The ppt contains detailed study of refrigerants used in refrigeration and air conditioning system with description. It is well formed as per the syllabus of GTU.
Condensers and evaporators are basically heat exchangers in which the refrigerant undergoes a phase change. Next to compressors, proper design and selection of condensers and evaporators is very important for satisfactory performance of any refrigeration system.
The ppt contains detailed study of refrigerants used in refrigeration and air conditioning system with description. It is well formed as per the syllabus of GTU.
Condensers and evaporators are basically heat exchangers in which the refrigerant undergoes a phase change. Next to compressors, proper design and selection of condensers and evaporators is very important for satisfactory performance of any refrigeration system.
The ppt contains detailed study of Vapor Absorption Refrigeration System with neat sketches and description. It is well formed as per the syllabus of GTU
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning System ComponentsAjaypalsinh Barad
The ppt contains detailed study of all the components used in refrigeration and air conditioning system with neat sketches and description. It is well formed as per the syllabus of GTU
Heat Recovery System in Domestic RefrigeratorIjrdt Journal
Refrigeration is a process in which work is done to move heat from one location to another. Refrigeration technology has rapidly evolved in last century from ice harvesting to temperature controlled rail cars. Most widely used current application of refrigeration is for air-conditioning of homes and public buildings. During refrigeration, heat from the refrigerant is dissipated for the successful completion of a refrigeration cycle. In normal household refrigerators, the heat from the refrigerant is removed using a condenser where the refrigerant cools and the air surrounding the condenser heats up. The strategy of how to recover the dissipated heat to develop a waste heat recovery system is relevant. The energy lost in waste heat cannot be fully recovered. However, much of the heat can be recovered and the loss can be minimized by adopting different measures. Hot air can be used for space heating, industrial drying, preheating aspirated air for oil burners, or any other application requiring warm air. The purpose of this project is to demonstrate the technical feasibility of a heat recovery system to recover waste heat from the condenser in the refrigerator and to reuse it for heating application.
The ppt contains detailed study of Vapor Absorption Refrigeration System with neat sketches and description. It is well formed as per the syllabus of GTU
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning System ComponentsAjaypalsinh Barad
The ppt contains detailed study of all the components used in refrigeration and air conditioning system with neat sketches and description. It is well formed as per the syllabus of GTU
Heat Recovery System in Domestic RefrigeratorIjrdt Journal
Refrigeration is a process in which work is done to move heat from one location to another. Refrigeration technology has rapidly evolved in last century from ice harvesting to temperature controlled rail cars. Most widely used current application of refrigeration is for air-conditioning of homes and public buildings. During refrigeration, heat from the refrigerant is dissipated for the successful completion of a refrigeration cycle. In normal household refrigerators, the heat from the refrigerant is removed using a condenser where the refrigerant cools and the air surrounding the condenser heats up. The strategy of how to recover the dissipated heat to develop a waste heat recovery system is relevant. The energy lost in waste heat cannot be fully recovered. However, much of the heat can be recovered and the loss can be minimized by adopting different measures. Hot air can be used for space heating, industrial drying, preheating aspirated air for oil burners, or any other application requiring warm air. The purpose of this project is to demonstrate the technical feasibility of a heat recovery system to recover waste heat from the condenser in the refrigerator and to reuse it for heating application.
# Thermal Engineering by rk rajput...
# This E-book includes (29 chapters + index + Contents) with no hidden pages...
# sorry for any insufficiency hope to like...
Performance Test on Mixed Refrigerant in Domestic RefrigeratorIJERA Editor
Refrigerator is a household appliance used to preserve the foods, vegetables, beverages at low temperature. Refrigerant is the blood of the refrigerator and it changes its phase to transfer heat for giving cooling effect inside the refrigerator. Generally many refrigerator works under the vapour compression cycle and it uses only one refrigerant. Each and every refrigerant used in the refrigerator must have disadvantages, to overcome this problem we use mixed refrigerant (two different refrigerants with different properties are mixed together). In this project combination of R600a (isobutane) and R134a (1, 1, 1, 2-tetrafluroethane) is selected as a mixed refrigerant. R600a have some good properties like zero ODP, zero GWP and high latent heat of vapourization and R134a is non-toxic, non-flammable, non-corrosive and zero ODP.
