What are the roles of DNA polymerase delta and DNA polymerase alpha .pdf

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What are the roles of DNA polymerase delta and DNA polymerase alpha in replication? What are their equivalents in bacteria? Solution DNA polymerases are enzymes that synthesize DNA molecule from deoxyribonucleotides, the building blocks of DNA. There are variety of DNA polymerases like DNA pol delta, DNA pol alpha and DNA pol Epsilon in eukaryotes. Role of DNA polymerase Delta: It is an enzyme complex found in eukaryotes that is involved in DNA replication and repair. DNA Pol is an enzyme used for both leading and lagging strand synthesis. It exhibits increased processivity when interacting with a proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). DNA Pol occupies a central role in all of these processes: catalysing the accurate replication of majority of the genome, participating in several DNA repair synthetic pathways, and contributing structurally to the accurate bypass of problematic lesions during translesion synthesis. In bacteria like E.Coli, the DNA polymerase III is equivalent to DNA polymerase delta of eukaryotes. Role of DNA polymerase alpha: DNA Pol is an enzyme complex found in eukaryotes that is involved in initiation of DNA replication. This enzyme is responsible for initiation of DNA replication at origins of replications and during synthesis of Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand. The E.Coli DNA polymerase II is homologous to DNA polymerase alpha of eukaryotes..

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The fidelity of DNA replication determines the genome stability and it plays a main role in evolution of species. The DNA replication fidelity is a key factor of mutations which in turn leads to many human diseases. The high fidelity of DNA replication in E.coli is achieved by DNA polymerase III holoenzyme, which is a complex of 17 proteins. This is responsible for simultaneous replication of both leading and lagging DNA strand with high speed and high fidelity. There are also four other accessory DNA polymerases present in E.coli such as Pol I, II, IV and V. Pol II plays an important role in proofreading of DNA intra-strand crosslinks, DNA strand exposed to UV irradiation, oxidation, stress-induced mutagenesis. This enzyme is responsible for translesion synthesis. Pol IV and V are specific to lagging stand. Pol IV is responsible for proceeding the DNA replication even when there is a mismatch. The Pol IV has a high constitutive intracellular concentration. Pol V is induced constitutively in the absence of exogenous DNA damage. The primary role of Pol I in DNA replication is to remove RNA primers and fill the resulting gap during maturation of Okazaki fragments in the lagging strand. In eukaryotes, the replication of leading and lagging strands takes place by Pol and Pol respectively, which leads to fidelity differences. Whereas in E.coli the replication of both leading and lagging strands takes place by same enzyme polymerase III. This is also one of the reason why E.coli has high fidelity of DNA replication. The tau subunit of Pol III plays a central role in DNA replication fidelity, as it interacts with both leading and lagging strand. This subunit also contributes for polymerase switching during replication. Solution The fidelity of DNA replication determines the genome stability and it plays a main role in evolution of species. The DNA replication fidelity is a key factor of mutations which in turn leads to many human diseases. The high fidelity of DNA replication in E.coli is achieved by DNA polymerase III holoenzyme, which is a complex of 17 proteins. This is responsible for simultaneous replication of both leading and lagging DNA strand with high speed and high fidelity. There are also four other accessory DNA polymerases present in E.coli such as Pol I, II, IV and V. Pol II plays an important role in proofreading of DNA intra-strand crosslinks, DNA strand exposed to UV irradiation, oxidation, stress-induced mutagenesis. This enzyme is responsible for translesion synthesis. Pol IV and V are specific to lagging stand. Pol IV is responsible for proceeding the DNA replication even when there is a mismatch. The Pol IV has a high constitutive intracellular concentration. Pol V is induced constitutively in the absence of exogenous DNA damage. The primary role of Pol I in DNA replication is to remove RNA primers and fill the resulting gap during maturation of Okazaki fragments in the lagging strand. In eukaryotes, the replication of leading .

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For each step of DNA replication, predict the outcome if: concentration of nitrogenous bases is low primase is inhibited DNA polymerase were inhibited DNA ligase were inhibited Helicase were inhibited AND Identify cellular process(es) that require DNA replication THANKS Solution concentration of nitrogenous bases is low- DNA molecule is made up of nitrogenous bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. These nitrogenous bases form the template and the sequence of DNA in replication. They specify the order of these bases in the complementary template strand being formed. primase is inhibited- Enzyme primase is of key importance in DNA replication because it is the only enzyme that can initiate DNA synthesis strand without an initial PNA or CNA primer. Hence primase is essential as it catalysis the synthesis of a primer complementary to ssDNA template aiding in the initiation of DNA replication to take place. DNA polymerase were inhibited- DNA polymerase is an essential enzyme involved in the repair of any damage to DNA molecule and it also plays a vital role in DNA replication; it connects the Okazaki fragments (complementary fragements to the lagging template strand ) by deleting RNA primers and replacing it with DNA. DNA ligase were inhibited- Ligase enzyme is useful in DNA repair (single-strand or double- strand breaks of DNA) and in replication by joining the double DNA strands through phosphodiester bond formation (3\'OH end and 5\'P end). DNA double helicular structure is thus formed through ligation of both strands on replication. Helicase were inhibited- Helicases help in the seperation of nucleic acid strands required during the cellular processes like DNA replication, transcription, repair. This seperation is done by Helicase enzyme by moving through a nucleic acid phosphodiester backbone that exists in DNA, RNA, or DNA-RNA hybrid. cellular process that require DNA replication- In mitosis DNA replication is essential (S stage of interphase) which gets distributed to the resulting daughter cells at the end of cytokinesis. This ensures two similar daughter cells having common genetic material..

