The document provides information about electrocardiography (ECG) including its history, how an ECG machine works, how to perform an ECG, ECG waveform interpretation, and common cardiac rhythms and abnormalities. It discusses key aspects of an ECG such as rate, rhythm, cardiac axis, P waves, PR interval, and common rhythms including normal sinus rhythm, atrial fibrillation, ventricular tachycardia, and more.

1. A NOOB’S GUIDE TO E C G drkupe.blogspot.com drkupe Irfan Ziad MD UCD

2. Electrocardiography- is transthoracic interpretation of the electrical activity of the heart over time captured and externally recorded by skin electrodes for diagnostic or research purposes on human hearts. What is ECG?

3. THE HISTORY OF ECG MACHINE 1903 A Dutch doctor and physiologist. He invented the first practical electrocardiogram and received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1924 for it Willem Einthoven NOW Modern ECG machine has evolved into compact electronic systems that often include computerized interpretation of the electrocardiogram.

4. ECG Machines!

5. The graph paper recording produced by the machine is termed an electrocardiogram, It is usually called ECG or EKG STANDARD CALLIBRATION Speed = 25mm/s Amplitude = 0.1mV/mm 1mV  10mm high 1 large square  0.2s(200ms) 1 small square  0.04s (40ms) or 1 mV amplitude

6. Place the patient in a supine or semi-Fowler's position. If the patient cannot tolerate being flat, you can do the ECG in a more upright position. Instruct the patient to place their arms down by their side and to relax their shoulders. Make sure the patient's legs are uncrossed. Remove any electrical devices, such as cell phones, away from the patient as they may interfere with the machine. If you're getting artifact in the limb leads, try having the patient sit on top of their hands. Causes of artifact: patient movement, loose/defective electrodes/apparatus, improper grounding. HOW TO DO ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY An ECG with artifacts. Patient, supine position

7. The limb electrodes RA - On the right arm, avoiding thick muscle LA – On the left arm this time. RL - On the right leg, lateral calf muscle LL - On the left leg this time. The 6 chest electrodes V1 - Fourth intercostal space, right sternal border. V2 - Fourth intercostal space, left sternal border. V3 - Midway between V2 and V4. V4 - Fifth intercostal space, left midclavicular line. V5 - Level with V4, left anterior axillary line. V6 - Level with V4, left mid axillary line. Electrodes Usually consist of a conducting gel, embedded in the middle of a self-adhesive pad onto which cables clip. Ten electrodes are used for a 12-lead ECG. Placement of electrodes

8. The ECG works mostly by detecting and amplifying the tiny electrical changes on the skin that are caused when the heart muscle "depolarizes" during each heart beat. How does an ECG work?

10. The patient Lying supine + wearing sarong

11. Place all the electrodes correctly These are all electrodes

13. PEOPLE USUALLY REFER THE ELECTRODES CABLES AS DUDE, THAT’S CONFUSING! LEADS should be correctly defined as the tracing of the voltage difference between the electrodes and is what is actually produced by the ECG recorder. LEADS

14. SO, WHERE ARE THE LEADS?

15. III II LEADS I, II, III THEY ARE FORMED BY VOLTAGE TRACINGS BETWEEN THE LIMB ELECTRODES (RA, LA, RL AND LL). THESE ARE THE ONLY BIPOLAR LEADS. ALL TOGETHER THEY ARE CALLED THE LIMB LEADS OR THE EINTHOVEN’S TRIANGLE RA LA RL LL I

16. LEADS aVR, aVL, aVF THEY ARE ALSO DERIVED FROM THE LIMB ELECTRODES, THEY MEASURE THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AT ONE POINT WITH RESPECT TO A NULL POINT. THEY ARE THE AUGMENTED LIMB LEADS aVR aVF aVL RA LA RL LL

17. LEADS V1,V2,V3,V4,V5,V6 THEY ARE PLACED DIRECTLY ON THE CHEST. BECAUSE OF THEIR CLOSE PROXIMITY OF THE HEART, THEY DO NOT REQUIRE AUGMENTATION. THEY ARE CALLED THE PRECORDIAL LEADS RA LA RL LL V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6

18. These leads help to determine heart’s electrical axis. The limb leads and the augmented limb leads form the frontal plane. The precordial leads form the horizontal plane.