The presentation consists of the introduction, basic terms, and different types of ideal cycles of refrigeration,
1. Introduction to refrigeration
2. Necessity and applications
3. Unit of refrigeration and C.O.P.
4. Types of ideal cycles of refrigeration
a) Bell Coleman cycle
b) Open and dense air systems
5. Boot strap Air refrigeration system
Refrigeration and its Terminologies;
(i) Capacity or Units of refrigeration,
(ii) COP,
(iii) Types of Refrigerants
(iv) Refrigerants and their desirable properties,
Refrigeration Cycles:
(i) Vapor compression refrigeration system; description, analysis, refrigerating effect.
(ii) Vapor compression refrigeration system Special Case 1,2,3;
(iii) Deviation of the Actual Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle from the Ideal Cycle
Air cycle refrigeration;
a) reversed Carnot cycle,
b) reversed Brayton cycle,
c) Vapor absorption refrigeration system.
Previous Year Problems with Solution
Automobile Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
The proposed project is developed to manage the automobile in the automobile dealer company. The main module in this project is login, automobile management, customer management, sales, complaints and reports. The first module is the login. The automobile showroom owner should login to the project for usage. The username and password are verified and if it is correct, next form opens. If the username and password are not correct, it shows the error message.
When a customer search for a automobile, if the automobile is available, they will be taken to a page that shows the details of the automobile including automobile name, automobile ID, quantity, price etc. “Automobile Management System” is useful for maintaining automobiles, customers effectively and hence helps for establishing good relation between customer and automobile organization. It contains various customized modules for effectively maintaining automobiles and stock information accurately and safely.
When the automobile is sold to the customer, stock will be reduced automatically. When a new purchase is made, stock will be increased automatically. While selecting automobiles for sale, the proposed software will automatically check for total number of available stock of that particular item, if the total stock of that particular item is less than 5, software will notify the user to purchase the particular item.
Also when the user tries to sale items which are not in stock, the system will prompt the user that the stock is not enough. Customers of this system can search for a automobile; can purchase a automobile easily by selecting fast. On the other hand the stock of automobiles can be maintained perfectly by the automobile shop manager overcoming the drawbacks of existing system.
Event Management System Vb Net Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
In present era, the scopes of information technology growing with a very fast .We do not see any are untouched from this industry. The scope of information technology has become wider includes: Business and industry. Household Business, Communication, Education, Entertainment, Science, Medicine, Engineering, Distance Learning, Weather Forecasting. Carrier Searching and so on.
My project named “Event Management System” is software that store and maintained all events coordinated in college. It also helpful to print related reports. My project will help to record the events coordinated by faculties with their Name, Event subject, date & details in an efficient & effective ways.
In my system we have to make a system by which a user can record all events coordinated by a particular faculty. In our proposed system some more featured are added which differs it from the existing system such as security.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Democratizing Fuzzing at Scale by Abhishek Aryaabh.arya
Presented at NUS: Fuzzing and Software Security Summer School 2024
This keynote talks about the democratization of fuzzing at scale, highlighting the collaboration between open source communities, academia, and industry to advance the field of fuzzing. It delves into the history of fuzzing, the development of scalable fuzzing platforms, and the empowerment of community-driven research. The talk will further discuss recent advancements leveraging AI/ML and offer insights into the future evolution of the fuzzing landscape.
