Theories Of Juvenile Delinquency Explained

Theories Of Juvenile Delinquency
The most frequently asked question of criminologists is, what causes delinquency? There are many
explanations and theories of delinquency, especially in specific regards juvenile delinquency. For the
simplicity and length, this paper will be focusing on the strain theory, social learning theory, control
theory, labeling theory, and life course theory. First the theories will be explained and defined. After
the theories have been defined, a comparison of the five will be made. Next, some contrasts of the
theories. Finally, to wrap the paper together, an analysis of which theory is the most applicable to
juvenile delinquency, specifically. The first modern version of strain theory is Robert K. Merton
(1938) which involves the inability of individuals to achieve culturally prescribed success goals, or
"goal blockage". In addition to this "goal blockage" Merton defines two types of strain; the failure to
achieve these goals and the loss of positive stimuli and/or a presence of negative stimuli. Focusing
on the goals that are "culturally prescribed" for success, specifically for juveniles, these could
include money, status or respect, autonomy from adults, and thrills or excitement. Autonomy from
adults is a key goal for juveniles because as a teenager, the juvenile strives to be independent and
strives to be treated as an adult. Agnew, another prominent theorist of strain theory, lists eight types
of negative treatment or presence of negative stimuli: parental rejection, parental supervision and
discipline that is very strict/erratic/excessive given the infraction and/or harsh, child abuse and
neglect, negative school experiences, abusive peer relations, criminal victimization, homelessness,
and experiences with prejudice and discrimination based on ascribed characteristics like gender and
race/ethnicity. "The frustration that results from this goal blockage increased the likelihood of crime;
individuals may try to obtain money through acts such as theft and drug selling, may strike out at
others in their anger or may focus on alternative goals that are conducive to crime (e.g., masculinity
goals emphasizing toughness)" (Agnew 2012).
"Social learning theory is not a single theory but rather a family of theories
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Biological Explanations Of Criminal Behavior Essay
Biological
Biological explanations propose that the criminal behavior is the result of the individual's defective
biological makeup. Neurological abnormalities have been the central focus in studies examining
criminal behavior. In one particular study (Raine et al., (2002) – Brain Dysfunction), the brains of
convicted murderers, who all pled not guilty by reason of insanity, were compared to those of a
control group. The conclusive results showed that the murderers had "reduced activity in areas of the
brain such as the prefrontal cortex, thalamus, hippocampus and the left side of the amygdala, which
are all linked to violent behaviour." (Raine, (2002). This study supports a deterministic approach and
positions a criminal as being born this way, thus making it natural for him to commit the crime.
Psychological
Psychological explanation involves science of behavior and mental processes of the criminal.
Criminality is the consequence of individual factors such as unfavorable experiences as a child, the
lack of socialization, and late cognitive development. Several theories for psychologically based
explanations point to personality disorders as well as mental process (ideation, imagination, and
reasoning) as the driver in criminal behavior. "Abnormal mental processes may have a variety ...
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Scientific ideologies are applied to the study of crime to suggest that society constructs criminals.
One theory states that most people have been taught that crime is immoral, while those more likely
to commit a crime have learned "beliefs that are favorable to crime." Our background, education,
class, and belief system are all fundamental in the way we view what is considered acceptable
behavior. Societal interference suggests these factors are all responsible for criminal activity.
According to sociological perception, criminal behavior is

Biological Explanations Of Shyness Essay
The purpose of personality psychology is to understand the variations in the way people act. One
description of personality – shyness – is very prevalent amongst personality. Ranging from moderate
shyness when meeting new people, to debilitating shyness in the form of anxiety disorders, shyness
affects people in different ways, and the impact it has had on my life can be explained with the
biological and trait–dispositional approaches. When meeting new people, my heart rate increases. I
must be deliberate in my speech, or else I will stutter and mumble. I'll get butterflies, and sometimes
even freeze up. This is an example of fearful shyness. Fearful shyness involves being upset about
social interactions or fearful when interacting with others (Buss, 1986). This study differentiates the
two types of shyness: fearful shyness and self–conscious shyness, and explains where each type of
shyness is present in what situations. An example of self–conscious shyness would be anything
damaging to the self–esteem, such as going outside naked and being laughed out. Furthermore, this
article explains what type of organisms experience each type of shyness; while human infants and
other mammals can experience fearful shyness, only older children and adults can experience self–
conscious shyness. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For one, shyness shows a significant link with levels of introversion. While it is true that not all
introverts are shy, and some extroverts are shy, most people who are shy are introverted (Briggs,
1988). This study was done to determine whether shyness correlated with introversion or
neuroticism and why. They found that it correlates with both, and that shyness most likely lies on an
axis between neuroticism and introversion. I also show other behaviors consisted with introversion,
such as preferring small groups, and studying in rooms with less noise (Geen,

Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa Psychology
Biological explanations for anorexia nervosa
Biological explanations for anorexia nervosa include neural explanations and evolutionary
explanations.
1st BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION – Neurotransmitters
–Serotonin
Disturbances in the levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin appear to be a characteristic of
individuals with eating disorders. Kaye 2005 found a reduction in the levels of the serotonin
metabolite 5–HIAA in people with eating disorders. This suggests that brain serotonin pathways are
underactive. Using PET scans it has been shown that there are fewer serotonin receptors in the
brains of those with eating disorders. The brain serotonin system has been implicated in personality
traits linked with eating disorders such as ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Birth complications may lead to brain damage cause by hypoxia (lack of oxygen). This may impair
the neurodevelopment of the child. Favaro et al 2006 offers research support for birth complications
being implicated in anorexia. Following a group of children from birth to adulthood, it was found
that immediately before or after any obstruction of the blood supply to the placenta increased the
risk of developing eating difficulties & a low birth weight.
Bulik et al 2005 suggest that mothers with anorexia expose their offspring to a 'double disadvantage'
& that nutritional factors may be implicated if mothers have an eating disorder – the
transmission of genetic vulnerability to anorexia & inadequate nutrition during pregnancy.
Research support for the role in anorexia can be offered by Mindberg and Hjem whom found that a
high percentage of anorexics were born at least3 weeks premature. However not all babies that are
subject to pregnancy and birth complications will then go on to have AN & such view that
complications will result in AN is highly deterministic.
–Season of Birth
Research also suggest that individuals with AN are more likely to have been born during the spring
months (Eagles et al 2001). Explanations for this associating include intrauterine infections during
pregnancy and temperature at time of conception.
For example Willoughby et al