19. The Different Views Reflect The Angles At Which LEADS "LOOK" At The Heart And The Direction Of The Heart's Electrical Depolarization . Leads Anatomical representation of the heart V1, V2, V3, V4 Anterior I, aVL, V5, V6 left lateral II, III, aVF inferior aVR, V1 Right atrium

20. A NORMAL ECG WAVE REMEMBER

21. THE NORMAL SIZE <3 small square < 2 large square < 2 small square <3-5 small square

22. If a wavefront of depolarization travels towards the positive electrode, a positive-going deflection will result. If the waveform travels away from the positive electrode, a negative going deflection will be seen. Understanding ECG Waveform

23. ECG INTERPRETATION The More You See, The More You Know

24. OBTAIN A N ECG, ACT CONFIDENT, READ THE PT DETAILS

25. OBTAIN A N ECG, ACT CONFIDENT, READ THE PT DETAILS Some ECG machines come with interpretation software. This one says the patient is fine. DO NOT totally trust this software.

26. Rate Rhythm Cardiac Axis P – wave PR - interval QRS Complex ST Segment QT interval (Include T and U wave) Other ECG signs The best way to interpret an ECG is to do it step-by-step

27. RATE

28. CALCULATING RATE 300 the number of BIG SQUARE between R-R interval Rate = As a general interpretation, look at lead II at the bottom part of the ECG strip. This lead is the rhythm strip which shows the rhythm for the whole time the ECG is recorded. Look at the number of square between one R-R interval. To calculate rate, use any of the following formulas: 1500 the number of SMALL SQUARE between R-R interval OR Rate =

29. CALCULATING RATE 300 Rate = For example: 3 1500 15 Rate = or Rate = 100 beats per minute

30. If you think that the rhythm is not regular , count the number of electrical beats in a 6-second strip and multiply that number by 10.(Note that some ECG strips have 3 seconds and 6 seconds marks) Example below: CALCULATING RATE = (Number of waves in 6-second strips) x 10 = 8 x 10 = 80 bpm Rate There are 8 waves in this 6-seconds strip. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

31. You can also count the number of beats on any one row over the ten-second strip (the whole lenght) and multiply by 6. Example: CALCULATING RATE = (Number of waves in 10-second strips) x 6 = 13 x 6 = 78 bpm Rate

32. CALCULATING RATE Interpretation bpm Causes Normal 60-99 - Bradycardia <60 hypothermia, increased vagal tone (due to vagal stimulation or e.g. drugs), atheletes (fit people) hypothyroidism, beta blockade, marked intracranial hypertension, obstructive jaundice, and even in uraemia, structural SA node disease, or ischaemia. Tachycardia >100 Any cause of adrenergic stimulation (including pain); thyrotoxicosis; hypovolaemia; vagolytic drugs (e.g. atropine) anaemia, pregnancy; vasodilator drugs, including many hypotensive agents; FEVER, myocarditis

33. RHYTHM

34. Look at p waves and their relationship to QRS complexes. Lead II is commonly used Regular or irregular? If in doubt, use a paper strip to map out consecutive beats and see whether the rate is the same further along the ECG. Measure ventricular rhythm by measuring the R-R interval and atrial rhythm by measuring P-P interval. RHYTHM

35. RHYTHM ECG rhythm characterized by a usual rate of anywhere between 60-99 bpm, every P wave must be followed by a QRS and every QRS is preceded by P wave. Normal duration of PR interval is 3-5 small squares. The P wave is upright in leads I and II Normal Sinus Rhythm