COLLEGE BUS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PROJECT REPORT.pdfKamal Acharya
The College Bus Management system is completely developed by Visual Basic .NET Version. The application is connect with most secured database language MS SQL Server. The application is develop by using best combination of front-end and back-end languages. The application is totally design like flat user interface. This flat user interface is more attractive user interface in 2017. The application is gives more important to the system functionality. The application is to manage the student’s details, driver’s details, bus details, bus route details, bus fees details and more. The application has only one unit for admin. The admin can manage the entire application. The admin can login into the application by using username and password of the admin. The application is develop for big and small colleges. It is more user friendly for non-computer person. Even they can easily learn how to manage the application within hours. The application is more secure by the admin. The system will give an effective output for the VB.Net and SQL Server given as input to the system. The compiled java program given as input to the system, after scanning the program will generate different reports. The application generates the report for users. The admin can view and download the report of the data. The application deliver the excel format reports. Because, excel formatted reports is very easy to understand the income and expense of the college bus. This application is mainly develop for windows operating system users. In 2017, 73% of people enterprises are using windows operating system. So the application will easily install for all the windows operating system users. The application-developed size is very low. The application consumes very low space in disk. Therefore, the user can allocate very minimum local disk space for this application.
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Courier management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
It is now-a-days very important for the people to send or receive articles like imported furniture, electronic items, gifts, business goods and the like. People depend vastly on different transport systems which mostly use the manual way of receiving and delivering the articles. There is no way to track the articles till they are received and there is no way to let the customer know what happened in transit, once he booked some articles. In such a situation, we need a system which completely computerizes the cargo activities including time to time tracking of the articles sent. This need is fulfilled by Courier Management System software which is online software for the cargo management people that enables them to receive the goods from a source and send them to a required destination and track their status from time to time.
Vaccine management system project report documentation..pdfKamal Acharya
The Division of Vaccine and Immunization is facing increasing difficulty monitoring vaccines and other commodities distribution once they have been distributed from the national stores. With the introduction of new vaccines, more challenges have been anticipated with this additions posing serious threat to the already over strained vaccine supply chain system in Kenya.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSEDuvanRamosGarzon1
AIRCRAFT GENERAL
The Single Aisle is the most advanced family aircraft in service today, with fly-by-wire flight controls.
The A318, A319, A320 and A321 are twin-engine subsonic medium range aircraft.
The family offers a choice of engines
TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSE
04 refrigeration and air conditioning
1. ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Refrigeration And Air-Conditioning
Mr. Yashawantha K M, Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering, SIT, Mangalore Page 1
4. REFRIGERATION AND AIR-CONDITIONING
Refrigerants, Properties of refrigerants, List of commonly used refrigerants. Refrigeration -Definitions -Refrigerating
effect, Ton of Refrigeration, Ice making capacity, COP, Relative COP, Unit of Refrigeration. Principle and working of
vapor compression refrigeration and vapor absorption refrigeration. Principles and applications of air conditioners,
Room air conditioner.
Refrigeration
Refrigeration may be defined as the process of removing heat from a substance under controlled
conditions and reducing and maintaining the temperature of a body below the temperature of its surroundings
by the aid of external work.
In a Refrigerator, power is to be supplied to remove the heat continuously from the refrigerator cabinet to
keep it cool at a temperature less than the atmospheric temperature.
A medium called Refrigerant continuously extracts the heat from the space within the refrigerator which
is to be kept cool at temperatures less than the atmosphere and finally rejects to it to the surroundings.
Application of refrigeration
a) Food processing, preservation and distribution
Storage of raw fruits, vegetables, fish, meat and poultry.
Storage of dairy products like milk, butter, butter milk and Ice cream.
Production and cooling of beer, wine and concentrated fruit juices.
Processing and distribution of frozen food.
b) Chemical and Process industries
Industries like petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants, and paper pulp
industries, etc.,
require very large cooling capacities for efficient manufacturing and
processing.
c) Special applications
Ice manufacturing
Cold treatment of metals
Manufacturing and preservation of medicines, chemicals, etc.
In medical laboratories for storing samples awaiting analysis, morgues,
for storing corpses, etc.
d) Air conditioning
Indoor cooling for the comfort of human beings.
Vehicular air conditioning (cars, aircrafts, etc.)
Laboratories
Printing, Textile, pharmaceutical and mechanical industries.