Biological Explanations Of Depression Research Paper
Depression is a serious illness that can worsen or last for years if it is left untreated. Depression can
occur in a number of ways for different reasons. It is common to feel depressed as a reaction to loss,
life's struggles, or an injured self–esteem. When these feelings become too much to handle they can
prevent you from living a normal, healthy life. If you or a family member think you are
experiencing depression signs to look out for include difficulty concentrating, fatigue, guilt,
worthlessness, Insomnia, Irritability, restlessness, and thoughts of suicide. These are only some of
the signs associated with depression, and if symptoms worsen over time a trip to the doctor is
necessary. Unfortunately, a lot of the people who experience symptoms never do get diagnosed or
treated for their illness because they are too afraid to speak out. ... Show more content on
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Learned helplessness is a behavior typically associated with painful or otherwise aversive stimuli in
which the person is unable to escape or avoid the feelings. A person who experiences learned
helplessness usually fails to learn or accept "escape" or "avoidance" in new situations where such
behavior would likely be effective. This results in the person giving up. Biological explanation of
disordered mood focus on the effects of chemicals on the brain. Scientists have identified genes that
make individuals more vulnerable to low moods and influence how an individual responds to drug
therapy. Social cognitive theorists believe that depression or mood disorders stems from blowing
negative events out of proportion and minimizing positive good events. These depressed people
continually have negative thoughts that depress them further than they already

Biological Explanations Of Schizophrenia Essay
schizophrenia first appeared in 1860 as a disease entity under the name: premature dementia. As
schizophrenia has been functioning since 1910. The name is derived from the Greek words skhizein,
meaning "to split", and phrēn, meaning "mind". (V. Taylor, 2011)
Causes and symptoms
Causes and symptoms of the disease usually occur between 16– 30. years of age and is a mental
disorder. (Schizophrenia Society, n.d) Ultimately, its causes have not yet been clarified, although it
includes: genetic factors, biochemical, changes to the structure of the brain, viral infections,
autoimmune disorders, and psychological and social factors (Mayo Clinic, 2014). Onset may be
sudden, slow or nervous breakdown.
Sudden start–observed sudden changes in behaviour, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Symptoms in schizophrenia are characterized by apathy, in addition, is cut from the world.
(Severance, D n.d)
Theories
One of biological explanations for schizophrenia is Gotessman (1991) theory. He proved that the
probability that a patient's sibling becomes ill with schizophrenia is 9%. If both parents have a
schizophrenic then there is a 46 % probability that their children will be also ill. Tienari (2000)
analysed 361 Finnish children where 164 biological mothers has schizophrenia. It turned out that
there is a high probability of schizophrenia in children adopted, but it is about 20% increased when
adoptive families have experienced relationship disorders (child has been stressed). (Cardwell,
2012)
Psychological explanation of schizophrenia developed Freud, who believed that disease the
unconscious is a disorder caused by a hidden homosexuality, explaining the lack of progress in the
treatment of friction such patients. (Carroll R, 1994)
The clinical form of schizophrenia
Depending on the type and severity of symptoms, there are several clinical forms of schizophrenia.
The most common include: simple schizophrenia, paranoid, hebephrenic and catatonic. To the
common symptoms can

Compare And Contrast Psychological And Biological...
Compare and contrast psychological and biological explanations of schizophrenia.
Jessica F Smith
University Of Sussex
Schizophrenia has been termed a heterogeneous group of disorders with varied etiologies (Walker,
Kestler, Bollini, & Hochman, 2004) which includes biological, social, cognitive and
psychodynamic perspectives. To progress knowledge of schizophrenia, this essay focuses on how
the biological and psychological explanations are independent and interdependent and how they
may differentiate from one another. This includes: how our biological predisposition, neuro
transmitter dysfunction and genetic inheritance, affects how people with schizophrenia respond to
social environments, the importance of socio–economic factors ... Show more content on
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However, MZ twins, who share 100% genetic material, could lead to them experiencing similar
social environments, as family members treat them the same, suggesting that their concordance may
have something to do with upbringing (Davey, 2011). More so, Mz twins are very rare and as
schizophrenia has a prevelance of only 1% (Keith et al. 1991, cited by Walker et al 2004), the
evidence is regarded from a small sample size and therefore cannot be generalised to the disorder. In
relation to social ideas, research into adopted children has identified the importance of nurturing
environments on preventing diagnosis (Tienari, Wynne, Moring, Lahti, 1994). Adoptive
environments are often unorganised and adoptive relatives find it difficult to use acceptable
communicative devices that enable patients with schizophrenia to communicate with them. This is
an independent predictor of psychotic symptoms in adoptees (Wahlberg, Wynne, Hacko, et al,
2004).
The social environment a human is brought up in influences the way they behave and develop.
Patients with schizophrenia are found to be higher in population, in low socio–economic areas,
(Lederbogen, Haddad, & Meyer–Lindenberg, 2013), which can reflect why they may develop
schizophrenia. The life stressors that accompany living in a poor area, such as poverty, are likely to
bring about psychotic symptoms, particularly in those who are vulnerable, causing these higher
populations (Byrne, Agerbo, Eaton, &

Biological Explanations of Schizophrenia
Describe and evaluate biological explanations of schizophrenia (24 marks)
Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder characterized by distorted thinking, impaired emotional
responses, poor interpersonal skills and a distortion of reality. It is the most common of psychotic
disorders that, in most countries around the world, affects around 1 per cent of the population. In
terms of explanations for the disorder, two central types of explanations arise – psychological
explanations and biological explanations. Whereas psychological explanations tend to focus on
cognitive, emotional and environmental factors that may cause the disorder, biological explanations
tend to focus on genetic, biochemical and neuro–anatomical factors as the cause of the ... Show
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As Joseph (2004) pointed out, however, this is not always the case. Monozygotic twins are more
likely to be treated in a similar way, encounter more similar environments, and be to be thought of
as 'the twins' rather than two separate individuals. This, in turn, can lead to 'identity confusion' and
so potentially a higher concordance rate amongst monozygotic twins. Therefore Joseph argues that
the greater concordance rate seen in monozygotic twins than in dizygotic twins is a result of the
differing attitudes and environments experienced by the two types of twins.
Adoption studies have also been used to determine whether home environment or genetic
disposition are more influential in the causation of schizophrenia, as usually in twin studies twins
are both genetically related and experience the same environment. Kety (1994) found high rates of
schizophrenia in individuals whose biological parents were schizophrenic but were adopted by
psychologically healthy parents. The most methodologically sound of adoption studies, though, was
carried out by Tienari et al (2000) in Finland. In the study 164 adoptees whose biological mothers
were schizophrenic were compared to 197 adoptees whose mothers were psychologically healthy. It
was found that 6.7 per cent of the experimental group (those with schizophrenic mothers) developed

