There are few places left on the planet where the impact of people has not been felt. We have explored and left our footprint on nearly every corner of the globe. As our population and needs grow, we are leaving less and less room for wildlife. Wildlife are under threat from many different kinds of human activities, from directly destroying habitat to spreading invasive species and disease. Most ecosystems are facing multiple threats. Each new threat puts additional stress on already weakened ecosystems and their wildlife.

1. Threats to wildlife
Diseases (zoonosis and reverse zoonosis), competition,
hunting, poaching, encroachment, deforestation, tourism,
overgrazing, human animal conflict and climate change.
- Anish Gawande
- Dr. Manisha Kayande

2. Threats to wildlife
There are few places left on the planet where the impact of people has
not been felt. We have explored and left our footprint on nearly every
corner of the globe. As our population and needs grow, we are leaving
less and less room for wildlife.
Wildlife are under threat from many different kinds of human activities,
from directly destroying habitat to spreading invasive species and
disease. Most ecosystems are facing multiple threats. Each new threat
puts additional stress on already weakened ecosystems and their
wildlife.

3. Wildlife disease
Wildlife, domestic animals and humans share a large and increasing number of infectious diseases,
known as zoonosis. The continued globalization of society, human population growth, and associated
landscape changes further enhances the interface between wildlife, domestic animals, and humans,
thereby facilitating additional infectious disease emergence. The wildlife component of this triad has
received inadequate focus in the past to effectively protect human health as evidenced by such
contemporary diseases as SARS, Lyme disease, West Nile Fever, and a host of other emerging diseases.
Further, habitat loss and other factors associated with human-induced landscape changes have reduced
past ability for many wildlife populations to overcome losses due to various causes. This disease
emergence and resurgence has reached unprecedented importance for the sustainability of desired
population levels for many wildlife populations and for the long-term survival of some species.

4. What is zoonosis ?
Zoonosis are infectious diseases of animals (usually
vertebrates) that can naturally be transmitted to
humans.
Major modern diseases such as Ebola virus disease
and salmonellosis are zoonosis. HIV was a zoonotic
disease transmitted to humans in the early part of
the 20th century, though it has now evolved to a
separate human-only disease. Most strains of
influenza that infect humans are human diseases,
although many strains of swine and bird flu are
zoonosis.
Zoonosis have different modes of transmission. In
direct zoonosis the disease is directly transmitted
from animals to humans through media such as air
(influenza) or through bites and saliva (rabies). In
contrast, transmission can also occur via an
intermediate species (referred to as a vector), which
carry the disease pathogen without getting infected.
When humans infect animals, it is called reverse
zoonosis or anthroponosis.

5. How is zoonosis caused ?
Zoonotic transmission can occur in any context in which there is companionistic (pets), economic
(farming, etc.), predatory (hunting, butchering or consuming wild game) or research contact with or
consumption of animals, animal products, or animal derivatives (vaccines, etc.).

6. Some examples of zoonosis
Disease Pathogen(s) Animals involved Mode of transmission
Rabies Rabies virus
commonly – dogs, bats, monkeys,
raccoons, foxes, skunks, cattle, goats,
sheep, wolves, coyotes, groundhogs,
horses, opossums, mongooses and cats
through saliva by biting, or
through scratches from an
infected animal
Bird flu Influenza A virus subtype H5N1
wild birds, domesticated birds such as
chickens
close contact
Brucellosis Brucella spp. cattle, goats infected milk or meat
Cat-scratch
disease
Bartonella henselae, Bartonella
quintana
cats
bites or scratches from
infected cats
Ebola virus
disease
Ebolavirus spp. chimpanzees, gorillas, fruit bats, monkeys,
shrews, forest antelope and porcupines
through body fluids,
organs and ticks
Zika fever
Zika virus
chimpanzees, monkeys, apes, baboons
mosquito bite, sexual
intercourse, blood
transfusion and sometimes
bites of monkeys
Swine
influenza
any strain of the influenza virus
endemic in pigs
pigs close contact
Rat-bite
fever
Streptobacillus
moniliformis, Spirillum minus rats
bites of rats but also urine
and mucus secretions

7. What is reverse zoonosis ?
The many human viral diseases that have crossed from other animal species – such as AIDS,
Ebola, SARS, encephalitis and respiratory disease caused by henipaviruses – demonstrate the
pathogenic potential of the zoonotic pool. Are there also reverse zoonosis – diseases of
humans that are transferred to other animal species.