Power plants, etc
Refrigerant
A medium called Refrigerant continuously extracts the heat from the space within the refrigerator which
is to be kept cool at temperatures less than the atmosphere and finally rejects to it to the surroundings.
Some of the fluids like, Ammonia, Freon, Methyl Chloride, Carbon dioxide are the commonly used
refrigerants.
1. Ammonia
2. ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Refrigeration And Air-Conditioning
Mr. Yashawantha K M, Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering, SIT, Mangalore Page 2
Ammonia as a refrigerant is employed in refrigerators operating on the absorption principles. Because of
its high latent heat (1300 kJ/kg at -15°C) and low specific volume (0.509mVkg at -15°C) it produces high
refrigeration effects even in small refrigerators. Since ammonia will not harm the ozone, it is environmental
friendly. It is widely used in cold storage, ice making plants, etc. Its toxic, flammable, irritating and food
destroying properties makes it unsuitable for domestic refrigerators.
2. Carbon dioxide
The efficiency of the refrigerators using carbon dioxide refrigerant is low. Therefore it is seldom used in
domestic refrigerators, but is used in dry ice making plants. It is colourless, odourless, non-toxic, non
inflammable and non-corrosive.
3. Sulphur dioxide
Earlier sulphur dioxide was one of the most commonly used refrigerants in domestic refrigerators.
Although it has better thermodynamic properties, it has low refrigerating effect and high specific volume,
therefore large capacity high speed compressors are required. Since it combines with water and forms
sulfurous and sulfuric acids which are corrosive to metals, the refrigerators using sulphur dioxide as refrigerant
are seldom used.
4. Methyl Chloride
Methyl chloride was used earlier in domestic and small scale industrial refrigerators. Since it will burn
under some conditions and slightly toxic, is not generally used.
5. Freon
Freon group of refrigerants is used almost universally in domestic refrigerators. These refrigerants are
colourless, almost odourless, non-toxic, non-inflammable, non-explosive and non-corrosive, Freon-12 and
Freon-22 are the two freon refrigerants commonly used in domestic refrigerators and air conditioners.
Although these refrigerants are being now used extensively in the refrigerators and the air conditioners, it has
been found that these refrigerants posing a major threat to the global environment through their role in the
destruction of the ozone layer.
Properties of a good refrigerant
1. Boiling Point
An ideal refrigerant must have low boiling temperature at atmospheric pressure.
3. ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Refrigeration And Air-Conditioning
Mr. Yashawantha K M, Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering, SIT, Mangalore Page 3
2. Freezing Point
An ideal refrigerant must have a very low freezing point because the refrigerant should not freeze at
low evaporator temperatures.
3. Evaporator and Condenser Pressure
In order to avoid the leakage of the atmospheric air and also to enable the detection of the leakage of
the refrigerant, both the evaporator and condenser pressures should be slightly above the atmospheric
pressure.
4. Latent Heat of Evaporation
The latent heat of evaporation must be very high so that a minimum amount of refrigerant will
accomplish the desired result, in other words, it increases the refrigeration effect.
5. Specific Volume
The specific volume of the refrigerant must be very low. The lower specific volume of the refrigerant at
the suction of the compressor reduces the size of the compressor.
6. Specific heat of liquid and vapour
A good refrigerant must have low specific heat when it is in liquid state and high specific heat when it
is vapourised. The low specific heat of the refrigerant helps in sub-cooling of the liquid in high specific heat of
the vapour helps in decreasing the superheating of the vapour. Both these desirable properties increase the
refrigerating effect.
7. Viscosity
The viscosity of a refrigerant at both the liquid and vapour states must be very low as improves the
heat transfer and reduces the pumping pressure.
8. Non-toxicity refrigerant
A good refrigerant should be non-toxic, because any leakage of the toxic refrigerant increase
suffocation and poisons the atmosphere.
9. Corrosiveness
A good refrigerant should be non-corrosive to prevent the corrosion of the metallic parts of the
refrigerators.
10. Chemical Stability
An ideal refrigerant must not decompose under operating conditions.
