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Ethics: Doing the Right Thing
Chapter 3
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
The Ethical Imperative
Protecting research participants and upholding boarder human
rights.
Gaining knowledge and finding a clear answer to a research
question.
Balancing two priorities when doing research
The Ethical Imperative
Researchers have a strong moral and professional obligation to
act ethically at all times and in all situationsScientific
MisconductScientific misconduct = violating basic and
generally accepted standards of honest scientific research, such
as research fraud and plagiarism.

The Ethical ImperativeScientific MisconductResearch fraud = to
invent, falsify or distort study data or to lie about how a study
was conducted. Plagiarism = using another person’s words or
ideas without giving them proper credit and instead passing
them off as your own. Unethical but Legal
The Ethical ImperativeUnethical but Legal
Typology Of Legal And Ethical Actions In Research
LEGALETHICALYesNoYesMoral and LegalLegal but
ImmoralNoIllegal but MoralImmoral and Illegal
Ethical Issues Involving Research ParticipantsThe Origin of
Ethical Principles with HumansProtect Research Participants
from HarmAvoid Harm To Research ParticipantsPhysical
harm Psychological abuse, stress, or loss of self-esteem Legal
harm

Ethical Issues Involving Research ParticipantsParticipation
Must be Voluntary and InformedPrinciple of Voluntary Consent
= never force anyone to participate in a research study.
Participants should explicitly and voluntarily agree to
participate.Informed Consent = An agreement in which
participants state they are willing to be in a study and they
know what the research procedure will involve.
Ethical Issues Involving Research ParticipantsLimits to Using
Deception in Research Deception is Acceptable Only Within
Strict Limitsit has a clear, specific methodological purposeuse
it only to the minimal degree necessary and for shortest
time;obtain informed consent and do not misrepresent any
risks;always debrief.Avoid coercion.
Ethical Issues Involving Research ParticipantsPrivacy,
Anonymity, and ConfidentialityPrivacy has two
components:Anonymity = not connecting a participant’s name
or identifying details to information collected about him or her.
Confidentiality = holding information in confidence or not
making it known to the public.
Ethical Issues Involving Research
ParticipantsConfidentialityAnonymityYESNOYESGather data

so it is impossible for anyone to link it to any name and release
findings in aggregate form.Privately link details about a
specific participant to a name, but only publicly release findings
in aggregate form NORelease details about a specific
participant to the public, but withhold the name and details that
might allow someone to trace back to the
person.UnethicalReveal publicly details about a person with
his/her name
Ethical Issues Involving Research ParticipantsExtra Protections
for Special PopulationsSpecial populations = people lacking
the cognitive competency or full freedom to give true informed
consent. Formal Protections for Research
ParticipantsInstitutional Review Board (IRB) = a committee of
researchers and community members that oversees, monitors,
and reviews the impact of research procedures on human
participants. Code of Ethics = A written, formal set of
professional standards that provides guidance when ethical
questions arise in practice.
Ethics and the Sponsors of ResearchArriving at Particular

FindingsLimits on How to Conduct StudiesSuppressing
FindingsWhistle-blowing = when a researcher sees unethical
behavior and after unsuccessful attempts to get superiors to end
it, goes public to expose the wrongdoing.
Political Influences on ResearchPolitical concerns can influence
and interfere with the research process.
Value-Free and Objective ResearchMultiple MeaningsValue free
has two meanings:
research without any prior assumptions or theory,
research free of influence from an individual researcher’s
personal prejudices/beliefs.Objective has two meanings as well:
focus only on what is external or visible,
follow clear and publicly accepted research procedures and not
haphazard, invented personal ones.
Value-Free and Objective ResearchAlternative Goals
Devoid of Values
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Getting Started: How to Plan a Social Research Study
Chapter 2
Picking a Study Topic A topic appropriate for social research is
one that you generalize about social patterns that operate in
aggregates and are empirically observable.
Picking a Study Topic Generalize – the topic is beyond one
isolated unique instance; it is likely to reappear and applies to a
broad scope of people, places, times or events.Social pattern –
the topic has regularity or structure/form describing
interconnections among events, situations or relationships in a
condensed way.
Picking a Study Topic Aggregates – the topic applies to a
collection of people or other units (e.g., families, businesses,
schools, hospitals, or neighborhoods). Empirically observable –
the topic appears in the observable world in a way that we can
detect and observe it using our senses (sight, sound, touch,
smell) directly or indirectly.