36. Sinus Bradycardia RHYTHM Rate < 60bpm, otherwise normal

37. RHYTHM Sinus Tachycardia Rate >100bpm, otherwise, normal

38. RHYTHM In disease (e.g. sick sinus syndrome) the SA node can fail in its pacing function. If failure is brief and recovery is prompt, the result is only a missed beat (sinus pause). If recovery is delayed and no other focus assumes pacing function, cardiac arrest follows. Sinus pause

39. RHYTHM Atrial Fibrillation A-fib is the most common cardiac arrhythmia involving atria. Rate= ~150bpm, irregularly irregular, baseline irregularity, no visible p waves, QRS occur irregularly with its length usually < 0.12s

40. RHYTHM Atrial Flutter Atrial Rate=~300bpm, similar to A-fib, but have flutter waves, ECG baseline adapts ‘saw-toothed’ appearance’. Occurs with atrioventricular block (fixed degree), eg: 3 flutters to 1 QRS complex:

41. RHYTHM Ventricular Fibrillation A severely abnormal heart rhythm (arrhythmia) that can be life-threatening. Emergency- requires Basic Life Support Rate cannot be discerned, rhythm unorganized

42. RHYTHM Ventricular tachycardia fast heart rhythm, that originates in one of the ventricles- potentially life-threatening arrhythmia because it may lead to ventricular fibrillation, asystole, and sudden death. Rate=100-250bpm

43. RHYTHM Torsades de Pointes literally meaning twisting of points, is a distinctive form of polymorphic ventricular tachycardia characterized by a gradual change in the amplitude and twisting of the QRS complexes around the isoelectric line. Rate cannot be determined.

44. RHYTHM Supraventricular Tachycardia SVT is any tachycardic rhythm originating above the ventricular tissue.Atrial and ventricular rate= 150-250bpm Regular rhythm, p is usually not discernable. *Types: Sinoatrial node reentrant tachycardia (SANRT) Ectopic (unifocal) atrial tachycardia (EAT) Multifocal atrial tachycardia (MAT) A-fib or A flutter with rapid ventricular response. Without rapid ventricular response both usually not classified as SVT AV nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT) Permanent (or persistent) junctional reciprocating tachycardia (PJRT) AV reentrant tachycardia (AVRT)

45. RHYTHM Atrial Escape a cardiac dysrhythmia occurring when sustained suppression of sinus impulse formation causes other atrial foci to act as cardiac pacemakers. Rate= 60-80bpm, p wave of atrial escape has abnormal axis and different from the p wave in the sinus beat. However QRS complexes look exactly the same.

46. RHYTHM Junctional Escape Depolarization initiated in the atrioventricular junction when one or more impulses from the sinus node are ineffective or nonexistent. Rate: 40-60 bpm, Rhythm: Irregular in single junctional escape complex; regular in junctional escape rhythm, P waves: Depends on the site of the ectopic focus. They will be inverted, and may appear before or after the QRS complex, or they may be absent, hidden by the QRS. QRS is usually normal

47. RHYTHM Ventricular escape The depolarization wave spreads slowly via abnormal pathway in the ventricular myocardium and not via the His bundle and bundle branches.

48. RHYTHM Atrial premature beat (APB) Arises from an irritable focus in one of the atria. APB produces different looking P wave, because depolarization vector is abnormal. QRS complex has normal duration and same morphology .

49. RHYTHM Junctional Premature Beat Arises from an irritable focus at the AV junction. The P wave associated with atrial depolarization in this instance is usually buried inside the QRS complex and not visible. If p is visible, it is -ve in lead II and +ve in lead aVR and it it may occur before or after QRS.

50. RHYTHM Premature Ventricular Complexes (PVCs) is a relatively common event where the heartbeat is initiated by the heart ventricles(arrow) rather than by the sinoatrial node, Rate depends on underlying rhythm and number of PVCs. Occasionally irregular rhythm, no p-wave associated with PVCs. May produce bizarre looking T wave.

