely associated in their use of common ducts and are studied under the broad heading of urinogenital system.
The function of the excretory system is crucial in considering the possible environment of the ‘vertebrate life ’. Several main functions can be attributed to all vertebrate excretory systems:
Excretion of nitrogenous waste products.
Maintaining homeostasis with regard to ions (i.e. salt balance).
Regaining valuable substances (glucose, salts, amino acids, etc.)
Maintaining a physiological osmotic value (i.e. water balance).
The excretory system is formed by a series of paired, segmental nephrons that begin with a nephrostome opening into the coelomic cavity.
A pair of glomeruli per segment, supplied by branches from the aorta, projects into the coelomic cavity close to these nephrostomes.
At a later stage of development, the glomerulus/nephrostome area becomes separated from the rest of the coelomic cavity by an epithelial fold.
The nephrons connect to a duct that is formed by caudal growth of the most anterior nephric tubules. These paired urinary ducts open near the anal region.
Excretion in various invertebrates and vertebrates is dealt as per the PG syllabus prescribed by Vijayanagara Sri Krishnadevaraya University Ballari. It is useful for the PG students studying animal physiology as the core subject under zoology. It gives a overall picture of excretion to the teacher who is teaching animal physiology to the collegiate and university levels.
The male and female reproductive systems develop initially embryonically "indifferent", it is the product of the Y chromosome SRY gene that makes the "difference".
♂ - Male ♀ - Female
The reproductive organs are developed from the intermediate mesoderm.
The permanent organs of the adult are preceded by a set of structures which are purely embryonic, and which with the exception of the ducts disappear almost entirely before the end of fetal life.
These embryonic structures are the mesonephric ducts (also known as Wolffian ducts) and the paramesonephric ducts, (also known as Müllerian ducts). The mesonephric duct remains as the duct in males which gives rise to seminal vesical, epididymes and vas deferens, and the paramesonephric duct as that of the female.
Importantly its sex chromosome dependence, late embryonic/fetal differential development, complex morphogenic changes, long time-course, hormonal sensitivity and hormonal influences make it a system prone to many different abnormalities.
Gonads:
Gonads Produce eggs and sperm cells, transport and sustain egg and sperm cells, nurture developing offspring, and produce hormones.
The gonads, ovary or testis, also develop in the intermediate mesoderm.
They originally form as swellings that lie just ventral to the anterior mesonephric kidney.
A mullarian duct also develops in the intermediate mesoderm near the mesonephric duct.
Due to fusion or failure of 1st ridge to differentiate, some vertebrates (agnathans, some female lizards & crocodilians, & most female birds) have a single testis or ovary.
Hormones cause differentiation of early gonads into either testes or ovaries.
As males develop the mesonephric duct makes connection with the testis as the primary sperm conducting duct, and the mullerian duct is lost.
The basic fundamental plan of the aortic arches is similar in different vertebrates during embryonic stages.
But in adult the condition of the arrangement is changed either being lost or modified considerably.
The number of aortic arches is gradually reduced as the scale of evolution of vertebrates is ascended.
The embryonic aortic arches were basically six pairs.
But with progressive evolution , there has been consequent reduction in numbers of aortic arches.
In the basic pattern the major arterial channels consists of
A ventral aorta emerging from the heart and passing forward beneath the pharynx
A dorsal aorta paired above the pharynx and passing caudal above the digestive tract.
Six pairs of aortic arches connecting ventral aorta to with the dorsal aorta.
1st aortic arch= Mandibular aortic arch
2nd Aortic arch= hyoid aortic arch
3rd ,4th ,5th and 6th aortic arches in case of aquatic animal , known as branchial aortic arches.
Mechanisms of osmoregulation in fresh water and marine water invertebratesfaunafondness
Mechanisms of osmoregulation in fresh water and marine water invertebrates.
content :-
1. INTRODUCTION
2. DEFINITION OF OSMOREGULATION
3. TYPES OF INVERTEBRATES ACCORDING TO THE MEDIUM
4. CLASSIFICATION OF INVERTEBRATES ON THE BASIS OF 5. OSMOREGULATION
(I) OSMOCONFORMERS
(II) OSMOREGULATORS
6. MECHANISMS OF OSMOREGULATION
7. OSMOREGULATION IN FRESH WATER INVERTEBRATES
8. OSMOREGULATION IN MARINE WATER INVERTEBRATES
9. CONCLUSION
10.REFERENCE
for more refer to Faunafondness.com
This presentation includes mechanism of excretion, ultra filteration, Reabsorption, secretion into kidney. Formation of urine. as well as introduction of osmoregulation and mechanism in aquatic fishes including fresh water fish, marine fish, eusturine fish and migratory fish.
