Background A sound knowledge of human anatomy is a major requirement for being a good physician or a practicing surgeon. Despite digitalization and modernization of education sector, traditional cadaveric dissection still occupies the leadership of anatomy education. It is becoming an untold truth that no modern technologies such as virtual dissection or 3D model printing could replace cadaveric dissection in its way of teaching students. Methods Recent research studies on modern anatomical teaching methods for medical and non-medical students and their influences are reviewed. Results Despite new technologies, traditional cadaveric dissection helps students to acquire more practical knowledge and still occupies prior position on its way

1. THIEME
 49Invited Article
Recent Advances and Changing Face of Anatomy
Teaching and Learning in Medical Education
Mathew Joseph 1
Brijendra Singh1
1Department of Anatomy, All India Institute of Medical Sciences,
Rishikesh, Uttarakhand, India
Address for correspondence Brijendra Singh, MBBS, MS,
DNB, MNAMS, Department of Anatomy, All India Institute
of Medical Sciences, Rishikesh 249203, Uttarakhand, India
(e-mail: drbrijendrasingh@gmail.com).
Background A sound knowledge of human anatomy is a major requirement for
being a good physician or a practicing surgeon. Despite digitalization and moderniza-
tion of education sector, traditional cadaveric dissection still occupies the leadership
of anatomy education. It is becoming an untold truth that no modern technologies
such as virtual dissection or 3D model printing could replace cadaveric dissection in its
way of teaching students.
Methods Recent research studies on modern anatomical teaching methods for
medical and non-medical students and their influences are reviewed.
Results Despite new technologies, traditional cadaveric dissection helps students to
acquire more practical knowledge and still occupies prior position on its way.
Abstract
Keywords
►► anatomy learning
►► problem-based
learning
►► virtual dissection
►► 3D model
►► You Tube learning
DOI https://doi.org/
10.1055/s-0039-1693843
ISSN 2277-4025.
©2019 Society of Clinical
Anatomists
Introduction
As per current perspective, main aim of anatomy education
in medical and paramedical schools is to provide students an
in-depth understanding of morphology, their position, and
spatial relations, for example, connectivity and innervation.
Students should be able to locate anatomical structures, which
are an essential prerequisite for surgical interventions. They
should also be aware of variability of morphology and loca-
tion, for example, of branching patterns of nerves, lymphat-
ics, and vascular structures. Traditional methods for anatomy
education involve lectures, demonstrations, use of textbooks
and atlases as well as cadaver dissections. Cadaver dissection
has played an essential role for many reasons, for example,
training of manual dexterity and communication skills.
In addition to above basic requirements, students should
be trained in such a way as to correlate anatomic basis of dis-
eases, that is, anatomical explanation of signs and symptoms
for a particular disease condition. This is lacking in many
medical schools in spite of curriculum which demands the
same. It may be due to various reasons such as time lim-
itation, demonstration scarcity, shortage of proper training
of faculty in clinical specialties, and even lack of interest of
teaching faculty.
Despite immense medical knowledge, doctors from Indi-
an subcontinent often receive negative comments due to
lack of or due to improper communication skills. Thus, while
preparing a curriculum for medical schools, special training
in developing communication skills in addition to medical
training should be made mandatory.
An Overview of Technologies Used for
Anatomy Education in Terms of Medical
History
Using technology contributes learning and teaching in a
better and effective way. Using technology creates interest
and also increases motivation of student. Thereby, learning
outcomes become more permanent. Moreover, using model,
plastic model, and computer-assisted simulator technolo-
gies instead of traditional methods is preferred as a part of
respect to privacy in medical ethics. Benefits of simulation
technique are that it supports one of the basic principles
of bioethics “first do no harm” by providing students equal
opportunities and to repeat many times as they wish. The
key aspect is that modern technologies doesn’t replace the
traditional way of education rather provides much support
for the same.1
Natl J Clin Anat 2019;8:49–52
Published online: 2019-07-30

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National Journal of Clinical Anatomy Vol. 8 No. 2/2019
Recent Advances in Anatomy and Medical Education Joseph, Singh
In this modern technological era, style or mode of
education also has to be revised/updated as per student
requirements. Cadaveric teaching is essential because its
provides the opportunity of knowing three-dimension-
al (3D) structure and diversity of the body. But recent and
technologically ­developed methods allow us to decrease both
the required time for training and the cost of education. It
­provides better hygiene and more better standard for labo-
ratories. Even if modern artificial cadaveric laboratories and
simulation ­laboratories decrease the risk of formalin-in-
duced diseases, they may not create a suitable environment
to monitor anatomic variations of human body and possible
pathological structures. Consequently, although it seems to
have some negative aspects to be dealt with, it is still consid-
ered ­appropriate, resulting in the continued use of cadavers
in education.