51. RHYTHM Asystole a state of no cardiac electrical activity, hence no contractions of the myocardium and no cardiac output or blood flow. Rate, rhythm, p and QRS are absent

52. RHYTHM Pulseless Electrical Activity (PEA) Not an actual rhythm. The absence of a palpable pulse and myocardial muscle activity with the presence of organized muscle activity (excluding VT and VF) on cardiac monitor. Pt is clinically dead.

53. RHYTHM Artificial pacemaker Sharp, thin spike. Rate depends on pacemaker, p wave maybe absent or present Ventricular paced rhythm shows wide ventricular pacemaker spikes

55. CARDIAC AXIS

56. CARDIAC AXIS Electrical impulse that travels towards the electrode produces an upright (positive) deflection (of the QRS complex) relative to the isoelectric baseline. One that travels away produces negative deflection. And one that travels at a right angle to the lead, produces a biphasic wave. The cardiac axis refers to the general direction of the heart's depolarization wavefront (or mean electrical vector) in the frontal plane. With a healthy conducting system the cardiac axis is related to where the major muscle bulk of the heart lies.

57. CARDIAC AXIS To determine cardiac axis look at QRS complexes of lead , II, III. Remember, positive(upgoing) QRS omplex means the impulse travels towards the lead. Negative means moving away. Axis Lead I Lead II Lead III Normal Positive Positive Positive/Negative Right axis deviation Negative Positive Positive Left axis deviation Positive Negative Negative

58. Positive Positive Positive Normal Axis Deviation CARDIAC AXIS

59. Positive Negative Negative Left Axis Deviation CARDIAC AXIS

60. Negative Positive Positive Right Axis Deviation CARDIAC AXIS

61. CARDIAC AXIS Cardiac Axis Causes Left axis deviation Normal variation in pregnancy, obesity; Ascites, abdominal distention, tumour; left anterior hemiblock, left ventricular hypertrophy, Q Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, Inferior MI Right axis deviation normal finding in children and tall thin adults, chronic lung disease(COPD), left posterior hemiblock, Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, anterolateral MI. North West emphysema, hyperkalaemia. lead transposition, artificial cardiac pacing, ventricular tachycardia

62. P- WAVE

63. Normal P- wave 3 small square wide, and 2.5 small square high. Always positive in lead I and II in NSR Always negative in lead aVR in NSR Commonly biphasic in lead V1 P -WAVE

64. P -WAVE P pulmonale Tall peaked P wave. Generally due to enlarged right atrium - commonly associated with congenital heart disease, tricuspid valve disease, pulmonary hypertension and diffuse lung disease. Biphasic P wave Its terminal negative deflection more than 40 ms wide and more than 1 mm deep is an ECG sign of left atrial enlargement . P mitrale Wide P wave, often bifid, may be due to mitral stenosis or left atrial enlargement.

65. PR- INTERVAL

66. PR INTERVAL NORMAL PR INTERVAL PR-Interval 3-5 small square (120-200ms) Long PR interval may indicate heart block Short PR interval may disease like Wolf-Parkinson-White

67. PR-INTERVAL First degree heart block P wave precedes QRS complex but P-R intervals prolong (>5 small squares) and remain constant from beat to beat

68. Second degree heart block 1. Mobitz Type I or Wenckenbach Runs in cycle, first P-R interval is often normal. With successive beat, P-R interval lengthens until there will be a P wave with no following QRS complex. The block is at AV node, often transient, maybe asymptomatic PR-INTERVAL

69. Second degree heart block 2. Mobitz Type 2 P-R interval is constant, duration is normal/prolonged. Periodically, no conduction between atria and ventricles- producing a p wave with no associated QRS complex. (blocked p wave). The block is most often below AV node, at bundle of His or BB, May progress to third degree heart block PR-INTERVAL