In aquatic animals such as fish respiration takes place through special respiratory organs called gills, however lung fish respiration takes place through lungs. Gills are present on both the sides of the head of fish. The gills are covered by gill covers also called operculum. When the fish open its mouth, water is drawn into the buccal cavity and passed through the gills. The gills contain special type of cells that absorb the oxygen present in water. The absorbed oxygen is then supplied to all the cells of body through blood. In the cells, oxygen is converted into carbon dioxide and returned back to gills through blood. Ultimately, the gills release the carbon dioxide in water passing through them.
Respiration in Fish
The gills of fish are very efficient; it is estimated gills can extract about 80% oxygen dissolved in water. In addition to the respiratory organs, the gills have an important role in maintaining the right balance of salts in the body.
The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder).In this system, the process of digestion has many stages, the first of which starts in the mouth. Digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components, until they can be absorbed and assimilated into the body.
Chewing, in which food is mixed with saliva begins the process of digestion. This produces a bolus which can be swallowed down the esophagus and into the stomach. Here it is mixed with gastric juice until it passes into the duodenum, where it is mixed with a number of enzymes produced by the pancreas. Saliva also contains a catalytic enzyme called amylase which starts to act on food in the mouth. Another digestive enzyme called lingual lipase is secreted by some of the lingual papillae on the tongue and also from serous glands in the main salivary glands. Digestion is helped by the mastication of food by the teeth and also by the muscular actions of peristalsis and segmentation contractions. Gastric juice in the stomach is essential for the continuation of digestion as is the production of mucus in the stomach.
Peristalsis is the rhythmic contraction of muscles that begins in the esophagus and continues along the wall of the stomach and the rest of the gastrointestinal tract. This initially results in the production of chyme which when fully broken down in the small intestine is absorbed as chyle into the lymphatic system. Most of the digestion of food takes place in the small intestine. Water and some minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon of the large intestine. The waste products of digestion (faeces) are defecated from the anus via the rectum.
Accssory respiratiory organs in fishesaadiihussain
Gills are primary respiratory organs in fishes, Extra branchial respiration is highly useful for survival when oxygen supplied by gills is not sufficient.
osmoregulation in invertebrates- it is a processes by which any organisms maintains the fluid and salt balance of its body, which is important for proper functioning of organs .
Evolutionary change in heart of vertebrates
Heart is situated ventral to the oseophagus in the pericardial section of the coelom.
Heart is a highly muscular pumping organ that pumps blood into arteries and sucks it back through the veins.
In vertebrates it has undergone transformation by twisting from a straight tube to a complex multi-chambered organ.
. There has been an increase in the number of chambers in heart during evolution of vertebrates.
The heart is covered by a transparent protective covering, called pericardium. It is a single layer in fish.
Within pericardium there is a pericardial fluid, protects the heart from the external injury.
The evolution of the heart is based on the separation of oxygenated blood from deoxygenated blood for efficient oxygen transport.
A powerpoint on the Human Excretory System, intended for the SA Grade 11 Life Sciences Syllabus. Includes information on kidneys, osmoregulation, nephrons, excretion, etc. Hope it helps :)
INTRODUCTION
The term urogenital refers to something that has both urinary and genital origins. The word urogenital is used because the urinary and reproductive systems in males merge.
These are grouped together because of their proximity to each other, their common embryological origin and the use of common pathways (ex. urethra).
Kidneys and urinary ducts form the urinary system.
The Urinary system performs two important homeostatic processes like excretion and osmoregulation. This system is intimately associated both anatomically, and in terms of embryonic origin with the genital system.
The genital system includes the gonads which generate gametes and the genital ducts that serve as passages for the gametes.