8. Recent example of reverse zoonosis
An example of a reverse zoonosis occurred just last week at Lincoln Park Zoo in Chicago, where a 9 year
old chimpanzee died of respiratory disease caused by human metapneumovirus. This member of the
paramyxovirus family is responsible for approximately 10% of all respiratory tract infections. All seven
members of a group of chimpanzees were infected with the virus, but only one became ill. The virus was
likely transmitted to the chimps by humans, but precisely how and when is not known. Outbreaks of
fatal respiratory disease in wild chimpanzees have been reported previously, and human
metapneumovirus has been one of several human viruses isolated from these primates. Such infections
are expected to occur more frequently in zoological parks, and also in game preserves as human
encroachment of these facilities increases.

9. Threats to wildlife - Habitat loss
Due to destruction, fragmentation, or degradation of habitat—is the primary threat to the survival of
wildlife in the United States. When an ecosystem has been dramatically changed by human activities—
such as agriculture, oil and gas exploration, commercial development, or water diversion—it may no
longer be able to provide the food, water, cover, and places to raise young that wildlife need to survive.
Every day there are fewer places left that wildlife can call home.
 How to Combat Habitat Loss
Combat habitat loss in your community by creating a Certified Wildlife Habitat® near your home, school,
or business. Plant native plants and put out a water source so that you can provide the food, water,
cover, and places to raise young that wildlife need to survive.

10. Threats to wildlife - Habitat loss
 Major Kinds of Habitat Loss
1. Habitat destruction: A bulldozer pushing down trees is the iconic image of habitat destruction. Other
ways people directly destroy habitat include filling in wetlands, dredging rivers, mowing fields, and
cutting down trees.
2. Habitat fragmentation: Much of the remaining terrestrial wildlife habitat in the U.S. has been cut up
into fragments by roads and development. Aquatic species’ habitats have been fragmented by dams
and water diversions. These fragments of habitat may not be large or connected enough to support
species that need a large territory where they can find mates and food. The loss and fragmentation
of habitats makes it difficult for migratory species to find places to rest and feed along their
migration routes.
3. Habitat degradation: Pollution, invasive species, and disruption of ecosystem processes (such as
changing the intensity of fires in an ecosystem) are some of the ways habitats can become so
degraded, they no longer support native wildlife.

11. Threats to wildlife - Climate Change
Climate change is quickly becoming the biggest threat to the long-term survival of America’s wildlife. No
longer is climate change something only facing future generations—changes to our climate are being
documented all across the planet today, and people, animals, and plants are already feeling the heat.
This warming signal is also found in ocean temperatures, soil temperatures, melting glaciers, and
melting polar ice caps. It has been linked to widespread impacts on ecosystems around the planet. This
preponderance of evidence all points to the conclusion that our planet is warming, and natural systems
are struggling to keep up.

12. Threats to wildlife - Climate Change
What's Happening?
 Temperatures are increasing: The most striking evidence of a climate change trend is closely
scrutinized data that show a relatively rapid and widespread increase in temperature during the past
century. Average temperatures in the United States over the last century have already increased by more
than one degree Fahrenheit, and the Earth's atmosphere has warmed by 1.5 degrees Fahrenheit since
1900. The 10 warmest years on record have all occurred since 1998, with 2016 being the warmest year on
record. The rising temperatures observed since 1978 are particularly noteworthy because the rate of
increase is so high and because, during the same period, the energy reaching the Earth from the Sun had
been measured precisely enough to conclude that Earth's warming was not due to changes in the Sun.
 Sea levels are rising: Global sea level has increased by roughly eight inches over the past century,
and the rate of increase is accelerating. Climate change causes sea level rise in two ways: ocean water is
expanding as it warms, and land-based ice in glaciers and ice sheets is melting. Sea level rise has been
happening even faster than scientists anticipated a few years ago. If recent projections are accurate, 2 to 3
degrees Fahrenheit warming could bring about three feet of global sea level rise by 2100, displacing
approximately 56 million people in 84 developing countries around the world. Coastal habitats also face
major changes as low-lying areas are inundated with saltwater.
 Sea ice is melting: Declining sea ice is one of the most visible signs of climate change on our planet.
Since 1979, Arctic sea ice extent in September (when the annual minimum is reached) has declined by
more than 30 percent, according to the National Snow and Ice Data Center. The ice extent has been
declining in other seasons too. Despite slightly larger ice extents in 2009, recent observations indicated the
ice is thinner and much younger (less multi-year ice) than it used to be. Covering an average of 9.6 million
square miles, these areas of ice floating on ocean waters play an important role in regulating our climate,
by reflecting some sunlight back to space, and in the life cycles of many polar species, such as polar bears,
seals, and walruses.