70. Third degree heart block (Complete heart block) No relationship between P waves and QRS complexes An accessory pacemaker in the lower chambers will typically activate the ventricles- escape rhythm. Atrial rate= 60-100bpm. Ventricular rate based on site of escape pacemaker. Atrial and ventricular rhythm both are regular. PR-INTERVAL

71. PR-INTERVAL Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome Accessory pathway (Bundle of Kent) allows early activation of the ventricle (delta wave and short PR interval) Wolf Parkinson White Syndrome One beat from a rhythm strip in V2 demonstrating characteristic findings in WPW syndrome. Note the characteristic delta wave (above the blue bar), the short PR interval (red bar) of 0.08 seconds, and the long QRS complex (green) at 0.12 seconds

72. QRS-COMPLEX

73. QRS complex< 3 small square ( 0.06 - 0.10 sec) QRS COMPLEX NORMAL QRS COMPLEX Prolonged indicates hyperkalemia or bundle branch block Increased amplitude indicated cardiac hypertrophy S amplitude in V1 + R amplitude in V5 < 3.5 Q wave amplitude less than 1/3 QRS amplitude(R+S) or < 1 small square

74. QRS COMPLEX Left Bundle Branch Block (LBBB) indirect activation causes left ventricle contracts later than the right ventricle . Right bundle branch block (RBBB) indirect activation causes right ventricle contracts later than the left ventricle QS or rS complex in V1 - W-shaped RsR' wave in V6- M-shaped Terminal R wave (rSR’) in V1 - M-shaped Slurred S wave in V6 - W-shaped Mnemonic: W IL L IA M Mnemonic: M AR R O W

75. ST- SEGMENT

76. ST SEGMENT NORMAL ST SEGMENT ST segment < 2-3 small square (80 to 120 ms) ST segment is isoelectric and at the same level as subsequent PR-interval

77. ST SEGMENT Flat (isoelectric) ± Same level with subsequent PR segment Elevation or depression of ST segment by 1 mm or more, measured at J point is abnormal. J point is the point between QRS and ST segment NORMAL ST SEGMENT THERE ARE 2 TYPES OF MI ST-ELEVATION MI (STEMI) NON ST-ELEVATION MI (NSTEMI) AND WE DECIDE THIS BY LOOKING AT THE ST SEGMENT IN ALL LEADS OK, WE GONNA TALK ABOUT MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION (MI)

78. ST-SEGMENT Look at ST changes, Q wave in all leads. Grouping the leads into anatomical location, we have this: Ischaemic change can be attributed to different coronary arteries supplying the area. *To help identify MI, right sided and posterior leads can be applied Localizing MI I II III aVR aVL aVF V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 (LAD) (RCA) Location of MI Lead with ST changes Affected coronary artery Anterior V1, V2, V3, V4 LAD Septum V1, V2 LAD left lateral I, aVL, V5, V6 Left circumflex inferior II, III, aVF RCA Right atrium aVR, V1 RCA *Posterior Posterior chest leads RCA *Right ventricle Right sided leads RCA

79. Criteria : ST elevation in > 2 chest leads > 2mm elevation ST elevation in > 2 limb leads > 1mm elevation Q wave > 0.04s (1 small square). *Be careful of LBBB The diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction should be made circumspectively in the presence of pre-existing LBBB. On the other hand, the appearance of new LBBB should be regarded as sign of acute MI until proven otherwise DIAGNOSING MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION (STEMI) Definition of a pathologic Q wave Any Q-wave in leads V2–V3 ≥ 0.02 s or QS complex in leads V2 and V3 Q-wave ≥ 0.03 s and > 0.1 mV deep or QS complex in leads I, II, aVL, aVF, or V4–V6 in any two leads of a contiguous lead grouping (I, aVL,V6; V4–V6; II, III, and aVF) R-wave ≥ 0.04 s in V1–V2 and R/S ≥ 1 with a concordant positive T-wave in the absence of a conduction defect. A little bit troublesome to remember? I usually take pathological Q wave as >1 small square deep Pathologic Q waves are a sign of previous myocardial infarction.

