Lecture presentation for DEPEd Customized MPA Program

1. Customized Program for
DEPEd - MPA
Jo Balucanag Bitonio, DPA

7. Theories of Planning
• Planning as a human and professional
activity and an area of academic inquiry
lacks disciplinary focus
• Planning, just like her mother PA, has
no intellectual turf of its own. Each is
like a moon which borrows its light from
the sun and stars • Thus, its heavy
reliance from multiple disciplines makes
planning an easy target for question
and debate

8. • H. Simon (1969) describes it as an
“artificial” science Wildavsky (1973)
observes: “If planning is everything,
maybe it is nothing” S.J. Klees (1986)
argues that “it is technocratic cultism
and political curtailment of individual
freedom”

9. • D. Adams (1991) – “Planning is a quasi-
science that incorporates the latest
developments in the information
technology and administrative
sciences, the insights of the social
science disciplines, and the design
capabilities of engineering profession

10. • Planning is a process for accomplishing
purpose.
• It is blue print of business growth and a
road map of development.
• It helps in deciding objectives both in
quantitative and qualitative terms.
• It is setting of goals on the basis of
objectives and keeping in view the
resources

11. • In spite of new and powerful
technology capable of analyzing vast
amounts of data, determining trends,
and modeling alternative futures,
planning suffers from identity, theory
and utility

12. According to Adams (1991) these are:
1. Philosophical synthesis
2. Rationalism
3. Organizational Development (OD)
4. Empericism

13. • PHILOSOPHICAL SYNTHESIS – tends to
emphasize a broad aspect to planning
which seek insights into social, economic,
and ethical conditions as well as
environmental context of the institution
or sector for which planning is being
undertaken

14. • RATIONALISM models of planning
assume a sequential, observable, cycle
that includes setting of goals,
determining objectives, making plans,
implementing the plans, and reviewing
the results

15. • ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT –
focuses primarily on ways to achieve
organizational change. It includes a
human relations approach to innovation
and change in management style,
employee satisfaction, decision-making
process. And the general health of the
organization

16. • EMPERICISM – recognizes the
significance of system behavior studies
by public administrators, economists and
other social scientists concerned with
planning theory

21. Strategic planning is an organizational
management activity that is used to set
priorities, focus energy and resources,
strengthen operations, ensure that
employees and other stakeholders are
working toward common goals.

29. Socio Eco Development
The concept of DEVELOPMENT
PLANNING planning came about as
the more legitimate, appropriate and
culturally-oriented framework in the
formulation of social, economic, and
political national plans and policies

30. DEVELOPMENT PLANNING – is
basically the act of choosing. It is
deciding in advance the WHAT, the
HOW, the WHEN, and the WHO of
determining goals, policies and plans
and conscious setting of alternative
courses of action, procedures and
strategies needed to achieve the
purposes of government (NEDA, 1982)

31. • 1922 – Harvard Dean Wallace Donham made
the argument that unless businesses
systematized decision-making practices, they
were not much from gambling efforts
• 1960s-’70s – Harvard Business Review had
indicated its interest articles on long- range
strategic planning (N. Capon et al., 1987)
BUSINESS PLANNING

32. • 1976 Lorange and Vancil viewed strategic
planning (SP) as a single process whereby
managers must agree on a detailed integrated
plan of action for the coming year starting with
the delineation of corporate objectives and
concluding with one-or two-year profit plan
• Further, they identified six processes that top
management has to deal with: a) communicating
corporate goals, b) developing the goal setting
process, c) scanning the environment, d)
understanding the subordinate-manager focus e)
developing the planner’s role, and f) developing
the link between planning and budgeting

33. • 1974 defines SP as the continuous process of
making entrepreneurial decisions systematically
and with the greatest knowledge of their
futurity, organizing systematically the efforts
needed to carry out these decisions and
measuring the results of these decisions against
expectations through organized feedback (Peter
Drucker).
• 1981 in the perspective of education and social
development, SP is perceived as a set of
purposeful actions influencing and organization
or some part therein to effect change (K.C.
Tanner and E.J. Williams)

34. • 1984 SP is viewed as the effective
application of the best alternative
information to decisions that have to
be made now to ensure a secure future
(G.S. Day)
• 1994 SP is viewed as a long-term
planning to achieve a preferred vision
for an organization, school or school
district. It defines the WHATS to be
achieved