A Comparison of Biological and Psychological Explanations...
A Comparison of Biological and Psychological Explanations of Schizophrenia Both the biological
and the psychological explanations of schizophrenia are supported by empirical evidence which
justify their explanations. However ,within the biological explanation there is the genetic
explanation which is used largely based on scientific research such as that of Gottesman's research
using meta–analysis which looked at the family (including twin) relationships and concordance rates
of schizophrenia. The studies used Gottesman's research was scientifically based and because of the
large number of studies and therefore the sample used, the biological research can be credited for
being representative. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Due to the size and nature of the research. Although research in the biological explanation was
scientifically based is was not laboratory based. As there was no manipulation of the IV or DV
neither the biological or the psychological can make a firm cause and effect conclusion as to the
causes or explanations of schizophrenia. For example we can no confirm that the enlarged brain
ventricles are not the result of schizophrenia and not the cause. Likewise we can not say for sure that
a Schizoprenogenic mother isn't the result of having a schizophrenic child and not the cause of
schizophrenia in the child. Both the psychological and biological explanation of schizophrenia are
criticised for being too simplistic an explanation of the causes of schizophrenia. However, both
theories are not rigid in their views and most scientists believe that is a complex interaction between
biological and environmental factors which determine the development of schizophrenia. Although
most supporters of the genetic explanation believe that there is a genetic predisposition to
schizophrenia and therefore accept other psychological and environmental factors. Despite the fact
that the Schizoprenogenic Mother explanation does tend to ignore other contributing factors, the
overall explanation is not as dogmatic in it's view. . Both theories do show though that not all of the

Critically Consider Biological Explanations of...
The term ‘schizophrenia' covers a group of serious psychotic disorders characterised by a loss of
contact with reality. It comes from two Greek words: schiz meaning ‘split' and phren meaning
‘mind'. DSM IV (1994) estimate that the occurrence rate of schizophrenia ranges from 0.2%–2.0%
worldwide. There are two main explanations of schizophrenia: the biological explanations and the
psychological explanations. In this essay I will critically consider the biological explanations. These
include genetics, neurochemistry, brain structure and evolution. Genetic factors of schizophrenia can
be explained using studies on twins and studies on family history. With twin studies researchers
want to establish the degree of concordance. This is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There was a large difference in the incidence of schizophrenia when they were adults between the
two groups. The group with schizophrenic mothers were found to have a 10.3% chance of being
schizophrenic and the group with non–schizophrenic mothers were found to have only a 1.1%
chance of being schizophrenic.
Kety et al. (1978) examined early–age Danish adoptees matched on gender and age. 50% of these
adoptees were diagnosed as schizophrenic and 50% were not. They found that the incidence of
schizophrenia was greater among the biological relatives of those with schizophrenia than those
without. This is expected if genetic factors are important. They also found that the rate of
schizophrenia was no different for adoptive families who had adopted a child who became
schizophrenic compared to those who had adopted a child that did not become schizophrenic. This
therefore suggests that environment is of little importance.
However Kety et al.'s (1978) study is criticised due to the fact that they drew their adoptees from
1924–1947 and gathered their statistics from a time–span of over 70 years. This means that the
uniformity of the diagnostic criteria must be queried due to the change in interpretations of
symptoms.
Genetics can cause differences in brain chemistry and biochemistry may be important in the
development and maintenance of schizophrenia. The dopamine

Biological And Social Explanations Of Criminal Behavior
Psychology is important to me, as it is my favourite out of my current A level subjects, and is a
subject I regard as important as it can lead to direct improvements to our society, such as reducing
crime rates. In particular, the nature verses nurture debate holds great interest to myself, as reading
through different biological and social explanations of criminal behaviour highlights the value this
debate has in our society. Although psychology is part of everyday life, I find this particular debate
important as it attempts to determine whether or not a particular behaviour is a result of our
environment or genetics. Through studying psychology, I came to the conclusion that both
behaviours nurtured by the environment, and those created by DNA have equal significance. ...
As his theory takes both nature and nurture factors into account, while other biological theories I
have studied, ignores or minimises the value they both have in shaping criminal personalities. While
it does imply both social and biological causes for criminal behaviour, it does lack in explaining as
to whether personality causes the crime, or if crime is what causes the personality. Which is
important, as without that answer it is more difficult to prevent crime as we do not know what
causes what. Therefore I am determined to learn from the course due to my interest in the subject,
and hope to find answers to debates such as this in order to have a positive impact on an aspect of

The Biological Explanation Of Schizophrenia
Most of us do not know what it feels like to hallucinate–to see or hear things that are not really
there–or to have delusions, persistent notions that do not match reality. This is what happens to one
who suffers from "schizophrenia".
Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder, where an individuals' contact with reality is lost or highly
distorted. According to the psychiatric manual–Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM), Schizophrenia is characterised by delusions, hallucinations, disorganised speech
and catatonic behaviour (which is characterised by motor immobility and stupor), social withdrawal,
flattening of affect (which is severe reduction in the intensity of affect) and other symptoms that
cause social or occupational dysfunction. For a diagnosis the symptoms must have been present for
six months and include at least one month of active symptoms.
Till late19th century many cultures in different parts of the world looked at "madness" or "insanity"
as a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One explanation provided focuses on the role of a neurotransmitter called dopamine. It has been
found that there is a correlation existing between high levels of dopamine in the brain and the
symptoms of schizophrenia. A study done in 1999 by Lindstroem et al injected a chemical called L–
DOPA which is used in the production of dopamine. They found that L–DOPA was taken up more
quickly by schizophrenic patients than control groups. This study is suggests that there is a
correlation between high levels of dopamine in brain and the symptoms of schizophrenia.
Another way to test the levels of dopamine is to examine the presence of dopamine metabolite
homovanillic acid in the urine. A study by Donnelly et al found significantly higher levels of
homovanillic acid in schizophrenic patients, than those in control groups. This again supports the
idea that schizophrenia is associated with high levels of dopamine in the