80. ST SEGMENT ST-ELEVATION MI (STEMI) 0 HOUR 1-24H Day 1-2 Days later Weeks later Pronounced T Wave initially ST elevation (convex type) Depressed R Wave, and Pronounced T Wave. Pathological Q waves may appear within hours or may take greater than 24 hr.- indicating full-thickness MI. Q wave is pathological if it is wider than 40 ms or deeper than a third of the height of the entire QRS complex Exaggeration of T Wave continues for 24h. T Wave inverts as the ST elevation begins to resolve. Persistent ST elevation is rare except in the presence of a ventricular aneurysm. ECG returns to normal T wave, but retains pronounced Q wave. An old infarct may look like this

81. Check again! >2mm Yup, It’s acute anterolateral MI! Let’s see this ST elevation in > 2 chest leads > 2mm Pathological Q wave Q wave > 0.04s (1 small square). ST SEGMENT I II III aVR aVL aVF V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6

82. Check again! Inferior MI! How about this one? ST SEGMENT I II III aVR aVL aVF V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6

83. NSTEMI is also known as subendocardial or non Q-wave MI. In a pt with Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS) in which the ECG does not show ST elevation, NSTEMI (subendocardial MI) is suspected if ST SEGMENT NON ST-ELEVATION MI (NSTEMI) ST Depression (A) T wave inversion with or without ST depression (B) Q wave and ST elevation will never happen To confirm a NSTEMI, do Troponin test: If positive - NSTEMI If negative – unstable angina pectoris

84. ST SEGMENT NON ST-ELEVATION MI (NSTEMI) N-STEMI: acute coronary syndrome (with troponin increase). Arrows indicate ischemic ST segment changes. Without appropriate treatment in many cases STEMI infarction will occur.

85. A ST depression is more suggestive of myocardial ischaemia than infarction 1mm ST-segment depression Symmetrical, tall T wave Long QT- interval MYOCARDIAL ISCHEMIA ST SEGMENT

86. ST SEGMENT ST elevation with concave shape, mostly seen in all leads PERICARDITIS

87. ST SEGMENT DIGOXIN Down sloping ST segment depression also known as the &quot;reverse tick&quot; or &quot;reverse check&quot; sign in supratherapeutic digoxin level.

88. ST SEGMENT Now, moving to LEFT VENTRICULAR HYPERTROPHY RIGHT VENTRICULAR HYPERTROPHY AND So, we have to start looking at the S waves and R waves

89. ST SEGMENT Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) Example: Sokolow & Lyon Criteria : S (V1) + R(V5 or V6) > 35mm Cornell Criteria : S (V3) + R (aVL) > 28 mm (men) or > 20 mm (women) Others : R (aVL) > 13mm S (V1) + R(V5) = 15 + 25 = 40mm S(V3) + R (aVL)= 15 + 14 = 29mm R(aVL) = 14 mm LVH! To determine LVH, use one of the following Criteria:

90. Tall R waves in V4 and V5 with down sloping ST segment depression and T wave inversion are suggestive of left ventricular hypertrophy ( LVH) with strain pattern. LVH with strain pattern usually occurs in pressure overload of the left ventricle as in systemic hypertension or aortic stenosis. Let’s see another example of LVH LVH strain pattern ST SEGMENT

91. ST SEGMENT Right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH) Example: Right axis deviation (QRS axis >100 o ) V1(R>S), V6 (S>R) Right ventricular strain T wave inversion So, it’s RVH!