35. • SP as a dynamic process which scans current
realities and opportunities in order to yield
useful strategies and tactics for arriving a better
tomorrow.
• It is not a linear, lock-step process derived or
implemented in an authoritarian manner. Nor it
is intuitive or built on hunches and raw feelings.
• It involves the educational partners in defining
and supporting the purposes and missions and
its provides blueprints for result-oriented
program ( R.A. Kaufman, 1972, 1988 R.A.
Kaufman and J. Herman, 1991, R.A. Kaufman, J.
Herman and K. Watters, 1996)

36. • It appears that no single definition has been able
to capture all facets of contemporary SP practices
despite the array of disciplinary perspective. Six
common distinguishing features, however, shape the
acceptable meaning:
1. external orientation,
2. a holistic or systematic approach,
3. a process of formulating plan, objectives,
strategies and programs,
4. use of systematic methods in the analysis
of strategic situation and alternatives, 5.
commitment to actions, and 6. a knowledge of
results

37. Why there is a need to adopt
development planning?
State of their underdevelopment. The conditions are:
a. Predominantly agricultural economy and were exporters of primary
products.
b. The existence of a vast expanse of poverty and illiteracy among the
masses of people and the limited public resources
c. Development planning was seen as indispensable means of national
cohesion. It could mitigate economic and social inequities, create greater
opportunities for the people giving them a collective achievement
d. Crucial role in the functioning of the government and in the evolution of
coherent and effective public administration

38. What is
Development
Planning?
Represent
ative plans
include the
Rehabilitat
ion Plan
for the
1950s
Socio-
Economic
Developme
nt Plan for
the 1960s;
The
Developme
nt Plan for
the 1970s
the Human
Developme
nt Plan for
the 1990s;
the Good
Governan
ce Plan
during the
initial
years of
the 21st
century.
the Poverty
Eradication
Plan for the
1980s

39. PHILIPPINE DEVELOPMENT PLAN
2011-2016
The Philippine Development Plan
2011-2016 adopts a framework of
inclusive growth, which is high growth that
is sustained, generates mass
employment, and reduces poverty. With
good governance and anticorruption as
the overarching theme of each and every
intervention.
The Plan translates into specific
goals, objectives, strategies, programs
and projects all the things that we want to
accomplish in the medium term.

40. Development Planning
Through this Plan, we intend to pursue rapid and
sustainable economic growth and development, improve
the quality of life of the Filipino, empower the poor and
marginalized and enhance our social cohesion as a
nation. Our strategic development policy framework thus
focuses on improving transparency and accountability in
governance, strengthening the macro economy, boosting
the competitiveness of our industries, facilitating
infrastructure development, strengthening the financial
sector and capital mobilization, improving access to
quality social services, enhancing peace and security for
development, and ensuring ecological integrity.

41. Educational Planning in the
Third World
As evidenced by the development
experiences of the Third world countries
“Economic is not economic growth alone.
There are some non-economic ingredients
of economic development”

42. More than half the economic
growth of the last decade in
industrialized countries was due
to factors other than the
classical inputs of labor and
capital, to improvements in the
quality of labor due to scientific
research, technological
innovation and EDUCATION AND
TRAINING (A. King, 1967)

43. It was for this reason that educational objectives
were subsumed in national development
plans centered on the task of orchestrating
the tremendous expansion of education
systems with the aims of:
a. Universalizing education
b. Providing national economies with the
qualified manpower they needed

44. Impact of the Over-all Integrated
Education Systems
a. The evolution of over-all integrated
education system
b. Development of educational administration
and organization of planning structures
within the education system; and
c. Sharpened administrative perception on
the problem of efficiency in the system
(R.Singh, 1990)

45. Major Economic Crisis in the
’70s and’90s
• Austerity and belt tightening measures were
adopted led to a limitation in the resources
made available to education
• With the dwindling Financial resources due to
increased debt payments education planning
was confronted challenge to link
between reduced public budget for quality
education

46. Problems Encountered
• Excessive quantitative orientation
• Over centralization
• Weaknesses in implementation
• Evaluation dimension is slow