Though functionally different the two organ systems the urinary and the genital system are treated together as the urino- genital system, since both develop from the same segmental blocks of trunk mesoderm or adjacent tissues and share many of the ducts.
Thus although the two systems have nothing common functionally they are closely associated in their use of common ducts and are studied under the broad heading of urinogenital system.
The function of the excretory system is crucial in considering the possible environment of the ‘vertebrate life ’. Several main functions can be attributed to all vertebrate excretory systems:
Excretion of nitrogenous waste products.
Maintaining homeostasis with regard to ions (i.e. salt balance).
Regaining valuable substances (glucose, salts, amino acids, etc.)
Maintaining a physiological osmotic value (i.e. water balance).
The excretory system is formed by a series of paired, segmental nephrons that begin with a nephrostome opening into the coelomic cavity.
A pair of glomeruli per segment, supplied by branches from the aorta, projects into the coelomic cavity close to these nephrostomes.
At a later stage of development, the glomerulus/nephrostome area becomes separated from the rest of the coelomic cavity by an epithelial fold.
The nephrons connect to a duct that is formed by caudal growth of the most anterior nephric tubules. These paired urinary ducts open near the anal region.
There needs to be a balance between water ingested and water eliminated.
In order to maintain homeostatic levels of water, the body must undergo osmoregulation.
1 . EXCRETION
Waste product removal e.g. nitrogenous – uric acid (mammals urea , fish ammonia)
Kidneys – secrete uric acid (product of protein metabolism)
Gastro-intestinal tract secretions e.g. bile
No sweat glands
Salt glands (water birds)
Water loss – lungs
2. URINARY SYSTEM
• Major organs are the kidneys, the ureter and the cloaca.
• No urinary bladder in bird.
3 . ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF KIDNEY
Avian kidneys are paired fitted closely the bony depression on the dorsal wall of the pelvis . Each kidney is divided into three lobes.
4 .
5 . NEPHRON
Two kinds of nephrons.
1. Reptilian nephron
2. Mammalian nephron
• 6 .
• 7. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AVIAN AND MAMMALIAN KIDNEY
8. RENAL PORTAL SYSTEM
Uric acid is formed in the liver as well as the kidneys of the birds from ammonia, which is the most toxic protein metabolic by product .
9. GLOMERULAR FILTRATION
Fluid pressure forces water and dissolved substances from glomerular blood to Bowman’s capsule .
Filtration averages 125 ml/min form two kidneys.
10 . TUBULAR REABSORPTION
Return of the useful substances from the filtrate to the blood capillaries or interstitial fluid.
11 . COUNTER CURRENT MECHANISM
This mechanism works in the loop of henle to increase water reabsorbed from the descending limb as a result of salt reabsorbed from the ascending limb .
12 . POST RENAL URINE MODIFICATION
After the presentation of urine to cloaca their might be retrograde flow or backward flow of urine into the colon.
In the colon reabsorption of excessive amount of water as well as sodium ion takes place.
13 . HORMONES RESPONSIBLE FOR URINE FORMATION
Arginine vasotocin ,Angiotensin ׀׀ ,Aldosterone ,ANP (arterial natriuretic peptide)
Aldosterone is responsible for the reabsorption of sodium and excretion of potassium in the filtrate.
Excretory system
Fuction of excretory system
Excretory organ
1>Malpighian tubules
2>Nephrocyte
3>Oenocytes
5>Integument
6>rectum
→Urine production
Formation of primary urine
Movement of solute
Excreation of ions
Modification of primary urine
Salt and water balance
terrestial insects
Fresh water insect
Salt water insect
Nitrogen Excretion
Osmoregulation Mechanisms and Adaptations in Various Organisms.pdfNAGENDRA SINGH
Osmoregulation is the process by which living organisms regulate the concentration of water and solutes (such as salts) in their bodies to maintain homeostasis, or a stable internal environment. This is especially important in aquatic organisms, which are surrounded by water of varying salt concentrations, but also in terrestrial organisms that need to conserve water.
In animals, osmoregulation involves a variety of physiological processes such as filtration, reabsorption, and secretion by the kidneys. Fish, for example, have specialized organs called gills that are adapted to exchange water and solutes with their environment. They also have kidneys that regulate the concentration of ions in their bodies. Other animals, such as birds, excrete waste products in the form of uric acid, which conserves water.