Anatomy Education for YouTube Generation
YouTube generation is specifically defined not by age group
but by an attitude and mindset. This group is a core audience
for YouTube and 80% Millennials constitute this generation.
Furthermore, about more than three-fourth of this popula-
tion has an online social media profile and update it daily.
Almost every undergraduate student owns three or more
electronic devices (i.e., smart phones and iPods) and 90% own
a laptop or a computer.2
The below are the results of the survey study conducted
in Ireland. When asked to select the method used to solve a
difficulty encountered in their anatomy learning, the major-
ity of the students surveyed (70%) had employed web-based
platforms to source information, either by using Internet
search engines (62%) and/or social media websites (10%).
However, 29% students also selected recommended anat-
omy textbooks, while 5% indicated they would contact an
instructor.
In agreement with previous studies, majority (78%) of
students selected YouTube as their source of anatomy video
clips, while medical websites (8%), Facebook, and other social
media (22%) mentioned that the usefulness depends on the
particular topic.
This survey analysis suggests that social media and in
particular YouTube are becoming increasingly prevalent as
student learning aids in anatomy education. It is suggested
here that a change in anatomy instructors’ perceptions may
be needed regarding the use of social media, given that a sig-
nificant portion of students consult online resources such
as YouTube or Facebook rather than asking the educator to
answer a question.
Problem-Based Learning: An Overview of the
Process and Its Impact on Learning
Problem-based learning (PBL) has been widely adopted in
diverse fields and educational contexts to promote critical
thinking and problem-solving in authentic learning situa-
tions. Its close affiliation with workplace collaboration and
interdisciplinary learning contributed to its spread beyond
the traditional realm of clinical education to applied dis-
ciplines such as health sciences, business studies, and
­engineering. With this growing practice and popularity of
PBL in various educational and organizational settings, there
has been an increasing number of studies examining its effec-
tiveness on the quality of student learning and the extent to
which its promise of developing self-directed learning hab-
its, problem-solving skills, and deep disciplinary knowledge
achieves its intended result. In atypical PBL setting, learning
is triggered by a problem which needs resolution.3
PBL is a pedagogical approach that enables students to
learn while engaging actively with meaningful problems.
Students are given the opportunities to solve problem in a
collaborative setting, create mental models for learning,
and form self-directed learning habits through practice and
reflection. Hence, the underpinning philosophy of PBL is that
learning can be considered a “constructive, self-directed, col-
laborative and contextual” activity. Longer term knowledge
retention is in favor of PBL.
Modern Methods Used in the Study of
Human Anatomy
Anatomy study should not be completed in 2nd year of
medical school, instead student, by means of a harmonized
curriculum, shall continue the process of understanding the
anatomy in the 3rd, 4th, and 5th year by means of option-
al and facultative subjects such as clinical anatomy, imaging
anatomy, and joint biomechanics.4
The role of knowledge construction by students them-
selves in learning is really significant, reflected in the for-
mation of critical and reflexive individuals and qualified
professionals. Using the methods of cognitive behavioral
training, we may obtain a positive response from students,
who declared being more interested; objectively, student
participation in classes can be improved if flip class rooms,
small group teachings, quiz programs, etc. are incorporated
in teaching schedule and with proper time management.
Anatomy is one of the very few disciplines of medi-
cine where no changes occur, as structure of human body
remains the same. Yet, every teacher struggles permanently
to improve their course. All the time they have tried to strike
a balance between the number of concepts presented and
the iconography quality, type of analyzer used in reception,
and understanding by student. We ask ourselves, since teach-
ers were compared with actors and actors play in plays and
then films came into being, would not it be better in future
to use 3D images with anatomy teacher. Thus, better and bet-
ter courses could be obtained, and the teacher will sit at his/
her chair in the classroom and interact within amphitheater.
There will still be questions from students about the under-
standing of certain structures.
Thus, teacher will be able on the one hand to explain these
unknown subjects to students, access pictures, or demon-
strations to clarify the concepts and upgrade their course
based on the redundancy and importance of questions.
Any educational process ends with students’ assessment.
There were and there are still various controversies on this

3. 51Recent Advances in Anatomy and Medical Education Joseph, Singh
National Journal of Clinical Anatomy Vol. 8 No. 2/2019
subject. The earliest methods of examination involved prac-
tical and theoretical tests. The classic practical exam involves
the recognition of certain anatomical structures on dissection
preparations or sections of the different topographic regions.