47. Philippine Planning Experiences
• Public Administration (PA) from the western
concept was introduced in the Philippines
through National Economic Council and
International Cooperation Agency (ICA)
• Signing of MOA of the Quirino – Foster
Agreement in Nov. 1950
• The economic and technical cooperation
agreement between Phil & United States was
signed in 1951.
• The assistance gave emphasis on the
improvement of PA in the country

48. • Failed to adopt the Five year Economic and Social
Development Program FY 1957-1961 and the Three
year Program of Economic & Social development FY
1959-1961
• In 1955 NEC was revitalized. The New NEC as tasked
to: a) advise the President on matters concerning
the economy, b) formulate definite & consistent
national economic policies and to prepare
comprehensive economic and social development
program

49. • Regionalization as a policy was then
adopted to reduce disparities among the
different regions of the country. into 17
administrative regions. The
establishment of RDCs, as the planning
and implementing machinery in the
region

50. • The IRP gave emphasis on the regional
planning and development in the country.
Three models are made based on the degree
of political & administrative authority over
regional offices and LGUs namely:
1) RDC
2) MMDA
3) ARMM

51. Planning in Higher Education
• Educational planning was operated on ad hoc basis
• In 1970 The Phil Commission to Survey Philippine
Education (PCSPE) observed that educational
planning has not been the strength of Philippine
Education (B. Reyes, 1974)
• PCPSE recommended to FM to give further emphasis
to educational planning through the promulgation of
Education Development Decree of 1972

52. Proliferation of SUCs
• 1972 23 SUCs P 706 Million
• 1984 78 SUCs
• 1984 100 SUCs
• 1990 P 4.6 B
• 1995 P 7.4 B
• 2010 P 23.8 B
• 2014 P 38 B
• 2015 P 43.3 B
As of 2004,
PASUC's
membership
comprises 111
SUCs and 11
satellite
associations
81
Provinces

53. As of 2019, records from CHED showed
that the country has 1,963 HEIs (excluding
satellite campuses of state universities and
colleges). From this number, 242 are public
HEIs, while 1,721 are private institutions. at
least two graduate-level courses leading to
doctoral degrees.

54. 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
23.8 23.7 23.8
34.9
38.5
43.3
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
in line with the Aquino Administration’s Higher
Education Reform Roadmap, which aims to further
improve the quality of the country’s tertiary education
system through the provision of key services and
facilities
http://www.gov.ph/2014/10/02/suc-budget-up-by-p5-2b-in-2015/

55. • The proliferation of SUCs contributed
significantly to the ballooning of the
Phi. Budget and increase of external
debt
• SUCs have become big spenders

56. • LOI No. 1461 in 1985
Each university or college shall identify an
area of specialization and its capability to
implement taking into account its available
resources, namely: faculty, employees,
finances, buildings, and equipment etc.

57. • In 1994 the CHED was created by RA 7722.
• The result of the Congressional Commission on
education (EDCOM) study revealed that the quality
of Phil education was declining continuously.

58. • Elem & HS were failing to teach the
competence of average citizen need to
become responsible, productive and self-
fulfilling
• Colleges and technical and vocational schools
were not producing the manpower needed to
develop the economy

59. Thus, the EDCOM recommended the
restructuring of the DECS into
three major agencies:
1) CHED
2) The Technical Education and Skills
Development Authority (TESDA)
3) Dept of Basic Education (DBE)

60. • CHED supervised higher education
institutions were required to submit
their ten year development plan
• In the private education sector the
preparation of a long term plan is
“sine qua non” as this is a requirement
before a college or university is
granted permit to operate.
“sine qua non” is a noun which means
an essential condition; a thing that is absolutely necessary

61. • In a report of the GMA News Research posted on
December 1, 2006, it states that "in 15 years, the
number of SUCs in the country increased by 160
percent-from 138 main and satellite campuses in
1990 to 364" in 2005.
• The unfortunate reality, however, is that the quantity
of SUCs does not guarantee quality education. The
unregulated propagation of SUCs is not matched
with the corresponding increase in the budget for
these institutions, thereby diminishing the quality of
service that these academic institutions should be
known for.
SEN. FERDINAND R. MARCOS, JR S.B. NO. 2188

62. 0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
436
553.2 553.3 528.8 551.7
606.6
DEPEd Budget
(in Billion PHP)
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