92. ST SEGMENT Common Causes of LVH and RVH LVH RVH Hypertension (most common cause) Aortic stenosis Aortic regurgitation Mitral regurgitation Coarctation of the aorta Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy Pulmonary hypertension Tetralogy of Fallot Pulmonary valve stenosis Ventricular septal defect (VSD) High altitude Cardiac fibrosis COPD Athletic heart syndrome

93. QT- INTERVAL

94. QT interval decreases when heart rate increases. A general guide to the upper limit of QT interval. For HR = 70 bpm, QT<0.40 sec. For every 10 bpm increase above 70 subtract 0.02s. For every 10 bpm decrease below 70 add 0.02 s As a general guide the QT interval should be 0.35- 0.45 s,(<2 large square) and should not be more than half of the interval between adjacent R waves (R-R interval) : QT- INTERVAL < 2 large square

95. To calculate the heart rate-corrected QT interval QTc . Bazett's formula is used Calculation of QT interval Use lead II. Use lead V5 alternatively if lead II cannot be read. Draw a line through the baseline (preferably the PR segment) Draw a tangent against the steepest part of the end of the T wave. If the T wave has two positive deflections, the taller deflection should be chosen. If the T wave is biphasic, the end of the taller deflection should be chosen. The QT interval starts at the beginning of the QRS interval and ends where the tangent and baseline cross. If the QRS duration exceeds 120ms the amount surpassing ,120ms should be deducted from the QT interval (i.e. QT=QT-(QRS width-120ms) )

96. If abnormally prolonged or shortened, there is a risk of developing ventricular arrhythmias The QT interval is prolonged in congenital long QT syndrome, but QT prolongation can also occur as a consequence of Medication (anti-arrhythmics, tricyclic antidepressants, phenothiazedes) Electrolyte imbalances Ischemia. QT prolongation is often treated with beta blockers. QT = 0.04 x 10 small square= 0.4s RR = 0.04 x 18 small square= 0.72s 18 small square 10 small square

97. T-WAVE Normal T wave Asymmetrical, the first half having more gradual slope than the second half >1/8 and < 2/3 of the amplitude of corresponding R wave Amplitude rarely exceeds 10mm Abnormal T waves are symmetrical, tall, peaked, biphasic, or inverted. LQT is a rare inborn heart condition in which repolarization of the heart is delayed following a heartbeat. Example: Jervell and Lange-Nielsen Syndrome or Romano-Ward Syndrome LONG QT SYNDROME

98. U-WAVE Prominent U waves are most often seen in hypokalemia, but may be present in hypercalcemia, thyrotoxicosis, or exposure to digitalis,epinephrine, and Class 1A and 3 antiarrhythmics, as well as in congenital long QT syndrome, and in the setting of intracranial hemorrhage. An inverted U wave may represent myocardial ischemia or left ventricular volume overload The U wave is a wave on an electrocardiogram that is not always seen. It is typically small, and, by definition, follows the T wave. U waves are thought to represent repolarization of the papillary muscles or Purkinje fibers Normal U waves are small, round and symmetrical and positive in lead II. It is the same direction as T wave in that lead .

99. OTHER ECG SIGNS

100. Narrow and tall peaked T wave (A) is an early sign PR interval becomes longer P wave loses its amplitude and may disappear QRS complex widens (B) When hyperkalemia is very severe, the widened QRS complexes merge with their corresponding T waves and the resultant ECG looks like a series of sine waves (C). If untreated, the heart arrests in asystole T wave becomes flattened together with appearance of a prominent U wave. The ST segment may become depressed and the T wave inverted. these additional changes are not related to the degree of hypokalemia. HYPERKALAEMIA HYPOKALAEMIA

101. Usually, signs are not obvious Hypercalcemia is associated with short QT interval (A) and Hypocalcemia with long QT interval (B). Interval shortening or lengthening is mainly in the ST segment. HYPERCALCEMIA/HYPOCALCEMIA

102. PULMONARY EMBOLISM Tachycardia and incomplete RBBB differentiated PE from no PE. SIQIIITIII = deep S wave in lead I, pathological Q wave in lead III, and inverted T wave in lead III. The ECG is often abnormal in PE, but findings are not sensitive, not specific Any cause of acute cor pulmonale can cause the S1Q3T3 finding on the ECG.

103. Now, find some ECG quizzes and practice! Noobs!