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In what ways are humans also primates? Solution Both humans and primates (Pottos, lemurs) do possess vertebral column and possess finger digits for the catching prey. The primates are often locomotion on its front knuckles, which is same as primate character of locomotion in apes, gorillas and chimpanzees & humans. The behavioral aspects and hunting prey finally chewing & eating the prey are main similar aspects of primates and humans commonly Primates have enable to keep its claws followed by middle digits similar to humans that support its entire weight along with metacarpophalangeal joints and interphalangeal joints finally produces \"hook-and-pull\" digger with enlarged supraspinous fossa. This type of movement is going to enable to increase pulling power of forelimbs. The adaptations historically developed by primates are nearly similar to humans for \"homeostatic capabilities\", such as “various excretory routes & connective tissues such as blood” to eliminate nitrogenous waste etc. They have neurological innervations to these organs to mediate homeostasis similar to humans. For example, skin and sweating is often referred as an evolutionary adaptation in primates because sweat glands in humans (vertebrate animals) eliminate nitrogenous wastes such as urea, uric acid because they live in terrestrial and land environment. The development of nephrons and lungs to eliminate excess bicarbonate to keep the body with homeostasis is another major homeostatic capability. The body is going to generate heat from the liver and body hair on the humans & primates do maintain constant body temperature (negative feedback for thermoregulation) to mediate homeostasis finally to promote metabolism. Other anti-stress hormones released in gorillas body often maintain homeostasis.

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i need Understand the role of capillaries in fluid/nutrient exchange. How is blood directed to or away from particular capillary beds? Solution Capillaries are the tiniest blood vessels that are present in the body of an organism and facilitate the transition between arteries and veins. The Arteries bring the blood from the heart to the various organs of the body and the size of these vessels decreases to form arterioles and the further decreases till the time it becomes a capillary. These capillaries are small in size but more in number and thus form a network over any specific organ. these capillaries then as the blood flows further turn into broader blood vessels and eventually the veins which carry the blood back to the heart. These capillaries can be called as microscopic blood vessels as many a times they may have walls that are made of only a single celled endothelial layer. Their microscopic structure makes material exchange possible as capillaries are the only blood vessels that can carry out the fluid and nutrient exchange. Due to the presence of a large network the surface area for exchange by these capillaries is huge. The capillaries at any time hold only about 5% of the total blood volume and the human body has approximately 40 billion capillaries. the size of the capillaries is only 5–10 nm in diameter. At any given time only a around 25 percent of capillaries are fully filled with blood, especially in tissues at rest, as blood flow in microvessels is dependent on the metabolic activity of the tissue and is regulated at the sites of their origin by sphincter muscles. There are three types of capillaries based on their structures – Continuous capillaries, fenestrated capillaries and sinusoids. Continuous capillaries are found in the skin and muscles which have an uninterrupted lining of endothelial cells held together by tight junctions. Fenestrated capillaries are found wherever active capillary absorption or filtrate formation occurs like small intestine etc., having pores in the endothelium to facilitate diffusion. The Sinusoids have a slow blood flow and are modified by leaky pored capillaries with lumens for exchange of large molecules. The structurally different capillaries are present to facilitate the transport according to the functional requirement of the body. The main function of capillaries is exchange of material – Gases, nutrients and fluids. The exchange of gases is primarily of oxygen and carbon di oxide. This exchange occurs by basic diffusion through the semipermeable layers. The gases move from higher to lower concentration. In the lungs the oxygen enters the blood though the blood capillaries and the carbon di oxide is taken up at regions where oxygen is given out of the blood, in organs that have accumulated the increased carbon di oxide levels after respiration process is done. Gases can easily pass through the semi permeable layers of the capillary walls. The lipid soluble substances can also easily pass .

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ecosystem ecology Theme: Physical Template of Terrestrial Environments – Heterogeneity Discuss the physical diversity of terrestrial environments at a global scale and the abiotic factors responsible for heterogeneity at that scale Solution Terrestrial environments are generally has large heterogeneity because of habitat provided by plants which is favourable for most habitats ,plants are present in both above and below ground. Moreover, physical gradients tend to be steeper, and extremes, for instance of temperature, tend to be greater in terrestrial environments. Thus it has more habitat diversity. . The most important abiotic factors responsible for heterogeneity are temperature ranges, moisture availability, light, and nutrient availability, which together determine what types of life are most likely to flourish in specific regions and what environmental challenges they will face..

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