13. Threats to wildlife - Climate Change
Human Impact
• Climate change is caused by humans. Scientists have concluded that most of the
observed warming is very likely due to the burning of coal, oil, and gas. This
conclusion is based on a detailed understanding of the atmospheric greenhouse
effect and how human activities have been changing it. At the same time, other
reasonable explanations, most notably changes in the sun, have been ruled out.
• The atmospheric greenhouse effect naturally keeps our planet warm enough to be
livable. Sunlight passes through the atmosphere. Light-colored surfaces, such as
clouds or ice caps, radiate some heat back into space. But most of the incoming
heat warms the planet's surface. The earth then radiates some heat back into the
atmosphere. Some of that heat is trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere,
including carbon dioxide.
• Human activity—such as burning fossil fuels—causes more greenhouse gases to
build up in the atmosphere. As the atmosphere "thickens" with more greenhouse
gases, more heat is held in. Fossil fuels such as oil, coal and natural gas are high in
carbon and, when burned, produce major amounts of carbon dioxide. A single
gallon of gasoline, when burned, puts 19 pounds of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.

14. Additional Threats to Wildlife
Loss of wetlands: Higher temperatures will lead to drier conditions in the Midwest’s Prairie Pothole
region, one of the most important breeding areas for North American waterfowl.
Sea level rise: Sea-level rise will inundate beaches and marshes and cause erosion on both coasts,
diminishing habitat for birds, invertebrates, fish, and other coastal wildlife.
Invasive species and disease: Higher average temperatures and changes in rain and snow patterns will
enable some invasive plant species to move into new areas. Insect pest infestations will be more severe
as pests such as mountain pine beetle are able to take advantage of drought-weakened plants.
Pathogens and their hosts that thrive in higher temperatures will spread to new areas.

15. Threats to wildlife - Pollution
Every day the byproducts of our daily lives—sewage, exhaust, trash, agricultural and lawn chemicals,
industrial and powerplant emissions, and more—make their way via the air and water into the natural
environment and become pollutants. As big as our planet is, it's not big enough to dilute or absorb all
the waste, chemicals, and nutrients that billions of people are continuously producing.
Since the 1960s, the United States has made great progress in reducing air and water pollution. We've
succeeded at controlling many point source pollutants—the pollutants that can be traced back to a
specific source, such as a sewage treatment or industrial plant. However there are many non-point
source pollutants—coming from many diffuse sources—that are still regularly released into the
environment. These chemicals and nutrients continue to wreak havoc on wildlife and ecosystems.

16. Threats to wildlife - Overexploitation
Wildlife at Risk
Fish and other aquatic species: As fishing gear and boats have
improved, the fishing industry has become very efficient at
harvesting fish and shellfish. The industrialization of the fishing
industry and the increasing global demand for seafood have
people taking more fish from oceans, lakes and rivers than is
sustainable. Prized fish, such as swordfish, cod and tuna, have
undergone dramatic declines. In the Great Lakes, overfishing has
caused whitefish, walleye, and sturgeon populations to decline.
Beyond their role in the food supply, freshwater and marine fish
are also trapped for the aquarium trade and fished for sport.
Birds: Certain species of birds are collected or hunted for sport,
food, and the cage-bird pet trade (parrots and songbirds are
prized as pets). Millions of birds are traded internationally each
year. Close to 30 percent of globally threatened birds are
affected by overexploitation, particularly parrots, pigeons, and
pheasants. The Carolina parakeet was once the only species of
parrot in the U.S., but it was hunted to extinction early in the
last century for food, to protect crops and for its feathers (which
adorned ladies’ hats).

17. Threats to wildlife - Overexploitation
Mammals: People have always hunted mammal species—for
fur, food, sport, and for their horns or antlers. Mammals are
also trapped for the pet trade, zoos, and biomedical
research. Today illegal hunting still threatens many species,
especially large mammals such as tigers, rhinoceros, bears,
and primates, whose body parts are highly valued in some
parts of the world for traditional medicine.
Amphibians: Members of the amphibian class are collected
and shipped all over the world for the pet trade, medicine,
education (frogs are dissected in many biology classes),
scientific research, and for food (frog legs are a delicacy in
many parts of the world). The California red-legged frog,
now a federally protected endangered species, was over
hunted for food and its numbers seriously depleted during
the Gold Rush in the area around San Francisco.