63. Why does the Philippines Needs the
K+12 Education System?

64. Sufficient Instructional Time
If K- 12 will be implemented,
students will be able to get
sufficient instructional time to
do subject- related tasks which
makes them more prepared
and well- trained on that subject
area. On the other hand, if we
remain on the old system,
Filipino students would
continually get low achievement
scores. For instance,
international test results
revealed that we often come at
the tail end in the exams
compared to other countries.
More Skilled and Competent Labor
Force
Another good reason why we should
support K- 12 is that the graduates of
this program will be more prepared to
enter the labor force., they will be
equipped with the skills needed for a
specific job even without a college
degree. At the age of 18, the age when
they graduate from high school, they
will be employable and competitive
already. Thus, adding up to the nation’s
manpower.

65. Beneficial Outcomes of
Strategic Planning Process
1. Established management direction
2. Clarified agency priorities
3. Guide to policy decisions
4. Guide to budget decisions
5. Gaining support for budget priorities
6. Improved constituent relations
7. Increased legislative support
8. Increased executive support
9. Greater commitment to customer
satisfaction
10.Improved teamwork

66. Beneficial Outcomes of Strategic
Planning Process
11. Improved internal
communications
12. Enhanced corporate culture
13. Improved staff morale
14. Agency reorganization
15. Service delivery improvement
Source: Berry and Wechsler, 1995

67. Strategic
Outcome-
focused
Joined-up
Inclusive
Flexible and
innovative
Robust
 Looks ahead
 Contributes to long term goals
 Delivers desired changes in the real world
 Works across organizational boundaries
 Only if necessary
 Fair
 Takes account of interest of all
 Tackles causes and not symptoms
 Uses experimentation
 Stands the test of time
 Works in practice from the start
Source: Strategic Policy Making Team, 1999
Modernization: Strategic Policy Making

68. The success of strategic plan will
depend on the skills, motivation and
the values of individuals leading the
strategic management, the processes
used, the government institutions
that provide the setting and the
reactions of the people being affected
by the strategic management
intervention

69. STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT MODEL
ENVIRONMENTAL
ANALYSIS
EXTERNAL
•OPPORTUNITIES
•THREATS
INTERNAL
•STRENGTHS
•WEAKNESSES
MISSION
OBJECTIVES
STRATEGIES
PROGRAMS
PROJECTS
PROCEDURES
BUDGETS
STRATEGY FORMULATION
STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION
EVALUATION
AND
CONTROL
F E E D B A C K
PERFORMANCE

71. INTERNAL
ANALYSIS
EXTERNAL
ANALYSIS
SWOT MATRIX
STRENGHTS (S) WEAKNESSES (W)
OPPORTUNITIES (O)
THREATS (T)
LIST 5-10 STRENGHTS
LIST 5-10
WEAKNESSES
LIST 5-10
OPPORTUNITIES
LIST 5-10 THREATS

72. INTERNAL
ANALYSIS
EXTERNAL
ANALYSIS
TOWS MATRIX
STRENGHTS (S) WEAKNESSES (W)
OPPORTUNITIES (O)
THREATS (T)
LIST 5-10 STRENGHTS
LIST 5-10
WEAKNESSES
LIST 5-10
OPPORTUNITIES
LIST 5-10 THREATS
S-O STRATEGIES W-O STRATEGIES
S-T STRATEGIES W-T STRATEGIES
USE YOUR STRENGTHS TO
TAKE ADVANTAGE OF THE
OPPORTUNITIES
OVERCOME YOUR
WEAKNESSES BY
TAKING ADVANTAGE
OF THE OPPORTUNITIES
USE YOUR STRENGTHS
TO MINIMIZE OR AVOID
THE THREATS
MINIMIZING YOUR
WEAKNESSES AND
AVOIDING THE
THREATS

74. STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
C R I T E R I A
S-O S-T W-O W-T
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
MAGNITUDE
ACCEPTABILITY
RELEVANCE (VMO)
DOABILITY/ VIABILITY
COST-EFFECTIVE
IMPACT
SUSTAINABILITY
OTHERS
T O T A L