11. Coefficient of Performance
The coefficient of performance of a refrigerant must be high so that the energy spent in refrigeration
will be less.
12. Odour
A good refrigerant must be odourless; otherwise some foodstuff such as meat, butter, etc. loses their
taste.
13. Leakage Tests
The refrigerant must be such that any leakage can be detected by simple tests.
14. Action with Lubricating Oil
A good refrigerant must not react with the lubricating oil used in lubricating the parts of the
compressor.
4. ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Refrigeration And Air-Conditioning
Mr. Yashawantha K M, Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering, SIT, Mangalore Page 4
Refrigeration Effect and Unit of Refrigeration
In a refrigeration system, the rate at which the heat is absorbed in a cycle from the interior space to be
cooled is called refrigerating effect.
The capacity of a refrigeration system is expressed in tons of refrigeration which is the unit of
refrigeration.
A ton of refrigeration is defined as the quantity of heat absorbed in order to form one ton of ice in 24
hours when the initial temperature of the water is 0°C.
In S.I. System, 1 Ton of Refrigeration = 210 kJ/min = 3.5 kW
Coefficient of Performance
The performance of a refrigeration system is expressed by a factor known as the coefficient of performance.
The COP of a refrigeration system is defined as the ratio of heat absorbed in a system to the work
supplied.
where QL= Heat Absorbed or Removed in kW
Wnet, in = Work supplied, kW
Relative COP
The ratio of the actual COP to the theoretical COP is known as relative coefficient of performance
Parts of a Refrigerator
To accomplish the task of
producing the cooling effect, a refrigerator
must consist of the following main parts,
1.Evaporator
2.Circulating System
3.Condenser
4.Expansion Device
1. Evaporator
In the evaporator (heart of the
refrigerator) liquid refrigerant is evaporated
by the absorption of heat from the
refrigerator cabinet in which the substances
which have to be cooled are kept. The
evaporator consists of simply metal tubing
which surrounds around the freezing and
cooling compartments to produce the
cooling effect required for freezing ice or
lowering the temperature of perishables
placed in the cooling compartment. Since it
produces the cooling effect it is also
sometimes called as cooling coil or freezer
coil.
5. ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Refrigeration And Air-Conditioning
Mr. Yashawantha K M, Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering, SIT, Mangalore Page 5
2. Circulating System
The circulating system comprises of the mechanical devices such as compressors or pumps necessary to
circulate the refrigerant to undergo the refrigeration cycle. They increase the pressure and therefore, the
temperature of the refrigerant. Generally these devices are driven by the electric motors. The electrical energy
input to the motor is the energy input to the refrigerators.
3. Condenser
A condenser is an appliance in which the heat from the refrigerant is rejected at higher temperature to
another medium, usually the atmospheric air. In a condenser the refrigerant vapour gives off its latent heat to
the air and consequently condenses into liquid so that it can be recirculated in the refrigeration cycle. The latent
heat of the refrigerant that is given off in the condenser comprises mainly of the heat absorbed in the
refrigerator cabinet and the heat developed due to compression.
4. Expansion Device
An expansion valve serves as a device to reduce the pressure and temperature of the liquid refrigerant
before it passes to the evaporator. The liquid refrigerant from the condenser is passed through an expansion
valve where it reduces its pressure and temperature.
Vapour compression refrigerator
Most commonly used refrigerants in the vapour compression refrigerator is dichlorodifluoromethane,
popularly known as Freon 12, or R12.
Vapour compression refrigerator consists of an evaporator made of coiled tubes installed in the freezing
compartment of the refrigerator and connected to the suction side of the compressor and a throttle valve.
6. ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Refrigeration And Air-Conditioning
Mr. Yashawantha K M, Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering, SIT, Mangalore Page 6
The delivery side of the compressor is connected to a condenser which in turn is connected to a throttle
valve.