Plants also engage in osmoregulation, using a process called osmosis to absorb water and nutrients from the soil. They also use various mechanisms, such as opening and closing stomata, to control water loss through transpiration.
Overall, osmoregulation is an essential process for maintaining the internal environment of living organisms and ensuring their survival.
Sure, here are some additional details about osmoregulation:Types of Osmoregulation: There are two types of osmoregulation, depending on the organism's environment. In freshwater environments, organisms have to regulate the inflow of water and outflow of salts. In contrast, marine organisms have to regulate the outflow of water and inflow of salts.
Osmoregulatory Organs: Different organisms have evolved various osmoregulatory organs to maintain the balance of water and solutes in their bodies. For example, insects have Malpighian tubules, which remove waste and excess water from the body. Terrestrial animals such as reptiles, birds, and mammals have kidneys that filter blood and excrete waste products in the form of urine.
Osmolarity: Osmoregulation maintains the balance of osmolarity in the body, which is the concentration of solutes in a solution. Osmolarity is measured in units of osmoles per liter (osmol/L) and is important for the regulation of water balance in organisms.
Regulation of Salt Balance: In addition to regulating water balance, osmoregulation also involves the regulation of salt balance. Salt balance is critical for cellular functions such as enzyme activity, nerve function, and muscle contraction.
Osmoregulation and Adaptation: Different organisms have evolved various mechanisms for osmoregulation to adapt to their environment. For example, some desert animals conserve water by producing dry feces or uric acid instead of urea, which conserves water. Some marine organisms, such as sharks, have a high concentration of urea in their blood, which helps them retain water in the ocean's salty environment.
Osmoregulation and Human Health: Osmoregulation is essential for human health, and disruptions in the body's water and salt balance can lead to health problems such a
Excretory Products and their Elimination Class XI Biology Chapter 19.
Based on NCERT Class XI Biology Text book content.
Includes flowcharts and illustrations.
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
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June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
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The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
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This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
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http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
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11.3 kidney
1. Essential idea: All animals excrete nitrogenous waste products and some animals also
balance water and solute concentrations.
11.3 The kidney and osmoregulation
The form in which nitrogenous
waste is excreted reflects
evolution and ecological niche
occupied, by the animal.
2. Understandings
Statement Guidance
11.3 U.1 Animals are either osmoregulators or
osmoconformers.
11.3 U.2 The Malpighian tubule system in insectsand
the kidney carry out osmoregulation and
removal of nitrogenous wastes.
11.3 U.3 The composition of blood in the renal arteryis
different from that in the renalvein.
11.3 U.4 The ultrastructure of the glomerulus and
Bowman’s capsule facilitate ultrafiltration.
11.3 U.5 The proximal convoluted tubule selectively
reabsorbs useful substances by active
transport.
11.3 U.6 The loop of Henle maintains hypertonic
conditions in the medulla.
11.3 U.7 ADH controls reabsorption of water in the ADH will be used in preference to vasopressin.
collecting duct.
11.3 U.8 The length of the loop of Henle is positively
correlated with the need for water
conservation in animals.
11.3 U.9 The type of nitrogenous waste in animals is
correlated with evolutionary history and
habitat.
3. Applications and Skills
Statement Guidance
11.3 A.1 Consequences of dehydration and
overhydration.
11.3 A.2 Treatment of kidney failure by hemodialysis or
kidney transplant.
11.3 A.3 Blood cells, glucose, proteins and drugsare
detected in urinary tests.
11.3 S.1 Drawing and labelling a diagram of the human
kidney.
11.3 S.2 Skill: Annotation of diagrams of the nephron. The diagram of the nephron shouldinclude
glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, proximal
convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal
convoluted tubule; the relationship betweenthe
nephron and the collecting duct should be
included.