76. STRATEGIC OPTION PROGRAM/PROJECT TIMELINE REQUIRED
RESOURCES
IDENTIFIED PROGRAM AND PROJECTS

78. ACTION PLAN
STRATEGY ACTIVITIES TIMELINE BUDGET RESPONSIBLE REMARKS
STRATEGY # 1
STRATEGY # 2
STRATEGY # 3
STRATEGY # 4
ACTIVITY #1
ACTIVITY #2
ACTIVITY #3

80. 1. Define Mission
Statement
2. Formulate Strategic
Goals
3. Stakeholder
Analysis
4. Situational Analysis
(S-W-O-T)
5. Identify
Strategic Issues
5. Identify possible
courses of action
6. Evaluate actions
(feasibility etc. and
Choose
8. Plan Implementation
budgeting & Performance
management
9. Plan Stakeholder
management
10. M & E
Decision flow Diagram for Simple Strategic Planning for the Public Sector
(Paul Joyce, 2015)

81. Defining and
Clarifying goals
Identifying
options &
Choosing
Looking ahead
& planning Long
term
Analyzing
the
situation
Analyzing and
planning use of
resources
Strategic Decisions at the Most
General Level
(Paul Joyce, 2015)

83. Rationale of Strategic Planning
To reorient the organization to the needs
of the community in order to foster
relevant and quality service
As we plan for expansion, a certain level
of minimum standard to be observed to
guarantee a certain level of minimum
quality performance

84. Effective SP efforts make the organization
become more viable instrument of socio-
economic development of the nation
• Since resources for sectoral services are
irreversibly becoming less, priorities have to
be established
• The galloping inundation and explosion of a
new knowledge and the emergence of new
technologies as brought about by advances in
science and ICT.

85. SP means realistic forecasting of events and
in exercise “futurology”

86. -Identify & classify the
orgn’s resources.
-Appraise SW related
to competitors.
-Identify Opportunities
for better utilization
of resources
-Identify the ogrn’s
capabilities
-What can the orgn do
more than the
competitors?
-Identify input resources
per capability &
complexity of
each capability
Appraise the rent-
generating
potential of resources &
capabilities
a)Potential for
sustainable advantage
b) Appropriability of
their
returns
Select a strategy
that best exploits
the orgn’s
resources and
capabilities
relative to
opportunities
-IDENTIFY RESOURCE GAPS
THAT NEED TO BE FILLED
-INVEST IN REPLENISHING,
AUGMENTING & UPGRADING
OF ORGN’S RESOURCE BASE
RESOURCES CAPABILITIES
COMPETITIVE
ADVANTAGE
STRATEGY
RESOURCE-BASED APPROACH TO STRATEGY ANALYSIS
1 2 3 4
5

87. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF INDUSTRIES
INDUSTRY
COMPETITORS
RIVALRY AMONG
EXISTING ORGN’S
SUPPLIERS BUYERS
SUBSTITUTES
POTENTIAL
ENTRANTS
THREAT OF SUBSTITUTE
PRODUCTS OR SERVICES
THREAT OF
NEW ENTRANTS
BARGAINING POWER
OF BUYERS
BARGAINING POWER
OF SUPPLIERS

88. STAKEHOLDERS ANALYSIS
WHO ARE THE STAKEHOLDERS ?
STAKEHOLDERS ARE PEOPLE, GROUPS, OR INSTITUTIONS WHICH
ARE LIKELY TO BE AFFECTED BY A PROPOSED INTERVENTION
OR PROGRAMS/PROJECTS (EITHER NEGATIVELY OR POSITIVELY)
OR ACTIVITIES THAT CAN AFFECT THE OUTCOME OF THE
INTERVENTION.
STAKEHOLDERS INCLUDE:
•LOCAL GOV’T UNITS (LGUs)
•POLITICAL PARTIES
•TECHNOLOGY/SERVICE PROVIDERS
•SUPPLIERS
•BUYERS
•AFFECTED GROUPS
•INTERESTED GROUPS

89. WHY DO A STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS?
•TO IDENTFY STAKEHOLDER’S INTEREST IN , IMPORTANCE TO AND
INFLUENCE OVER THE INTERVENTION, PROGRAMS OR PROJECTS
•TO IDENTIFY LOCAL INSTITUTIONS AND PROCESSES UPON WHICH
TO BUILD; AND
•TO PROVIDE A FOUNDATION AND STRATEGY FOR PARTICIPATION