The object of including a compressor in this system is to draw the vapours from the evaporator and
compress them to higher pressures so that the saturation temperature corresponding to these pressures is higher
than that of the cooling medium flowing into the condenser, so that the high pressure vapour can reject heat
into the condenser and be ready to expand to the evaporator pressure again.
In order to maintain the interior of the refrigerator within the desired temperature range, the motor driving
the compressor is controlled by a thermostat switch.
Working:
The refrigerant at low pressure and temperature
passing in the evaporator coiled tubes absorbs the heat
from the contents in the freezing compartment and
evaporates. This in turn lowers the temperature in the
freezing compartment.
The evaporated refrigerant at low pressure from the
evaporator, is drawn by a compressor which
compresses it to higher pressures so that the saturation
temperature of the refrigerant corresponding to the
increased pressure is higher than the temperature of the
cooling medium (atmospheric air) in the condenser, so
that the high pressure and high temperature vapours can
reject heat in the condenser and be ready to expand in
the throttle valve to the lower evaporator pressures
again.
The high pressure-high-temperature refrigerant
vapour from the compressor flows to the condenser
where it gives off its latent heat to the atmospheric air.
As a result of the loss of latent heat in the condenser,
the refrigerant condenses.
The high pressure condensed liquid refrigerant
approximately at room temperature now flows to the
throttle valve in which it expands to a low pressure and then passes to the evaporator coils for recirculation
once again. The throttling expansion of the refrigerant lowers its pressure and temperature and at the same time
causes it to partly evaporate.
Hence the refrigerant coming out of the expansion valve will be a very wet vapour and at a very low
temperature which will be around -10°C. This wet vapour now passes to the evaporator coils where it absorbs
its latent heat and then recirculated to repeat the cycle continuously.
Thus, heat is continuously extracted by the contents of the refrigerator in the evaporator and rejected in the
condenser to the atmospheric air.
This will keep the contents of the refrigerator at the required lower temperature. The required low
temperature is maintained in the refrigerator by a thermostat switch which switches on and off the compressor
motor by a relay as and when the temperature either falls below, or rises above the required temperature.
Vapour absorption refrigerator
Most commonly used refrigerant in the vapour absorption refrigerator is ammonia.In this refrigerator, the
ammonia liquid vapourises in the evaporator coils absorbing the latent heat from the freezing compartment
thus keeping it cool and subsequently gives off heat when it condenses in a condenser. Then ammonia liquid
from the condenser is heated in a heater to vapourise it. Thus the absorption system makes use of heat energy
to change the state of the refrigerant required in the cycle. A pump is used to circulate the refrigerant in the
cycle.
7. ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Refrigeration And Air-Conditioning
Mr. Yashawantha K M, Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering, SIT, Mangalore Page 7
Working:
Vapour absorption refrigerator consists of an absorber, a circulation pump, heat exchanger, heater cum
separator, condenser, expansion valve and evaporating coiled tubes.
Dry ammonia vapour is dissolved in the weak ammonia solution of ammonia- water contained in the
absorber, which will produce a strong ammonia solution. (Since, cold water (absorbent) has the capacity to
absorb ammonia vapour from the evaporator is dissolved in the weak ammonia solution thus produces strong
ammonia solution).
A circulation pump draws the strong ammonia solution from the absorber and pumps it to the heat
exchanger, where it is warmed by the warm weak ammonia solution which is flowing back from the heater-
separator.
From the heat exchanger, the warm high pressure strong ammonia solution is passed to the heater-cum-
separator provided with the heating coils. The heating coils in the heater-separator heats the strong ammonia
solution. Heating of the high pressure strong ammonia solution will drive out the ammonia vapour from it and
consequently the solution in the heater-separator becomes weak which in turn flows back to the heat exchanger
where it warms up the strong ammonia solution passing through it.
The high pressure ammonia vapour from the heater-separator now passes to a condenser, where it is
condensed. The high pressure ammonia liquid is now expanded to a low pressure and low temperature in the
throttle valve.
The low pressure condensed ammonia liquid at low temperature is passed onto the evaporator coils
provided in the freezing compartment, where it absorbs the heat and evaporates.