4. Types of metabolic waste
produced by living systems
1. Digestive waste
2. Respiratory waste
3. Excess water and salts
(through
osmoregulation)
4. Nitrogenous waste
(through excretion)
5. ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY
OSMOREGULATORS:
• All terrestrial animals, freshwater
animals and some marine
organisms are osmoregulators
because they maintain constant
internal solute concentration,
even when living in marine
environments with very
different osmolarities
• Typically these organisms maintain
their solute concentration at about
one third of the concentration of
seawater and about 10 times that
of fresh water
• (Terrestrial Animals/ Freshwater
Animals/ Boney Fish)
OSMOCONFORMERS:
• Animals that have similar
internal solute concentration in
comparison to the solute
concentration to their
surrounding environment
• (Marine Invertebrates/
Cartilaginous Fish)
11.3 U.1 Animals are either osmoregulators or osmoconformers.
6. Osmoregulation Example
•Maintaining osmotic homeostasis
• Balancing water and solute concentrations (Salts/nitrogen)
• Maintains cell integrity
• Maintains enzyme function
• etc.
Osmoregulators When they live in fresh water, their bodies tend to
take up water because the environment is relatively hypotonic. In such hypotonic
environments, these fish do not drink much water. Instead, they pass a lot of very
dilute urine, and they achieve electrolyte balance by active transport of salts through
the gills.
11.3 U.1 Animals are either osmoregulators or osmoconformers.
7. Osmoconformers Example maintain an internal conditions that are
equal to osmolarity of their environment. Minimizing the osmotic gradient
minimizes the water movement in and out of cells. A disadvantage is that internal
conditions may be sub- optimal. When they move to a hypertonic marine
environment, these fish start drinking sea water; they excrete the excess salts
through their gills and their urine.
• Marine fish lose water by osmosis
Actively excrete salt to maintain homeostasis
• Freshwater fish lose water by osmosis
Excrete excess water
11.3 U.1 Animals are either osmoregulators or osmoconformers.
8. Two forms of excretory systems
Malpighian tubules – Insects, arthropods Kidneys - Vertebrates
1. Malpighian tubes: remove Nitrogen waste from hemolymph,
located near digestive tract. Secretes dry waste with feces.
2. Kidneys: compact organs containing tubules surrounded by
capillaries. Responsible for water and blood filtration, excretion of
Nitrogen waste and salt
11.3 U.9 The type of nitrogenous waste in animals is correlated with evolutionary history and habitat.
9. Types of Nitrogenous Wastes:
1. Ammonia – water soluble, very
toxic; aquatic animals
2. Urea – produced by liver; less
toxic, conserves water; most
vertebrates
3. Uric acid – in birds & reptiles
ammonia is convert as uric acid.
Uric acid does not require water
and is highly concentrated. This is
beneficial to these organisms as
they do not have to carry the extra
water around excreted as paste or
crystals. Important in reducing
weight for flight
11.3 U.9 The type of nitrogenous waste in animals is correlated with evolutionary history
and habitat.
When animals breakdown amino and nucleic acids, nitrogenous waste is formed
in the form of ammonia. Ammonia is highly basic, toxic and can be very reactive.
What a Ammonia becomes after this step is determined by the organisms
evolutionary history and habitat. As an example: Marine and freshwater organisms
can release the ammonia directly into the surrounding water where it becomes dilute.
10. 11.3 U.2 The Malpighian tubule system in insects and the kidney carry out osmoregulation
and removal of nitrogenous wastes.
The removal of nitrogenous waste and osmoregulation in insects by
the Malpighian tubule
• Nitrogenous wastes are broken down into URIC ACID in the insects.
• Malpighian tubules branch off from their intestinal tract.
• Uric acid, Na+, and K+ are actively transported from the hemolymph into the lumen of the
tubules.
• This draws water into the tubules by osmosis.
• The water, ions, and uric acid move into the hindgut.
• In the rectum, most of the water (osmosis) and salts (pumped) are selectively
REABSORBED while the dehydrated uric acid is eliminated as a semisolid paste with
the feces.
11. 11.3 U.2 The Malpighian tubule system in insects and the kidney carry out osmoregulation
and removal of nitrogenous wastes.
Malpighian tubules are longer
and more convoluted than shown in
this simplified illustration, they extend
into the body cavity, where they are
surrounded by hemolymph.
Hemolymph is a fluid (analogous to the
blood) that circulates in the interior of the
insect’s body remaining in contact with the
tissues.