18. Threats to wildlife - Overexploitation
Reptiles: Wanted for their skins or shells, their eggs, meat,
and for the pet trade, reptiles are harvested and traded
around the world. Overharvesting of the Kemp’s ridley sea
turtle’s eggs nearly led to its extinction, and today it is still an
endangered species. In the U.S., box turtles are being
collected at unsustainable levels for the overseas pet trade.
Some reptile skins—such as crocodile, python, and monitor
lizard—are highly prized as exotic leathers.
Invertebrates: At least 75 percent of all known animal
species are invertebrates. Insects, oysters, octopus, crayfish,
sea stars, scorpions, crabs, and sponges are all kinds of this
animal class. Today many invertebrates—particularly marine
invertebrates—are at risk from overharvesting. Chesapeake
Bay oysters, once an important part of the Bay economy, are
now in decline. Horseshoe crabs, whose eggs provide food
for migratory birds, fish and other organisms, are being
harvested as bait for eel and whelk fishing. Octopus are
suffering declines worldwide due to heavy fishing pressure.
Shells and corals are collected for ornaments and jewelry.

19. Threats to wildlife - Poaching
The world is dealing with an unprecedented spike in illegal wildlife trade, threatening to
overturn decades of conservation gains. Ivory estimated to weigh more than 23 metric
tons—a figure that represents 2,500 elephants—was seized in the 13 largest seizures of
illegal ivory in 2011. Poaching threatens the last of our wild tigers that number around
3,890.
Wildlife crime is a big business. Run by dangerous international networks, wildlife and
animal parts are trafficked much like illegal drugs and arms. By its very nature, it is almost
impossible to obtain reliable figures for the value of illegal wildlife trade. Experts at
TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network, estimate that it runs into hundreds of
millions of dollars.

20. Threats to wildlife - Poaching
Some examples of illegal wildlife trade are well
known, such as poaching of elephants for ivory and
tigers for their skins and bones. However, countless
other species are similarly overexploited, from
marine turtles to timber trees. Not all wildlife trade
is illegal. Wild plants and animals from tens of
thousands of species are caught or harvested from
the wild and then sold legitimately as food, pets,
ornamental plants, leather, tourist ornaments and
medicine. Wildlife trade escalates into a crisis when
an increasing proportion is illegal and
unsustainable—directly threatening the survival of
many species in the wild.
Stamping out wildlife crime is a priority for WWF
because it’s the largest direct threat to the future of
many of the world’s most threatened species. It is
second only to habitat destruction in overall threats
against species survival.

21. Threats to wildlife - Encroachment
Co-relate yourself with this
How would you feel if a group of unknown hooligans barged into your house and took up the entire
living room to stay and work from? Not good, I’m thinking. But let’s say you have no option. You let
them be and make do with living in your bedroom and using the bathroom and kitchen.
But wait! These guys soon decide that they also need to cook! So, they decided to come into your
kitchen as well. You try to stop them, but they cut you off. Now, you are pretty much stuck with your
bedroom and bathroom. Well, I guess you could cook in your room. You decide to adjust some
more…..
But these guys are relentless. They decide they need the bathroom more than you do. Now all you
have access to are your bedroom and the front door. What in the world are you going to do?
That is exactly what habitat encroachment and
fragmentation is !!

22. Threats to wildlife - Encroachment
Humans clearly have been taking up a lot of space in the world. Increased intelligence, increasing
population and the development of economics based on maximum resource utilization has driven us
into uncharted territories for much of the last century (and continuing…). While this has boosted our
way of living, the rest of the world? Not so much. Here’s a short discourse on how we (the hooligans)
have managed to wreck havoc in the homes of other life forms and non-living forms around the world.
 What are the effects of human encroachment into wildlife habitats?
1) Leads to reduction of the habitat.
2) Leads to increased human-wildlife conflicts.
3) Results to migration of some animals.
4) Leads to killing or dying of some animals.
5) Some animals and plants may become extinct.
6) Leads to wildlife predation.