The low pressure ammonia vapour from the freezing compartment is passed again to the absorber where it
is reabsorbed by dissolving in water. The strong low pressure ammonia solution from the absorber is again re-
circulated to repeat the cycle continuously.
8. ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Refrigeration And Air-Conditioning
Mr. Yashawantha K M, Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering, SIT, Mangalore Page 8
Difference between vapor compression and absorption system
Room Air-Conditioner
Room air-conditioner mainly consists of an evaporator, condenser, compressor, two fans one each for the
evaporator and condenser units usually driven by the single motor, capillary, etc. It is generally mounted on a
window sill such that the evaporator unit is inside the room and the condenser part projecting outside the
building.
The high-pressure, low-temperature liquid refrigerant from the condenser is passed to the evaporator coils
through the capillary tube where it undergoes expansion. The low-pressure, low temperature liquid refrigerant
passes through the evaporator coils. The evaporator-fan continuous draws the air from the interior space within
the room through an air filter by forcing it to pass over the evaporator coils.
The air from the interior passing over the evaporator coils is cooled by the refrigerant which consequently
evaporates by absorbing the heat from the air. The high-temperature evaporated refrigerant from the
evaporator is drawn by the suction of the compressor which compresses it and delivers it to the condenser. The
high-pressure, high-temperature refrigerant vapour now flows through the condenser coils. The condenser-fan
draws the atmospheric air from the exposed side-portions of the air conditioner which is projecting outside the
9. ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Refrigeration And Air-Conditioning
Mr. Yashawantha K M, Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering, SIT, Mangalore Page 9
building into the space behind it and discharges to pass through the centre section of the condenser unit over
the condenser coils. The high-pressure, high-temperature refrigerant passing inside the condenser coils
condenses by giving off the heat to the atmospheric air.
The cooled high-pressure refrigerant from the condenser passes through the capillary tube where it
undergoes expansion and is again re-circulated to repeat the cycle continuously.
Humidity, absolute humidity, relative humidity
Humidity is defined as the moisture content present in the atmosphere. The atmosphere always
contains some moisture in the form of water vapour. The maximum amount depends on the atmospheric
conditions. The amount of vapour that will saturate the air increases with a rise temperature.
For example, at 4°C, 1000 kg of moist air contains a maximum of 4.4 kg of water vapour. At 38°C, the
same amount of moist air contains a maximum of 18 kg of water vapour. As is evident that when the
atmosphere is saturated with water, the level of discomfort is high because the evaporation of perspiration.
Humidity can be specified in three different ways.
The absolute humidity is defined as the, weight of water vapour contained in a given volume of air. It is
expressed in grams of water vapour per cubic metre of air.
The specific humidity is defined as the ratio of weight of water vapour to the total weight of air. It is
expressed in grams of water vapour per kilogram of air.
The relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the actual vapour content of the air to the vapour content of
air at the same, temperature when saturated with water vapour.
Centralized air conditioning
Centralized air conditioning systems, widely employed in theatres, offices, stores, restaurants, public
buildings, etc, provide the controlled atmosphere by heating, cooling and ventilation. The centralized air
conditioning systems include refrigerating units, blowers, air ducts and a plenum chamber in which the air
from the interior of the building is mixed with outside air. In such installations, cooling and dehumidifying are
done during summer months and regular heating systems are used during winter.
10. ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Refrigeration And Air-Conditioning
Mr. Yashawantha K M, Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering, SIT, Mangalore Page 10
Reference
1. A Text Book of Elements of Mechanical Engineering, K.R. Gopalkrishna, Subhash Publishers,
Bangalore.
2. Elements of Mechanical Engineering , Dr.A.S.Ravindra, Best Publications, 7th
edition 2009.
3. Thermodynamics, An Engineering Approach, Yunus A.Cenegal and Michael A.Boles, Tata McGraw
Hill publications, 2002
4. Elements of mechanical engineering – Kestoor Praveen and Ramesh, Suggi publishing