The removal of nitrogenous waste and osmoregulation in insects by
the Malpighian tubule
12. Osmoregulation: control solute
concentrations and balance water
gain/loss
Excretion: removal of nitrogenous
wastes from body
Diffusion is a form of passive transport, a net movement of
particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration. This is often through a partially permeable
membrane.
PASSIVE: DOES NOT REQUIRE ENERGY
Concentration gradient: the difference in concentration of
substances between two locations
13. Osmosis
Most cell are partially
permeable membrane, water
flows with the concentration
gradiant.
When a cell is submerged
in water, the water
molecules pass through the
cell membrane from an area
of low solute
concentration (outside
the cell) to one of high
solute concentration
(inside the cell)
14. Osmolarity is the measure of the concentration of solute inside of a fluid
or a cell. Cells can be in three types of Osmotic Environments:
15. How to make urine:
Water and solutes enter filtrate; blood
cells and proteins (nitrogen waste)
remain in body fluid.
Reclaim glucose, vitamins,
hormones
Add toxins and excess ions
Filtrate leaves body as urine
16. The urine
produced by
each kidney is
transported via
a URETER to
be stored in the
BLADDER.
The bladder
empties
through the
URETHRA.
11.3 S.1 Drawing and labelling a diagram of the human kidney
17. •The RENAL CORTEX
is the outer layer of
tissue under the
capsule where the
blood is filtered.
•The RENAL
MEDULLA is found
as a “middle” layer of
tissue. Water and salt
balance take place
here.
•Urine that has been
produced by the
filtration/reabsorption
processes of the
kidney is collected in
the RENAL PELVIS.
Structure of the Kidney
11.3 S.1 Drawing and labelling a diagram of the human kidney
19. The kidney causes changes in the composition of blood
renal vein
(filtered blood)
renal artery
(unfiltered blood)
ureter
(urine)
blood in the renal vein compared and
contrasted with the renal artery has …
• no change in proteins – not filtered
• less urea and toxins#
• less oxygen*
• more carbon dioxide*
• less salts and ions$ (if in excess)
• less water$ (if in excess)
• less glucose*
*Oxygen and glucose are used for cell respiration in the kidney and carbon dioxide is produced.
urea
toxins
water
salts
ions
# Undesired waste is removed from the
blood.
$ The blood water and salt concentration
needs to be balanced (osmoregulation).
The kidney helps by removing these
molecules if in excess.
11.3 U.3 The composition of blood in the renal artery is different from that in the renal
vein.
21. • Each kidney is made up of
1.25 million filtering units
called nephrons.
• 1,100 to 2000 L of blood
flow through the kidneys
each day.
• The nephrons and
collecting ducts create 180
L of initial filtrate.
• Nearly all of the sugar,
vitamins, and organic
nutrients and 99% of water
are reabsorbed into the
blood.
• Only about 1.5 L of urine
are produced.
Nephron- the functional units of the kidney.
11.3 S.2 Annotation of diagrams of the nephron.
22. a and c. GLOMERULUS- Afferent
arteriole form branches of the renal
artery bed which filters the blood.
Efferent arteriole join together to
form the renal vein
b. BOWMAN’s CAPSULE-
surrounds the glomerulus and
collects the filtrate.
d. PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED-
selective reabsorption
e. LOOP OF HENLE- regulation
f. DISTAL CONVOLUTED –
secretion of wastes back into filtrate
g. COLLECTING DUCTS-
osmoregulation
11.3 S.2 Annotation of diagrams of the nephron.
23. Ultrafiltration: formation of kidney filtrate
11.3 U.4 The ultrastructure of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule facilitate
ultrafiltration.
•Hydrostatic pressure created as the afferent arterioles narrow in the
glomerulus capillaries forces a liquid against a semi-permeable membrane.
•Blood in capillaries is at high pressure in many of the tissues of the body, and
the pressure forces some of the plasma out through the capillary wall,
to form tissue fluid
•The pressure in the capillaries of the glomerulus are particularly high and the
capillary wall is particularly permeable, so the volume forced out is about
100 times greater than in other tissues.