Discuss the biological explanation for phobic disorders
Discuss issues of reliability and validity associated with the classification and diagnosis of phobic
disorders (24 marks)
The biological explanation for the acquisition of phobic disorders establishes that phobias are
caused by genetics, innate influences and the principles of biochemistry. This theory recognizes that
an oversensitive fear response may be inherited, causing abnormal levels of anxiety. This is
illustrated in the basis of inheritance, particularly the adrenergic theory that convicts that those who
have an acquisition to phobic disorders consequently show high levels of arousal in the automatic
nervous system, which leads to increased amounts of adrenaline, thus causing high levels of anxiety.
However this theory lacks ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Parallel to this, the focus on genetics is Particularly convicted in twin studies, which establish a
comparison between monozygotic twins that are identical and dizygotic twins, which are opposingly
non–identical. This distinction can be identified in Torgersens study, which compared MZ and same
sex DZ twins where one proband had an anxiety disorder, and it was discovered that such disorders
were 5x more frequent in MZ twin pairs, who mutually shared identical genetics.
This theory creates an issue, as it only looks at nature's impact as the root cause of phobic disorders
and relishes in not accounting for environmental causes, which are posed by nurture. This aspect of
nurture which is ignored can be questioned in the twin studies as although Torgersen found that
identical twins who share genes are 5x more likely to share an anxiety disorder, it is unclear whether
it is the nature of the genetic makeup which causes the disorder, or the nurture of the twins, as they
would have both gone through the same things in their environment causing the contamination
effect. This is further highlighted through the diathesis stress model formed by Di nardo et al which
provides a much more

How Apparent Biological Categories Are Social Categories
Explain how apparent biological categories are social categories: To further understand this
component, for a sociologist to effectively understand social stratification and the high rate of
discrimination in the US will require proper understanding of race. This sociological inquiry would
render the whole aspects of the race to be natural. Naturalness is something that can be best outlined
from the similar biological traits that individual have through a particular race. In such instances
where race become the determining factor, we would consider the significance of the claim that it is
not true to the fact that biological categories are social categories. If for instance, a particular race
let's say African is a social convention, we are required to agree to the fact that all of us could adopt
African conventions and become one. This is a claim that lacks external considerations and proof.
The explicit reasoning behind this claim renders everything to be questionable. Different
components ought to be looked at rather than just forming the deductible conclusion that cannot be
validated with correct facts and proofs. It is ambiguous to claim that race is not a natural kind even
after looking at the high rate of racial prejudice and discrimination that takes place in the American
society. The explanations given to support race is not adequate to justify the practices that can
explain the high rate of discrimination. People need to understand different components that are

Biological Explanations of Criminal Behavior
Biological Explanations of Criminal Behavior Nature and nurture contribute to the way a person
behaves. This can be applied to the behaviors of criminals. According to Fishbein (1990, pg.37),
"behavior [is] primarily attributed to inherited predispositions and genetic influences." Nurture is the
environmental influence that shape human behavior (Fishbein, 1990, pg.37). Human genetics and
environmental factors contribute to the uniqueness to a person's behavior. However, there are
underlying qualities in a criminal's historical background. Aspects of the nature and nurturing of a
criminal behavior includes some problems with earlier biological explanations and some recent
biological explanations which have overcome the weaknesses of ... Show more content on
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The classical school and positive school were considered as early biological explanations to the
development of criminal minds. According to Sacco and Kennedy (2008, pg.116) the recent
biological explanations are different compared to the earlier biological explanations in several ways.
The recent explanation is concentrated more on genetic factors. Additionally, "the impact of
biological factors is mediated by the social environment" (Sacco & Kennedy, 2008, pg.116).
There are four main approaches that have overcome the weaknesses of the earlier biological
explanations: the general pedigree studies, twin studies, adoption studies, and karyotype studies. The
general pedigree studies involve people that are related to one another to see if they behave in
similar ways. These studies show that people who manifest criminal behaviour are more likely to
have offspring that do the same (Cartwright, 2009). However, evidence for the causality of criminal
behaviour by genetics is lacking. Other factors that are environmental and accumulative should be
considered (Cartwright, 2009). Twin studies on the other hand, avoid the problem that the pedigree
studies face. In twin studies, monozygotic (MZ) twins and dizygotic (DZ) twins are tested.
According to Fishbein (1990, pg. 54), MZ twins inherit one hundred percent of their parents genes
whereas DZ twins only inherit fifty percent. Studies have shown that if an MZ is involved in a
criminal behavior, the other

Outline and Evaluate Two or More Biological Explanations...
There are two main biological theories which explain the assumed causes of schizophrenia: Genetic
and Dopamine Hypothesis.
Research by Mikaywa et al has found that there must be a genetic explanation of schizophrenia due
to the fact that concordance rates for environmental causes are not 100%. Also Mikaywa noticed
that schizophrenia runs in the family, meaning there must be something other than environmental
causes, causing the disorder. What Mikaywa studied was DNA from human families who were
affected by schizophrenia and found that those with the disorder are more likely to have the
defective gene: PPP3CC. The PPP3CC gene regulates the immune system, and therefore is an
important gene in terms of genetic vulnerabilities which may be ... Show more content on
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In support of this Kendler et al found that first degree relatives of those with schizophrenia are at 18
times more risk than the general population. Research has also found that schizophrenia symptoms
may have a genetic component. This was suggested by Malaspina, who found that patients who have
schizophrenia in their family histories are more likely to develop negative symptoms than those
families who are schizophrenia free. In evaluation of family studies it may be concluded that they
are not very reliable as they are retrospective. The studies for family studies where taken place when
diagnosis was under a more liberal use of the term schizophrenia. Twin studies have also shown a
genetic pre–disposition. Gottesman found 48% risk of schizophrenia in MZ twins compared to only
17% in DZ twins. Similar to the Gottesman study two other studies showed higher concordance
rates for MZ twins and lower in DZ twins however each had slightly different results. McGuffin et
al argues this is because of the use of different diagnostic criteria, which may affect the validity of
the results. On the other hand the researchers used blind techniques to obtain the results eliminating
any researcher bias. Both family and twin studies face the problem of ignoring environmental
impacts. In family studies, genetically similar members of the same family tend to spend more time
together, therefore

Psychology
Psychology Essay
The biological approach suggests that AN is due a physical cause, suggesting it could be due to
something within the body or brain; such as hypothalamus dysfunction or an imbalance of
neurotransmitters.
The hypothalamus dysfunction theory would suggest that animals have a "set weight" which is
correct for their body, if this weight should increase or decrease then the body should make
adjustments to regulate food intake to their "set weight".
The hypothalamus is thought to have quite a lot of control over our eating behaviour, the lateral
hypothalamus (LH) is considered to be the feeding switch that makes an individual begin to feed
whereas the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) is the satiety switch that makes an ... Show more
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This research would also support the biological explanation of AN as if an individual has damage to
their hypothalamus then it could result in reduced feeding which would then result in dramatic
weight loss, as seen in sufferers of AN. However, this theory is reductionist as it suggests that the
only explanation of AN is a biological reason, and it ignores other factors; like things such as stress
or sexual abuse which can both lead to AN.
Another biological explanation of AN would be that there is an imbalance of serotonin, which is
usually associated with depression and anxiety; as disturbed levels of serotonin have been found in
AN sufferers. It is also likely that eating disorders arise due to high levels of anxiety which is linked
with high levels of serotonin in the body.
Bailer et al (1970) compared serotonin activity in recovering anorexia suffers and healthy controls.
They found significantly higher activity in the women that were recovering from anorexia, the
highest levels found in those women with the highest anxiety levels. This also provides support for
AN having a biological cause, in this case an imbalance of neurotransmitters.
However, it's difficult to establish cause and effect in Bailer's research, this is because the women
studied were already recovering from an eating disorder and so it's impossible to know whether the
imbalance of serotonin was the cause of the women's AN or whether the AN causes an imbalance of