90. STAKEHOLDERS ANALYSIS . . .
TO DETERMINE THE STAKEHOLDERS, USE THE Ws AND Hs LIKE:
•WHO ARE THE PEOPLE OR INSTITUTIONS WITH INTEREST?
•WHAT ARE THEIR DEGREE OF INFLUENCE AND CONTROL?
•WHAT ARE THE SERVICES BEING PROVIDED/OFFERED?
•WHAT ARE THEIR RESOURCES?
•WHY ARE THEY DOING THESE?
•WHO ARE THEY SERVING?
•WHERE ARE THEY LOCATED OR CONCENTRATED?
•HOW THEY DELIVER THEIR SERVICES?
•HOW EFFICIENT, EFFECTIVE AND ECONOMICAL ARE THEY OPERATING?

91. STAKEHOLDERS ANALYSIS . . .
CLASSIFICTION
• INFLUENCERS
• ALLIES
• OBSTRUCTORS
STEP IN ANALYSIS
• LIST OF STAKEHOLDERS
• ACTIVITIES, PROGRAMS,
INTEREST, ROLES
• DEGREE OF INFLUENCE
• CLASSIFY STAKEHOLDERS

92. STAKEHOLDERS ANALYSIS. . .
PROCESS IN STAKEHOLDERS ANALYSIS:
•BENEFICIARIES
•VULNERABLE
GROUPS
•SUPPORTERS/
OPPOSITORS
•RELATIONSHIPS
•EXPECTATIONS
•BENEFITS
•RESOURCES
•CONFLICTING
•INTERESTS
•POWER/STATUS
•ORGANIZATION
•CONTROL OF
RESOURCES
•PERSONAL
CONNECTIONS
•POWER
RELATIONS
PLAN OF THEIR
INVOLVEMENT:
•INTEREST,
IMPORTANCE
•EFFORT NEEDED
•PARTICIPATION IN
VAROUS PROJECT
CYCLE
IDENTIFY KEY
STAKEHOLDERS
ASSESS
INFLUENCE
PARTICIPATION
STRATEGY
ASSESS IMPACT
ON THE PROJECT

93. STAKEHOLDERS
(GROUPS, AGENCY,
INDIVIDUALS,ETC)
INTEREST AT STAKE
(RELATIVE TO THE
MOVEMENT, ORGN)
EFFECTS
TO THEM
(ORGN)
(+ 0 - )
IMPORTANCE
OF THE
STAKEHOLDER
DEGREE OF
INFLUENCE
OF THE
STAKEHOLDE
R
IMPORTANCE AND DEGREE OF INFLUENCE ARE MEASURED AS :
U – 1 UNKNOWN; 1- LITTLE OR NO INFLUENCE/IMPORTANCE; 2-
SOME IMPORTANCE/INFLUENCE;
3 – MODERATE IMPORTANCE/INFLUENCE; 4 – VERY
IMPORTANT/SIGNIFICANT INFLUENCE; AND
5 – CRITICAL PLAYER/VERY INFLUENTIAL

94. ADAPTIVE
Planning
IDEOLOGICAL
Planning
FOUR WAYS OF STRATEGIZING
(STRATEGIC PLANNING)
CREATIVE
Planning
RATIONAL
Planning
•Natural evolution
•Reactive to markets
“Muddling Through”
•Anchored on set of
beliefs / ideologies
•Behaviors & code
of conducts are
paramount
Give premium to
new products or
services
“Innovations or
Breakthrough”
Very logical & orderly
thinking process
Use of past trends
to project future
outcome

95. INTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT
•STRUCTURE
•CULTURE
•RESOURCES
TASK ENVIRONMENT
(INDUSTRY)
•GOVT
•SPECIAL
INTEREST
GROUPS
•CREDITORS
•COMMUNITIES
•TRADE ASSOCIATIONS
•FEDERATIONS
•SUPPLIERS
•CUSTOMERS
•COMPETITORS
•NGO’s
SOCIETAL ENVIRONMENT
•ECONOMIC
FORCES
•TECHNOLOGICAL
FORCES
•SOCIO-CULTURAL
FORCES
•POLITICAL-
LEGAL FORCES