Present moving in
Glucose
Proteins
Urea
Na+
Cl-
Present moving out
Urea
Filtered out of Blood
Glucose
Proteins
Na+
Cl-
24. 1. In the Bowmen’s capsule a
cup-like sack where fluid is
collected by the high pressure
generate in the glomerulus
knot.
2. The capillary wall of the
glomerulus is fenestrated
(containing pores) allowing
fluid to move through it.
3. The basement membrane is
the effect filtration barrier only
allowing small molecules to
pass through it. Cells and large
macromolecules cannot pass
through this structure.
4. podocyte filtration slits acting
as another filter allowing only
smaller molecules to be filtered
*Note this means that the filtrate does not pass through the cells of either the
glomerulus or the Bowman's capsule
11.3 U.4 The ultrastructure of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule facilitate
ultrafiltration.
25. 11.3 U.5 The proximal convoluted tubule selectively reabsorbs useful substances by active
transport.
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
• This where most selective reabsorption occurs: All glucose, amino acids, vitamins and
hormones are reabsorbed here, along with approx 80% of the mineral ions and water
• Due to high concentrations of recovered substances in PCT cells the substances can passively
diffuse into the bloodstream (along the concentration gradient)
• microvilli cell lining to increase the surface area for the absorption
SELECTIVE REABSORPTION
(General Patterns)
• Amino acids, hormones
mineral ions & vitamins are
actively transported (a large
number of mitochondria
provide ATP for active
transport) into the PCT cells
• Glucose is actively transported
across the membrane (in
symport) with sodium
• Water follows the movement
of the ions passively (by
osmosis)
26. STRUCTURE
• The walls of the
PCT are one cell
thick.
• The filtrate
travels through
the lumen.
• The inner portion
of each tubule
has microvilli to
increase the
SURFACE AREA
for reabsorption
in the tubule.
11.3 U.5 The proximal convoluted tubule selectively reabsorbs useful substances by active
transport.
Selective reabsorption of useful substances from the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
The PCT extends from the Bowman’s capsule to the loop of Henle
27. LOOP of HENLE and the COLLECTING
DUCTS are responsible for the control of
the water balance.
Function:
1. The function of the loop of Henle is
to create a salt bath concentration in
the surrounding medullary fluid.
2. Later this results in water
reabsorption in the collecting duct
3. There is also a reduction in the
filtrate volume.
11.3 U.6 The loop of Henle maintains hypertonic conditions in the medulla. AND 11.3 U.7
ADH controls reabsorption of water in the collecting duct.
Osmoregulation is the control of water and solute concentrations in
the body fluids (e.g. the blood plasma).
28. 11.3 U.6 The loop of Henle maintains hypertonic conditions in the medulla.
29. 11.3 U.6 The loop of Henle maintains hypertonic conditions in the medulla.
30. 11.3 U.6 The loop of Henle maintains hypertonic conditions in the medulla.
31. Distal Convolute Tubule (DTC)
Function:
It is partly responsible for the
regulation
of potassium, sodium, calcium, and pH
of urine by secreting protons and
absorbing bicarbonate
11.3 U.7 ADH controls reabsorption of water in the collecting duct.
32. 11.3 U.7 ADH controls reabsorption of water in the collecting duct.
• Filtrate enters the collecting duct from the
Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT).
• Water moves from the Collecting Duct to the
capillaries by osmosis.
• They flow in opposite directions, maintaining a
Concentration gradient – a counter-current system
The Colleting Duct balances the water concentration
of the blood, through hormonal control
33. The Colleting Duct balances the water concentration
of the blood, through hormonal control
• Filtrate enters the collecting duct from the Distal
Convoluted Tubule (DCT).
• Water moves from the Collecting Duct to the
capillaries by osmosis
• They flow in opposite directions, maintaining a
concentration gradient – a counter-current system.
• If a person is dehydrated, ADH (a hormone) acts on
the walls of the collecting duct, producing
aquaporins (channels) making it more permeable
to water.
• More water is transferred into the blood.
Urine output is hypertonic (high solute
concentration)
11.3 U.7 ADH controls reabsorption of water in the collecting duct.
34. 11.3 U.7 ADH controls reabsorption of water in the collecting duct.
Osmoregulation is an example of negative
Feedback control using hormones. Water content
of blood is monitored by the hypothalamus and
regulated by the pituitary gland.