B) Evaluate the Biological Approach’s Explanation of...
The biological approach asserts that something in our biology is the fundamental cause of
dysfunctional behaviour which could be a genetic cause or a malfunction of brain structures.
Although it is seen as the most common explanation for schizophrenia due to the use of drug
therapy, it would be deterministic and reductionist to explain schizophrenia only with the biological
approach since there are other numerous factors such as the ones related to the cognitive explanation
or other environmental causes. Also, even within the biological approach, there are various different
biological factors that cause conflict with each other, e.g. genetic tendency, the dopamine hypothesis
(a chemical issue), innate brain structures, and diathesis–stress ... Show more content on
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They work by blocking dopamine receptors, thus preventing dopamine–receiving neurons from
firing. Additionally, L–Dopa, which is used to treat Parkinson's disease (caused by lack of
dopamine), can produce Sz symptoms in individuals with no history of the disorder.
However, the evidence is inconclusive since other studies have failed to reveal an excess of
dopamine receptors. Further problems with the dopamine hypothesis include the finding that
antipsychotic drugs which block dopamine receptors, do not appear to help a significant number of
people with Sz. They appear much more effective in cases of Type 1 Sz than in Type 2. Second,
these drugs block dopamine receptors quickly, yet even when they are effective, the symptoms can
take weeks or even months to subside. Furthermore, the developments of new types of drugs such as
clozapine which are known as antipsychotic drugs block fewer dopamine receptors than traditional
anti–psychotics. However, they block many receptors for the neurotransmitter serotonin. They
appear particularly effective in reducing the symptoms of Type 2 schizophrenics. Recent research
suggests that Sz may result from the interaction of serotonin and dopamine rather than dopamine
alone. As Davison and Neale (1998) suggest, 'Sz is a disorder with widespread symptoms covering
perception, cognition, motor activity and social behaviour. It is

Biological Explanations Of Forensic Psychology
Biological explanations in forensic psychology have provided much advancement in understanding
criminal behaviour. These advancements have resulted in biological interventions being
implemented in order to reduce crime and reoffending. The interventions that are currently used will
be evaluated throughout this essay in relation to their effectiveness as a means of intervention.
Firstly, the long term effects of being under malnourished in regards to criminal behaviour will be
discussed and then an intervention will be analysed in regards to supplementation of vitamins to
prisoners. This essay will then go on to discuss how effective malnutrition interventions are in
general and suggest improvements. This will lead on to an explanation of the consequences of under
malnourished pregnant women and the negative effect this could have on their unborn child in their
future. Implementations to educate under malnourished parents will be analysed in regards to the
long term anti–social behaviours of their children. This essay will then start investigating early
enrichment programmes in relation to greater skin conductance amplitude and slow wave EEG and
the effects of this implementation will be thoroughly analysed. Lastly, a combination of the two
implementations mentioned throughout this essay – under malnourishment and early enrichment
programmes – will be examined and analysed in relation to criminal behaviour. Under malnutrition
has been linked to criminal behaviour through a

Essay Biological Explanations of Criminal Behaviour
Crime theories are still in a development stage; it is an evolutionary process that continues to this
day. Crime is still a complex and misunderstood phenomenon with no concrete evidence when it
comes to human behavior. Throughout time there have been endless amounts of crime theories, few
of which revolve around biological explanations. We have Cesare Lombroso and the Positive School
who thought that criminals were genetically different from the rest of the general population, that
they were biologically aggressive, had criminal traits and/or born as criminals. There is also William
Sheldon's theory of body types, called the somatotype theory, that argued the mesomorph body type
to be the most prone to commit crime or deviant behavior. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Sheldon created the idea of the three different body types and concluded mesomorphs, the more
muscular and athletic body type, is more prone to commit crime and deviant behavior. Although he
did not take into consideration that many prisoners lift weights while in prison and that the more
muscular individuals usually win the fight (Cartwright, 2012). The twin adoption studies were used
by behavioral geneticists to identify genetic and environmental influences underlying human
behavioral and physical variations. Although there were many detractors of the twin adoption
studies themselves and their results. There were troubles finding subjects which lead to a reduced
power of result and inconsistency of the methods used for the operation. In contemporary biological
explanations there are still works appearing and being developed, such as, the role of DNA,
nutrition, body chemistry and ecological factors in human behavior (Gado, 2004). Most of these are
either still being developed, like DNA, or were discredited along with the works of Lombroso, like
nutrition. Although biological explanations may not have made a momentous improvement since the
18th century, arguments within biological explanations have expanded. There are many theories that
argue if human behavior is predetermined at birth, or learned by influences. Nature versus nurture,

Biological Explanations For Homosexuality
Beatrice sets down a teapot and plates, sits beside her loyal best friends, stuffed with cotton, and
cries out joyfully, "Cheers!" She laughs with them and talks to them without a care in the world; she
is free from all the problems that will someday be thrown at her in life. Will Beatrice have a choice
in who she loves, or will her genetics decide that for her? Some people may contradict that she is
destined to be homosexual, others say it is a choice, and some voice that nurture is the sole cause,
out of her hands to be determined. People across America are mostly unsure how to respond to this
conflict, mainly because not many people know what the "right answer" is. Research has been made,
debates have taken place, and conflicts have occurred, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
"Is Sexual Orientation Determined at Birth" explains this: "Thus, homosexuality, in my view, is an
adaptation, not an inborn trait." As a child, one might experience an upheaval in their life. A
distressing childhood, neglect, or abuse are examples of trauma that can scar a human's
psychological mindset. Homosexuality is a response to these harmful experiences that can cause
individuals to reject one gender over another, or simply to become confused with their own identity
and attractions. Parents might unintentionally show their children neglect, which will create a child
who's thoughts are distorted as to what love truly