To these we can add the recognition of anatomical for-
mation on paraclinical investigation images: X-rays, com-
puted tomography with or without contrast dye, nuclear
magnetic resonance.
Teaching Anatomy in the 21st Century: New
Aspects and Pitfalls
By learning gross anatomy, medical students get a first
“impression” about the structure of the human body that is
the basis for understanding pathologic and clinical problems.
Although the importance of teaching anatomy to both under-
graduate and postgraduate students remains undisputed,
there is currently a relevant debate concerning methods of
anatomy teaching. Recently, the time allocated for anatomy
teaching has been dramatically reduced to such an extent that
some suggest that it has fallen below an adequate standard.5
Anatomy as a discipline is disappearing and few new
anatomists are being trained properly. Worldwide curricula
reforms, which have resulted in a reduction both in gross anat-
omy teaching hours and its context, lead to a serious review of
the way in which anatomy is taught. Furthermore, the aboli-
tion of anatomy demonstrator positions has deprived surgical
trainees of valuable exposure to clinical anatomy and a new
generation of surgeons is subsequently taking up operative
responsibilities despite their poor knowledge of anatomy.5
The question is, why students do not seem to have enough
anatomical knowledge to practice safely. The answers are
various: ranging from reduced teaching hours to recent-
ly developed teaching methods not including compulsory
­dissecting and light microscopy sessions.
It is strongly suggested that anatomy to be integrated ver-
tically into medical education so that students are exposed
to anatomy teaching throughout undergraduate (preclinical
and clinical), postgraduate, and later in professional train-
ing. Modern digitalized methods of teaching anatomy are
undoubtedly useful. However, body donation can still sig-
nificantly benefit new medical students, and the dissection
­procedures should be reintegrated into medical training.
Computer-assisted learning, PBL, and newly developed tech-
niques such as plastination should be used to enhance and sup-
port anatomical teaching and learning in medical education.
Learning gross anatomy by dissection cannot be under-
mined in a modern medical curriculum, since it gives a 3D
experience in real life that cannot be attained by the most
advanced digital anatomy programs available
Blended Learning in Anatomy Teaching
for Nonmedical Students: An Innovative
Approach to the Health Professions
Education
Study contributed to literature by introducing an innovative
courseware that is exclusively oriented for nonmedical
students and exploring attitude and blended learning
­experience from students' perspective. As per the results
obtained, majority of students had an acceptance of the
method of blended learning, but the researchers could not
establish any of its effect on learning. The view could also be
explained by the mainstream students who learned anatomy
in the form of pure memorization instead of strategic learn-
ing felt that the amount to learn was daunting and stress-
ful. A gamified element (games, quiz, animations) in health
profession education has gained wide attention as an active
learning strategy.6
The Virtual Dissecting Room: Creating Highly
Detailed Anatomy Models for Educational
Purposes
The world is making a push toward a digital environment.
The use of multimedia in the 21st century has become com-
monplace worldwide and 3D presentations of information
are being increasingly used in medical education and health-
care. Therefore, modern anatomy teaching may include the
use of multimedia presentations and radiological images
next to more traditional procedures such as cadaver dissec-
tion and depicting surface anatomy. Computer-based (3D)
interactive models of human anatomy have evolved over the
last decade with advances in computer technology and web-
based education curricula (such as online education). Such
models can be used outside the classical teaching environ-
ment in a blended learning approach, or—in the case of the
absence of dissecting facilities—as a tool to replace dissect-
ing practical.7
3D Digital Anatomy Modelling - Practical or
Pretty?
With current technological advances and a constantly
changing learning environment, a growing number of digi-
tal applications are being implemented into undergraduate
and postgraduate medical teaching curricula. Even though
the value of cadaveric dissection is irreplaceable, digital
technology without a doubt can greatly facilitate anato-
my learning. Interactive 3D digital models improve under-
standing of complex anatomical structures, their special
relationship and help improve manual skills and hand–eye
coordination. Also, digital mobile technology is an appeal-
ing mode of learning anatomy as it is logistically conve-
nient, more engaging, and less intimidating to the contem-
porary student.8
Drawing classes, once restricted to arts majors and paint-
ers, seem to be gaining traction in medical education. Draw-
ing as a teaching method could also benefit the lecturers
as the students' drawings could reveal common knowledge
gaps. A variety of media are being explored including collage
and wire modelling in the hope of effectively relating struc-
ture to function.8
Conflict of Interest
None.

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National Journal of Clinical Anatomy Vol. 8 No. 2/2019
Recent Advances in Anatomy and Medical Education Joseph, Singh
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