The Colleting Duct balances the water concentration
of the blood, through hormonal control
35. 11.3 U.8 The length of the loop of Henle is positively correlated with the need for water
conservation in animals.
Length of the loop of Henle and water
conservation: The kangaroo rat's kidneys are
especially efficient and produce only small
quantities of highly concentrated urine. They
have very long loops of Henle which builds a
higher ion concentration in the medulla (dark
orange below). The longer the loop the more
water will be reabsorbed in the collecting duct.
kangaroo rat
36. 11.3 U.8 The length of the loop of Henle is positively correlated with the need for water
conservation in animals.
The ion concentration in the medulla builds as the loop of Henle descends. A longer loop of
Henle in implies a larger medulla (compared to the kidney size) than in animals with a
shorter loop of Henle..
Length of the loop of Henle and water conservation
* Values for the net ratios of
osmolarity for urine and
plasma (U/P ratios) are
provided to demonstrate the
concentration of urine
relative to that of the
blood. The ability of the
kangaroo rat and other
desert rodents to produce a
hyper-concentrated urine is
attributed to their
possession of extremely
long loops of Henle, which
is often quoted as an
extreme adaptation for life
in parched deserts.
37. Dehydration is due to loss of water
from the body so body fluids
become hypertonic.
• thirst, small quantities of dark colored
urine
• lethargy, (exposure to higher levels
of metabolic waste, reduced muscle
effeciency)
• low blood pressure (reduced blood
volume)
• raised heart rate (low blood
pressure)
• Inability to lower body temperature
(lack of sweat)
• in severe cases seizures, brain
damage and death
11.3 A.1 Consequences of dehydration and overhydration.
38. Overhydration is less common
and occurs when there is an
over- consumption of water.
• clear urine
• swelling of cells due to
osmosis (from hypotonic
body fluid)
• Headache, disruption of
nerve
function (Swelled cells)
• In more serious cases
delirium, blurred vision,
seizures, coma and
death
11.3 A.1 Consequences of dehydration and overhydration.
39. Urine Analysis
• A clinical procedure that examines urine for
deviation from the normal composition.
• Visual Examination: color determines
hydration.
• “Dipstick” Tests look for the presence
of:
• pH- normal (pH 4.6 to pH 8.0)-
extremes show improper
functioning of kidney
• Protein levels- possible kidney
damage
• Glucose- possible diabetes
• Monoclonal antibodies on strips look
for drug use and/or pregnancy.
• Blood cells infections, disease and
some cancers
• Drugs (or their breakdown products)
can often be detected in urine
samples
11.3 A.3 Blood cells, glucose, proteins and drugs are detected in urinary tests.
* As an example, excess sugar in the urine generally indicates diabetes
40. 11.3 A.2 Treatment of kidney failure by hemodialysis or kidney transplant.
Treatment of kidney failure Kidney failure is a condition in which the kidneys fail to
adequately filter waste products from the blood. It can be
caused by injury or disease symptoms vary depending on
the seriousness and progression of the disease. If not
treated kidney failure leads to death.
Treatment of kidney failure focuses on
two main approaches:
• Hemodialysis
• Kidney transplants
41. http://www.kalingahospital.com/data/images/transplant1.jpg
Treatment of kidney failure
*If the match is not close enough the receipient’s immune system will react to
the new kidney as it would to a pathogen.
A transplant is the best long-term treatment.
Donors can be either:
• Someone who has recently died
• A person who has chosen to give up one of
their two kidneys
Donors and the recipient have to be a close
match in both blood and tissues to minimize
the chance of rejection*.
The transplanted kidney is
grafted in to the lower abdomen
with the renal artery, renal vein
and ureter connected to the
recipient’s blood vessels and
bladder.
11.3 A.2 Treatment of kidney failure by hemodialysis or kidney transplant.
42. 11.3 A.2 Treatment of kidney failure by hemodialysis or kidney transplant.
Treatment of kidney failure
Hemodialysis
(commonly called
kidney dialysis) is a
process of purifying the
blood of a person
whose kidneys are not
working normally.
Hemodialysis treatment
lasts about four hours
and is done three times
per week.