Two Biological Explanations of Schizophrenia Essay
Two Biological Explanations of Schizophrenia
There are many biological explanations of schizophrenia. In this essay I will concentrate on the
genetic explanation and biochemical explanation of the disorder. There are many studies that look in
to genetics and the link to schizophrenia. This is dues to an original finding that schizophrenia runs
in families and therefore suggests that genes are responsible for the disorder. I study was preformed
by Janicak et al 2001; they found that monozygotic twins have a 48% concordance rate. This is
considerably less in dizygotic twins where the concordance rate falls to 17%. This would suggest
there is a strong case for genetics being involved with ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Gottesman also supports the genetic link, showing schizophrenia is more common in close
biological relatives of a schizophrenic. However genetic explanations cannot account for the
patients who have no family history of the disorder.
Biochemical factors are used to suggest that schizophrenia is caused by abnormal neurotransmitter
activity. The main aspect of this explanation is the Dopamine hypothesis. Schizophrenia has been
linked to with high levels of dopamine in the brain. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter associated with
attention. Schizophrenics seem to have an increased number of D2 dopamine receptors on receiving
neurons. This theory is support by the fact that Phenothiazines bind with D2 receptors and reduce
positive symptoms. Another piece of supporting evidence is that Parkinson's disease drug L–dopa,
increase the level of dopamine and causes schizophrenic like symptoms in some people. However
excess dopamine can only explain some types of schizophrenia, usually positive rather than
negative. Newer antipsychotic also affect levels of other neurotransmitters. This theory can also not
explain why some schizophrenics have long periods of remission.
(a) Outline and evaluate two non–biological explanations of schizophrenia
People diagnosed with schizophrenia come from all types of social backgrounds, but most are
clustered

Outline and Evaluate One or More Biological Explanations...
Outline and evaluate one or more biological explanations of schizophrenia (8 marks AO1/16 marks
AO1) Schizophrenia is classified as a mental disorder that shows profound disruption of cognition
and emotion which affects a person's language, perception, thought and sense of self. The dopamine
hypothesis states that schizophrenic's neurones transmitting dopamine release the neurotransmitter
too easily, leading to the characteristic symptoms of schizophrenia. This hypothesis claims that
schizophrenics have abnormally high amounts of D2 receptors; receptors that receive dopamine,
therefore resulting in a higher amount of D2 receptors binding to the receptors causing more
impulses. Dopamine neurotransmitters play a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The biological explanation of schizophrenia also claims that the disorder can be inherited. The more
common the disorder is among the biological relatives and the closer the degree of genetic
relatedness increases the risk of the child developing schizophrenia. Gottesman's research (1991)
found a genetic link with schizophrenia when looking at children and their relatives. The research
discovered that children with two schizophrenic parents have a concordance rate of 46% compared
to children who just have one schizophrenic parent to children who have a concordance rate of 13%
and siblings just 9%. The genetic theory of schizophrenia also suggests that monozygotic twins
(twins who a genetically identical) should have a higher concordance rate of schizophrenia than
dizygotic twins (twins who are not genetically identical) because they have a closer degree of
genetic relatedness. Adoption studies support the genetic theory that schizophrenia can be inherited
as they provide evidence that the environment does not affect inheritance rate. The supporting study
was carried out by Tienari in Finland. He investigated 164 adoptees that biological mothers have
been diagnosed with schizophrenia and found 6.7% also received a diagnosis, compared to 2% of
the control group of adoptees. This means that that there is a genetic liability to schizophrenia, as
more of

Biological Explanations Of Crime Analysis
Biological Explanations of Crime – Strengths and weakness
Biological explanations of crime suggests that crime is due to the nature of an individual, this is
highly controversial as it suggests crime is innate and not a cause of the environment. These theories
suggest that criminals are born with criminal tendencies. This essay will discuss various biological
explanations of crime and point out some strengths and weaknesses. Cesare Lombroso, whom
established criminology as a science, founded this theory. He gathered facts in an empirical study
and found physiological characteristics to identify 'The Criminal Man', these characteristics were;
"head–size (circumference/diameter), non–symmetric facial features, sloping forehead, protruding
jaw, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This made it seem as though the explanation was not biological but due to nurture. This could cause
an issue in stereotyping as Sheldon suggested mesomorphs are more likely to be criminals, and
working class people are more likely to be mesomorphs, it could cause stereotyping in the fact that
people see working class people as more delinquent (Flanagan 2011). The method was also flawed
in the fact that Sheldon rated the body types himself, this would cause researcher bias as he may
consciously or unconsciously rate the bodies according to what supports his theory. This could have
been overcome by using a second person to rate the bodies; this would increase inter–rater

Biological And Sociological Explanations Of Crime
Women may commit more crimes than is proved as they may not have been caught and the crimes
may not have been recorded.
Biological, psychological and sociological can be explanations for crime.
Gender predicts crime. Males are seen to be offenders.
General theories of crime such as Marxist and the labelling theory neglect women for their accounts.
The story of women is missing they include males and culture but gender is not included.
"Criminological theories have rarely been concerned with the analysis of female criminality."
(Smart, 1977) This indicates only males are criminally analysed. Assumed females are dealt with
briefly. This may be because statistically males commit more crimes so women are not seen so much
as a threat to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The assumption of feminism is that feminism could possibly lead to a rise in female criminality as
both males and females can equally commit the same crimes. Analysis of criminal stats have
suggested that there has not been a big shrink in the gender ratio problem as there has not been a big
difference into females committing "male" crimes such as assault.
There are plenty of reasons to why one of a certain sex would commit more crimes than the other
sex. Personal circumstances can result in crimes being committed.
Women were once seen as stay at home house wives who would look after the house and the
children. Their everyday life would include doing all the cleaning, putting the meals on the table and
looking after the children. This means that their partners would have a higher chance of committing
crimes being out of the home. Women had lack of opportunity. Poverty is also a concern and does
contribute largely to crimes committed.
The generalizability issue – Criminology is mainly dominated by men which