23. Threats to wildlife - Deforestation
Deforestation, clearance, or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is
thereafter converted to a non-forest use. Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to
farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated deforestation occurs in tropical rainforests. About
30 percent of Earth's land surface is covered by forests.
Deforestation occurs for multiple reasons: trees are cut down to be used for building or sold as fuel
(sometimes in the form of charcoal or timber), while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock and
plantation. The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in habitat damage,
biodiversity loss, and aridity. It has adverse impacts on bio sequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Deforestation has also been used in war to deprive the enemy of vital resources and cover for its forces.
Modern examples of this were the use of Agent Orange by the British military in Malaya during the
Malayan Emergency and the United States military in Vietnam during the Vietnam War. As of 2005, net
deforestation rates have ceased to increase in countries with a per capita GDP of at least US$4,600.
Deforested regions typically incur significant adverse soil erosion and frequently degrade into wasteland.

24. Threats to wildlife - Deforestation
 Deforestation can lead to a direct loss of wildlife habitat, as well as a general degradation of their habitat.
The removal of trees and other types of vegetation reduces available food, shelter, and breeding habitat.
Wildlife habitats can become fragmented, where native species must live on remaining habitat islands that
are surrounded by disturbed land that is being used for agriculture and other uses.
 Habitat fragments may be too small to maintain viable populations of animals, and an animal living in one
population may no longer be able to freely breed with individuals in other populations. Animals may not
be able to find adequate shelter, water, and food to survive within remaining habitat.
 Animals may also encounter dangerous situations when they attempt to migrate between habitat
fragments, such as increased human-wildlife conflicts and being hit by vehicles. With increased habitat
edge, wildlife may experience an increased vulnerability to predation, poaching, wind, sunlight, invasion of
exotic plant and animal species into remaining forest habitat, and other factors such as natural disasters
that were not as much of a threat prior to the deforestation event.
 Some animal species are entirely dependent upon old growth forest habitat, such as the Northern Spotted
Owl in the Western United States, and cannot survive in secondary forest habitat.
 Deforestation may reduce the remaining forest area’s resilience to threats such as wildfires. Local
hydrological cycles can be dramatically altered, since trees and other vegetation in forests help to retain
atmospheric moisture through evaporation and evapotranspiration processes. With no tree canopy
present after deforestation, such changes in the water cycle can lead to much drier and warmer conditions,
leading to even further impacts on wildlife habitats.

25. Threats to wildlife - Human–wildlife conflict
Human–wildlife conflict refers to the interaction between wild animals and people and the resultant
negative impact on people or their resources, or wild animals or their habitat. It occurs when growing
human populations overlap with established wildlife territory, creating reduction of resources or life to
some people and/or wild animals. The conflict takes many forms ranging from loss of life or injury to
humans, and animals both wild and domesticated, to competition for scarce resources to loss and
degradation of habitat.
Conflict management strategies earlier comprised lethal control, translocation, regulation of population
size and preservation of endangered species. Recent management approaches attempt to use scientific
research for better management outcomes, such as behavior modification and reducing interaction. As
human-wildlife conflicts inflict direct, indirect and opportunity costs, the mitigation of human-wildlife
conflict is an important issue in the management of biodiversity and protected areas.

26. Threats to wildlife - Human–wildlife conflict
Causes
As human populations expand into wild animal habitats, natural wildlife territory is displaced. Reduction
in the availability of natural prey/food sources leads to wild animals seeking alternate sources.
Alternately, new resources created by humans draw wildlife resulting in conflict. The population density
of wildlife and humans increase with overlaps in geographical areas used increasing their interaction
thus resulting in increased physical conflict. Byproducts of human existence offer un-natural opportunity
for wildlife in the form of food and sheltered interference and potentially destructive threat for both
man and animals. Competition for food resources also occurs when humans attempt to harvest natural
resources such as fish and grassland pasture. Another cause of conflict comes from conservation biased
toward flagship or game species that often threatens other species of concern.

27. Threats to wildlife - Human–wildlife conflict
Outcomes of conflict
Human–wildlife conflict occurs with various negative results.
 The major outcomes of human-wildlife conflict are:
 Injury and loss of life of humans and wildlife
 Crop damage, livestock depredation, predation of managed wildlife stock.
 Damage to human property.
 Trophic cascades.
 Destruction of habitat.
 Collapse of wildlife populations and reduction of geographic ranges
 One of the initiators of the concept of man-animal conflict was Das and Guha. They described the
two-sided impacts of this conflict. From one side, the source of conflict is the restriction on the local
people to access forest resources. On the other side, the source of conflict is the damage incurred to
them by wild animals.

28. Thank you…… !!