Picking a Study Topic Research Proposal = a detailed plan for
conducting a study on a specific research question, that includes
a literature review and specific technique to be used.
Conducting a Review Past Studies Literature Review = a
summary of previously conducted studies on the same topic or
research question.
Conducting a Review Past Studies A Literature Review Search
Plan:Evaluate resourcesSelect and narrow the topicLearn to use
literature search toolsPlan to locate and scan read articlesAllow
time to extract the major findingsFinal Stage—synthesize
Conducting a Review Past Studies Where do you find the
research literature?A Special Type of Periodical: Scholarly
Journals
Peer-reviewed = A scholarly publication that has been
independently evaluated for its quality and merits by several
knowledgeable professional researchers and found acceptable.
Article Search tool = an online service or publication that
provides an index, abstract database with which you can quickly
search for articles in numerous scholarly journals by topic,
author or subject area.

research literature?PeriodicalsPopularized social science
magazines for general publicPractitioner
advice/opinion/newsOpinion magazines“Mass market” or
“trade” magazines for general publicScholarly JournalsPeer-
reviewed = A scholarly publication that has been independently
evaluated for its quality and merits by several knowledgeable
professional researchers and found acceptable.
Conducting a Review Past Studies
Conducting a Review Past Studies
research literature?BooksMonographsReadersEdited
CollectionsDissertationsGovernment DocumentsPolicy Reports
Presented Papers
How to Conduct a Literature Review: A Six Step ProcessSTEP
1: Refine the TopicGo from research question to narrowed
topicSTEP 2: Design Your SearchDecide on the review’s

extensivenessDecide which article search tools to useDecide
how to record bibliographic information and take notesSTEP 3:
Locate the Research Reports Articles in scholarly
journalsBooksOther outlets
How to Conduct a Literature Review: A Six Step ProcessSTEP
4: Read & Take Notes on the Reports FoundCreate
source and content filesWhat to record in notesSTEP 5:
Organize Notes, Synthesize & Write the ReviewSTEP
6: Create the Reference List
Focusing On A Research Question Inductive = research in
which you start many specific observations and move toward
general ideas or theory to capture what they show.Deductive =
research in which you start with a general idea or theory then
move to test it by looking at specific observations.
Focusing On A Research Question
IDEAS
Observed
data
IDEAS
Observed
data

The Research ProposalResearch Proposal = a detailed plan for
conducting a study on a specific research question, that includes
a literature review and specific techniques to be used.
The Research Proposal A Proposal for Quantitative or
Qualitative Research1. When do you focus the research
question? 2. To what universe can you generalize from a study’s
findings?Universe = a broad category of cases or units to which
the study findings apply.
Qualitative Research3. Which type of research path do you
follow?Linear path = a relatively fixed sequence of steps in one
forward direction, with little repeating, moving directly to a
conclusion. Nonlinear path = advancing without fixed order that
often requires successive passes through previous steps and
moves toward a conclusion indirectly.
Qualitative Research4. What do you examine?Variable = a
feature of a case or unit that represents multiple types, values or
levels. Independent Variable = the variable of factors, forces, or
conditions acting on another variable to produce an effect or
change in it. Dependent Variable = the variable influenced by
and changes as an outcome another variable. Intervening

Variable = a variable that comes between the independent and
dependent variable in a causal relationship.
Qualitative Research4. What do you examine?Hypothesis = a
statement about the relationship of two (or more) variables yet
to be tested with empirical data.
Null hypothesis = a hypothesis that there is no relationship
between two variables, that they do not influence one another.
Qualitative Research5. How to Look for Patterns in the
DataQuantitative data: rearrange, examine, and discuss numbers
by using charts, tables and statistics to see patterns. Qualitative
data: rearrange, examine, discuss textual or visual data.
The Research Proposal
Qualitative Research6. What type of explanation will you use?
Causal explanation = a type of research explanation in which
you identify one or more causes for an outcome, and place cause
and effect in a larger framework.Has three elements:Time

orderAssociationAlternative causes ruled out
Qualitative Research6. What type of explanation will you use?
Grounded Theory = ideas and themes that are built up from
data observation. 7. What are the Units of Analysis in your
study?Unit of Analysis = the case or unit on which you
measure variables or other characteristics.
Qualitative Research8. What is the Level of Analysis of your
study?Level of Analysis = The level of reality to which
explanations refer, micro to macro.Micro-Level: small-scale (a
few friends, a small group) Macro-Level: large-scale (entire
civilizations or a major structure of a society).Warning: Avoid
SpuriousnessSpuriousness = when two variables appear to be
causally connected but in reality, they are not because an
unseen third factor is the true cause.
The Research Proposal

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