Biological Explanations of Homosexuality
Biological Explanations for Homosexuality
Katherine Callan
Opening
This paper is aimed to address the question of whether homosexuality is biologically based. This
topic is quite relevant today because homosexuality is a huge civil rights issue which is also
conflicting with the church 's moral standards. While many religious bodies claim that
homosexuality is a choice and a "sin", many in the homosexual community have strongly refuted
that claim, instead saying they were born this way and their sexual identity is not a choice for them.
Currently one of the biggest debates regarding the rights of homosexuals is same sex marriage . If
scientist are indeed able to show evidence that homosexuality is result of biologic or genetic ...
Researches conducted a longitudinal study in which behavioral development was being studied in
these infants through birth through the age of six (Maccoby, Doering, Jacklin & Kraemer 1979).
Their main objective was to asses whether and or how a newborn 's sex and birth order were related
to hormones in the umbilical chord blood. Five sex hormones were measured: progesterone, two
estrogens (estrone and estradiol) and two androgens (testosterone and androstendione). The fist
sample of infants consisted of 40 males and 35 females, the second consisted of 32 males and 42
females and the third consisted of 53 males and 54 females totaling to 256 newborns born between
1973 and 1974. Only infants with no complications during delivery (including caesarean births) and
had an Apgar score of at least 7 were included in the samples. Right after delivery, and severance of
the umbilical chord a sample of 12ml of blood was extracted and frozen for hormonal analysis. After
the mother agreed to enter her child in the six year longitudinal study the frozen samples of blood
were then later tested for for the five sex hormones of interest, Andrrostenedione ( 4–androstene,
17–dione), testosterone (17β–hydroxy–4–androsten–3–one), estrone (3–hydroxy–1, 5 (10) –
estratiene–3), 17 β–diol), and estradiol (1, 3,5 (10)–estratiene–3), 17β–diol) were estimated in a
laboratory by radioimmunoassay methods. Progesterone

Biological Explanation Of Crime
Crime can be described and analysed by many different types of explanations, mostly known as
theories. Each explanation concentrates on different aspects that contribute towards the act of crime,
academics however often disagree on which are the predominant reasons and explanations for crime
(Ainsworth, 2000). Sociological theories concentrate on the surrounding social factors being an
influence as to why crime happens, whereas biological theories however would look at the
individuals biological make–up as an explanation of crime. This essay will be focusing on
psychological explanations of crime, the essay will explore how they aim to explain the phenomena
of crime. Through highlighting the main strengths and weaknesses an analysis will ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Yochelson and Samenow firmly believed that the personality was the leading cause for criminal
behaviour. Their work focused on the idea of cognitive biases in thoughts and repeated
misconceptions in thinking as a causing factor of crime (Putwain and Sammons, pp 53,
2002).Through intensive interviewing of 240 male offenders Yochelson and Samenow came up with
the theory that the criminal personality exists and consists of 52 misconceptions in thinking. They
further grouped these into three different categories. These errors in thinking consisted of strong
feelings of obtaining power and control, high energy levels, death playing a big part in their life
always thinking of it and fearing it, lack of empathy, concrete thinkers and put themselves almost on
a pedal stool in comparison to other 'normal' individuals. (the study of violent crime: its correlates
and concerns page 86). Kohlberg (1969) also used the idea of cognitive thinking in relation to the
development of

Describe and evaluate one or more biological explanations...
Describe and evaluate one or more biological explanations of schizophrenia
Research has shown that schizophrenia is heredity and can runs in families. This suggests that genes
play a significant role. The closer the genetic relationship the more likely the people are to share the
disorder. Evidence from family studies by Gottesman showed that when bothparent are
schizophrenic then there is a 46% chance of the child getting it, however, if only one parent had it, it
dropped to 17%. This suggests that a genetic factor is involved.
MZ twins share 100% of their genes; DZ twins share 50% of their genes. If genes are a factor we
would expect more identical twins to share the disorder than non–identical. Gottesman also looked
at twin ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Recent research has suggested that genetic factors affect the hard wiring of the brain. The research
focused on the brain biochemistry (neurotransmitters). Although there have been many
neurotransmitters associated with schizophrenia, Dopamine seems to be the most important. The
dopamine hypothesis says that schizophrenia is caused by an increased reaction to dopamine in the
brain. This could be because there is too much of the hormone dopamine in the brain, or conversely
because there is an abnormally high number of dopamine receptors in the brain. This model says the
excess sensitivity to dopamine results in the brain, causes the symptoms of schizophrenia.
Evidence comes from the fact that amphetamines increase the amounts of dopamine large doses of
amphetamines given to people with no history of the disorder produced behaviour which is very
similar to paranoid schizophrenia. Small doses given to people already suffering from the disorder
tend to worsen their symptoms. L–dopa is a drug used to treat Parkinson 's disease it acts by
increasing dopamine levels; it can also produce symptoms of schizophrenia in previously unaffected
individuals, although not all patients developed these side effects. Main antipsychotic drugs such as
Phenothiazine's block the dopamine receptor cells and reduce symptoms
However Phenothiazine's do not work for everyone diagnosed with schizophrenia, this suggests
something else must cause schizophrenia as well otherwise

Biological Explanation for Anorexia Nervosa Essay
Biological Explanation for Anorexia Nervosa Evidence for a faulty gene. AIMS: to see if
concordance rates for anorexia are higher in MZ twins compared to DZ twins. This would provide
evidence for a faulty gene causing the disorder because if one MZ twin develops anorexia, there
should be 100% concordance (agreement) with the second MZ twin also suffering from it, since
they share the same genes. The rates for DZ twins should be much lower because they share only
50% same genes. PROCEDURE: · Natural experiment: because the IV (genetic relatedness) occurs
naturally and cannot be changed by the investigator. Longitudonal ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Alternatively, a faulty gene may still be present in the non–sufferers, leaving them vulnerable to
developing the disorder, but it does not develop unless some other factor triggers it eg. a stressful
life event. CRITICISMS: · Environmental factors have been ignored. MZ twins share very similar
environments (eg. same home, schools, treated similarly by parents etc) and this could explain the
higher concordance compared to DZ twins who may not be treated so similarly. Since 100%
concordance was not found, a faulty gene may make the person vulnerable but some kind of
environmental factor is needed for the disorder to develop eg. stress. · Over–simplistic and
reductionist (using a simpler biological explanation to explain a complex behaviour). The fact that it
is difficult to separate nurture (environmental factors) from nature (genes) shows that the evidence is
not strong enough for a purely genetic explanation · Natural experiments lack experimenter control
over variables eg. the IV (genetic relatedness) could not be isolated from other (possibly
confounding) uncontrolled variables eg. environmental experiences, socio–economic backgrounds
(class factors). This means that internal validity was low (factors other than the IV may have caused
anorexia). At best, that data has shown

