Explain in detail- why Al2Cl6 is obtained as a dimer but BCl3 as a mon.docx

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Explain in detail, why Al2Cl6 is obtained as a dimer but BCl3 as a monomer with special reference to the boning involved in these systems? Solution BCl3 and AlCl3 both are electron deficient molecules because there are six electrons present in the valency shell of central atom. There is a strong tendency for both the compounds to gain two electrons and complete their octet. For both the molecules, the central atom has sp2 hybridisation and trigonal planar geometry. The sp2 hybridisation has one s and two p orbitals, and one unhybridised p orbital. The unhybridised p orbital is perpendicular to the trigonal plane of the molecule. Since it is empty, it can receive two electrons from a donor. Also, Chlorine atoms have three lone pairs. The deficiency of electrons of Boron in BCl3 is overcome by formation of co-ordinate bond between the lone pair of Chlorine atom and the empty unhybridised p orbital of Boron atom. The bond formed is forming p?â€“p? and no dimer is formed. In AlCl3, the electron deficiency of Aluminium atom is overcome through the formation of co-ordinate bond between lone pair of Chlorine atom of another AlCl3 molecule and the empty unhybridised p orbital of Aluminium atom. Hence, dimer is formed. .

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The electrons which are involved in bond formation between atoms are found in the outermost shell (sometimes in the next to the outer-most shell) of the neutral atom; these are called VALENCE ELECTRONS. The atoms of elements which have only one or two electrons in their outermost shells (active shells) may lose electrons when they combine with atoms of other elements. An atom which has lost one or more valence electrons possesses a positive charge, and is called a POSITIVE ION. The sodium atom loses its one valence electron and acquires a +1 charge when it enters into chemical combination with an atom of an element such as chlorine. The magnesium atom may lose its two valence electrons and assume a +2 charge. Na Na+ + e- The Na symbol to the left of the arrow represents a stable sodium atom while the Na+ symbol to the right of the arrow represents an unstable sodium ion which has had a single electron removed. Mg Mg++ + 2e- The Mg symbol to the left of the arrow represents a stable magnesium atom while the Mg++ symbol to the right of the arrow represents an unstable magnesium ion which has had two electrons removed. The smaller the number of valence electrons in the atom, the greater the tendency of the element to lose electrons and thus form positive ions during chemical combination with atoms of other elements. The energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom to form a positive ion is called the IONIZATION POTENTIAL of the atom. Some metals have small ionization potentials and readily form positive ions. The nonmetals, which have more electrons in their outer shells than the metals, have large ionization potentials and show little tendency toward the formation of positive ions. Atoms which lack one or two electrons of having an outermost shell of eight electrons readily gain sufficient electrons from certain other atoms, such as sodium and magnesium, to make a full compliment of eight electrons in the outside shell. Neutral atoms become NEGATIVE IONS by gaining electrons. The nonmetals, such as Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine (I), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N) and Sulfur (S), readily form negative ions. Cl + e- Cl- Chlorine, when in its stable form, possesses seven valence electrons and therefore has the ability to gain one electron (as represented to the left of the arrow) giving it a negative charge of one when in its unstable ionic form (as represented to the right of the arrow above). S + 2e- S-2 Sulfur, when in its stable form, possesses six valence electrons and therefore has the ability to gain two electrons giving it a negative charge of two when in its unstable ionic form. The attraction of a neutral atom for electrons is known as its ELECTRON AFFINITY. The nonmetals have high electron affinities and the metals have very low electron affinities. Thus, mainly the nonmetals tend to form negative ions during chemical combination. When a positive ion and a negative ion are brought close together, strong electr.

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Polar Bonds and Molecular Shape A polar molecule is a molecule that has a net dipole moment due to its having unsymmetrical polar bonds. There are two factors that go into determining if a molecule is polar or not. To determine if a molecule (or ion) is polar or non- polar, you must determine both factors. The polarity of the individual bonds in the molecule. The shape or geometry of the molecule. First, to determine if a given individual bond is polar, you need to know the electronegativity of the two atoms involved in that bond. To find the electronegativities of all the elements, look at the periodic table (follow the link below this answer under Web Links). If the electronegativity of the two atoms has a difference of 0.3 or less, then the bond is non-polar. If the electronegativity difference is greater that 0.3 but less than 1.7, then the bond is polar. If the two values have a difference greater than 1.7, then the bond is ionic, which is just very very polar. Once you know which bonds in the molecule are polar and which are non-polar, you must use the shape of the molecule. You need the shape because two polar bonds, if oriented correctly can cancel each other out (like two equally strong people pulling in opposite directions on a rope -- nobody moves). The three possible outcomes: If all bonds are non-polar, then the whole molecule is non-polar regardless of its shape. If there is symmetry in the molecule so that the polarity of the bonds cancels out, then the molecule is non- polar. A common example of this is carbon dioxide, or CO2. The molecule is linear, and its Lewis dot structure is like this: O=C=O (this doesn\'t include two sets of lone pairs on each oxygen). The carbon-oxygen bond is a polar bond, but because they are exactly opposed to each other, the molecule is overall non-polar. Another example of this is CCl4, where each carbon- chlorine bond is polar, but the molecule is non-polar. Here, how they cancel out isn\'t as obvious, but they do. CCl4 is a tetrahedral molecule, and the 4 C-Cl polar bonds cancel each other out. If there are polar bonds but there is no symmetry such that they cancel each other out, the overall molecule is polar. Water is a typical example of this. The two O-H bonds are oriented in a V- shape, and so the don\'t cancel out. Similarly, CH3Cl is also polar. It is the same shape as CCl4 (see above), but now it doesn\'t have the same symmetry because there is only one C-Cl bond and the bonds don\'t cancel out Solution Polar Bonds and Molecular Shape A polar molecule is a molecule that has a net dipole moment due to its having unsymmetrical polar bonds. There are two factors that go into determining if a molecule is polar or not. To determine if a molecule (or ion) is polar or non- polar, you must determine both factors. The polarity of the individual bonds in the molecule. The shape or geometry of the molecule. First, to determine if a given individual bond is polar, you need to know the electronegativ.

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Explain the steps needed to configure RIPng and explain the advantages.docx

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Explain the motivation behind using a header file for a C program. Solution Motivation behind using header file in c Programming: Header files contain definitions of functions and variables which can be included into any c program by using #include. Compilation speed up and optimization :During compilation of some parts of the code it may be sufficient to load API interfaces from header files to check correctness of the code used while defining them. -2. The motivation for the introduction of header files is type safety. C allows function calls without forward declaration. Logically speaking using functions without forward declaration is as harmful as using Macros as compilers has no proper mechanism to validate the type of the arguments with the parameters. So chances of unresolved linkage errors and runtime failure is more prominent. 3. Header files are more like data abstraction, you just see the important components and you don\'t need to know the background process. 4. To reduce overhead of RAM....the functions or classes defined in these header files are already compiled so they can be directly used . 5.Including a header allows your code to call functions or methods which are written elsewhere and which may or may not be a part of your software project/build, but which can be found by the \'linker\' when you are building the software. 6. Header files are mainly used to declare and include the signatures (i.e. function name, return value and arguments) of your functions in other files. The compiler needs to know these signatures when compiling and linking your files together. .

Explain the motivation behind using a header file for a C program-Solu.docx

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