Social Work Theory Paper
Applying Theory to Generalist Social Work Practice states that theories are a set of ideas that
explain a phenomenon and typically formulated when there is no empirical evidence and observed
through senses to draw a conclusion (Langer & Lietz, 2015). Langer & Lietz quote Gilgun (2005),
"Over the past two decades, the field of social work has become increasingly concerned that
professional decision making is not just grounded in theory but also supported by empirical
evidence" (Langer & Lietz, 2015, p. 13). Furthermore, theory and evidence based practice research
inform our professional knowledge base. Theory is the guide to treatment approach and is the
essential knowledge for practice. Theoretical knowledge guides the clinician in a deeper ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to Direct Social Work Practice, " systems theory examines strengths and weaknesses
between family, cultures, and communities as a systems" (Hepworth, Rooney, Rooney, & Strom–
Gottfried, 2017, 2013, p. 13). Systems theory consists of all the elements that impact the whole.
Elements include anything from dynamics of interpersonal relationships, environmental impact, to a
biological influence and everything in the middle. Hollis & Woods, et. al., was quoted that
"Psychodynamic theory was an important early source of explanations to guide social work
interventions through adaptations such as the functional approach, the psychosocial approach, and
the problem solving approach" (Hepworth et al., 2017, 2013, p. 18). Psychodynamic theory
provokes thoughts of how internal process such as emotions and thoughts influences the members
behavior and reaction. "Social learning theory is thoughts and emotions are best understood in the
context of behaviors associated with cognition or cognitive processes, and the extent to which
individuals adapt and respond to different stimuli and make self–judgments" (Hepworth et al., 2017,
2013, p. 392). Members learn through interaction with their environment, regardless of positive or
negative reinforcement. Member behaviors are shaped based on a multitude of different experiences,
influences, thoughts, and

Psychological And Biological Explanations Of Depression
Major depression is a commonly diagnosed psychological disorder affecting individuals' ability to
feel happiness and peace of mind. Those who suffer experience negative emotions, lack of
motivation, changes in behaviour and dysfunctional cognitive symptoms. Depression is classified by
the Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders Fifth Edition (DSM–5) as five of more of
the listed symptoms present persistently over the same two weeks. One of these symptoms must be
depressed mood or loss of interest in previously pleasurable activities. Depression causes disruption
to typical daily life such as inability to maintain friendships and jobs. Other symptoms outlined by
the DSM–5 include; insomnia, fatigue and recurrent thoughts of death. There is much debate over
what exactly causes depression. Biological explanations question hereditary and neurotransmitter
factors. While psychological theories include the cognitive ideas of Beck's negative triad and
hopelessness theory. This essay will focus on the ways in which psychological and biological
explanations contrast and how their theories can overlap to better understand depression. The
biological theory of depression focusing on genetics argues that shared DNA is the cause of
depression so the more genes shared with a depressed family member, the more an individual's
likelihood to develop depression. Whereas psychological theories of depression, such as the
cognitive negative schema, focus on how individuals perceive

Biological Explanations Of Crime Essay
In today's society, there is a surprising amount of criminal research done by sociologists but most of
our explanations can be better explained by biological and psychological approaches. Why does
crime exist in all cultures? No matter where you go or visit you can be sure that there is crime
occurring. Its important to remember that there are quite a few explanations for the causation of
crime, but I will do my best to include them all. Let's begin by examining the biological
explanations of crime. I will only be going over the modern biological perspectives on crime and not
talk to much about studies that lacked proof, but there will be some theories that have been around
for a while. The biological explanation of crime is built on the

Essay on Explaining Crime
Explaining Crime
A) One Biological explanation of crime is Low intelligence. Studies have tended to link between
low IQ and crime, although the link is not a simple one. Rutter and Giller (83) suggest two possible
links. Once is that low intelligence leads to educational failure and consequently low self esteem.
This then manifests as emotional; disturbances, conduct disorders and criminal behaviour. The
second is that intelligence and conduct disorders may have a common starting point which is not
clear, for eg– neurophysiological. Also, more recent studies do tend to find that the average
intelligence is below average (e.g. – an IQ of 92 compared to a norm of 100).
One sociological ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Sutherland was describing powerful social forces working on the individual and affecting skills
attitudes and beliefs.
B) In Evaluation biological explanations of crime help us to understand how genetic potential can
lead to problems such as poor achievement at school and inadequate socialization, which may in
turn result in criminality. It helps people to understand that criminals are not always fully
responsible for their behaviour is a result of internal factors. These theories are generally simplistic,
taking only one factor (biology) into account. It is very unlikely that criminal behaviour can be
reduced to a biological explanation alone. They also ignore or underestimate the social causes of
crime such as antisocial role models and an emotionally deprived childhood. In particular more
recent studies do find that criminals have a lower IQ in comparison to non–criminals but this
difference is only small and so could be due to chance. Also, it should be questioned whether IQ is
an accurate measure of intelligence or not.
In evaluation for the sociological explanations the theories are based on carefully conducted
research which clearly demonstrates the influence of reinforcement and observation on behaviour.
These theories can also help to explain why criminality does to an extent run in families. There is a
considerable body of

Biological Explanations Of Crime Essay
There are different perspectives on explanations of criminal behavior such as Biological and
Psychological explaining crime. The two perspectives have been considered exterior in criminology
since majority perspective come from sociology. Sociology focuses on how law–abiding citizens
become criminals and conventional lack of opportunity. Therefore the two perspectives had to take a
back seat in history because they were seen as naive and not take serious. "Sociological theories
cannot explain how one person can be born in a slum, be exposed to family discord and abuse, never
attend school, have friends who are delinquents and yet resist opportunities for crime, while another
person can grow up in an affluent suburban neighborhood in a two–parent home, attend the finest
schools, have every financial need met, and end up firing a gun at a president" " (Adler, Muller &
Laufer, 1991). However the two perspectives have both convey robust questions when related to
explaining crime. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The three founding fathers of Biological theories are Cesare Lombroso, Raffaele Garofalo and
Charles Goring which studied geneticists to explaining criminals. Therefore genes of children that
display aggression or violent traits can be tendency of their parents' genes. "Criminologist once
again began to consider the possibility that there are indeed traits that predispose a person to
criminality and that these traits may be passed from parent to child through the genes" (Adler,
Muller & Laufer, 1991). This brings in play our genetics in which chromosomes we received from
parents could produce higher probability of criminal offspring. Also studies have been conducted on
adopted children to find genetic predisposition to criminality. The studies provided a distinct
criminality link to provide a supportive argument to biological

Biological Explanations Of Crime
Biological factors alone are not a sufficient reason why crime occurs. An example would be looking
at testosterone and adult deviance. Most studies have shown no correlation with circulating
testosterone and behavior. However, there is significance to examining biological factors. The
answer lies in the fact that biological explanations of crime understate the important role of social
conditions. (Conklin, p 93). When looking at biological and social combined, there is a moderately
strong relationship between testosterone and social integration while growing up. Social integration
can be fragmented due to less social opportunities by being in lower–class status, unmarried, and an
unstable work history. (Conklin, p 96). There is no evidence

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