During Mitosis and Meiosis, describe how and where errors might be made then give examples
of some diseases that occur because of such events.
Solution
Living cells divide to form new cells in order to repair worn-out or damaged tissues throughout
an organism, and (in the gametes only) to enable the exchange of genetic material at the initial
stage of the process of sexual reproduction. (A gamete is a mature sex cell, specifically the ovum
of the female or the spermatozoon of the male.) The two types of cell division are generally
called mitosis and meiosis but, strictly, these terms refer to the stages of division of the cell
nucleus for somatic (non-reproductive) and reproductive cells, respectively.
Mitosis
Mitosis is the type of cell division by which a single cell divides in such a way as to produce two
genetically identical \"daughter cells\". This is the method by which the body produces new cells
for both growth and repair of aging or damaged tissues throughout the body.
Meiosis
Meiosis is a \"reduction division\" in which a cell divides into four \"daughter cells\" each of
which has half of the number of chromosomes of the original cell. Meiosis occurs prior to the
formation of sperm (in males) and ova (in females). Meiosis only occurs in the \"gametes\".
Meiosis consists of two successive divisions, each of which is divided into four phases. The first
meiotic division is similar to mitosis and the second meiotic division is the \"reduction\" stage.
Meiosis enables the exchange of genetic material between chromosomes.
Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate
properly during cell division (Mitosis and Meiosis).
There are three forms of nondisjunctions:
1. Failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes to separate in meiosis I,
2. Failure of sister chromatids to separate during meiosis II, and
3. Failure of sister chromatids to separate during mitosis. Nondisjunction results in daughter cells
with abnormal chromosome numbers (aneuploidy).
The result of this error is a cell with an imbalance of chromosomes. Such a cell is said to be
aneuploid. Loss of a single chromosome (2n-1), in which the daughter cell with the defect will
have one chromosome missing from one of its pairs, is referred to as a monosomy.
Gaining a single chromosome, in which the daughter cell with the defect will have one
chromosome in addition to its pairs is referred to as a trisomy. In the event that an aneuploidic
gamete is fertilized, a number of syndromes might result.
Monosomy
The only known survivable monosomy in humans is Turner syndrome, where the affected
individual is monosomic for the X chromosome. Other monosomies are usually lethal during
early fetal development.
Turner syndrome (X monosomy) (45, X0)
Karyotype of X monosomy (Turner syndrome): This condition is characterized by the presence
of only one X chromosome and no Y chromosome.
Complete loss of an entire X chromosome accounts for about half the cases of.
ANEUPLOIDY (Introduction, classification, merits and demerits)Bushra Hafeez
Aneuploidy is a type of chromosomal abnormality in which numbers of chromosomes are abnormal.Generally, the aneuploid chromosome set differs from wild type by only one or a small number of chromosomes. It is a genetic disorder causes birth defects. It is the second major category of chromosome mutations in which chromosome number is abnormal.
Aneuploid nomenclature is based on the number of copies of the specific chromosome in the aneuploid state. For example, the aneuploid condition 2n − 1 is called monosomic (meaning “one chromosome”) because only one copy of some specific chromosome is present instead of the usual two found in its diploid progenitor. The aneuploid 2n + 1 is called trisomic,2n − 2 is nullisomic, and n + 1 is disomic.
Activity 4 Understanding the basics of meiosisMitosis and mei.docxcoubroughcosta
Activity 4: Understanding the basics of meiosis
Mitosis and meiosis both lead to new daughter cells, but meiosis sets up organisms for sexual
reproduction. Meiosis produces cells (sperm and egg in humans) with only one set of chromosomes so that when fertilization occurs, it results in a new cell with two sets of chromosomes (one from the egg and one from the sperm). This is how there is genetic recombination of DNA resulting in unique individuals.
Before we talk about what can go wrong in meiosis, you need to be clear about the process itself and how genetic recombination in particular occurs. To this end, complete the following set of questions.
Questions
1. In the following diagram, draw what a cell with 1 chromosome would look like in the stages of meiosis. Prophase 1 is filled in for you and includes replicated homologous chromosomes; the black replicated chromosome is from the reproducing male’s mom and the grey replicated chromosome is from dad.
2. In your diagram from question 1:
a. How many tetrads are formed? _______________
b. How many chromosomes are in the sperm? _______________
3. In what stage(s) of meiosis:
a. Are tetrads formed? ________________________________
b. Does crossing over occur? ________________________________
c. Do the chromosomes move to the poles? ________________________________
d. Do replicated chromosomes separate? ________________________________
e. Does the cytoplasm divide? ________________________________
4. What processes in meiosis result in genetically unique daughter cells? When do these processes occur? (Note: There are two main processes; discuss both).
5. Compare and contrast meiosis with mitosis to complete the following table.
Table 2. Comparison of key characteristics between meiosis and mitosis.
Characteristics
Mitosis
Meiosis
Type of organisms it occurs in
# of chromosomes in human parent cell
Number of times chromosomes replicate
Number of cell divisions
Crossing over occurs? (Y/N)
Type of daughter cells produced
Number of daughter cells produced
Daughter cells identical to parent cell? (Y/N)
Daughter cells are: 1n or 2n?
# of chromosomes in human daughter cells
Activity 3: Chromosomes in mitosis and meiosis
In the nucleus of the cell are the chromosomes that are composed of the hereditary material DNA. In every somatic (body) cell of a human there are 46 chromosomes. Each species may have a different number of chromosomes than another species.
Since each somatic cell of an organism contains the same number of chromosomes, there must be a duplication of material before the nucleus divides during mitosis. In each somatic cell, there are two sets of chromosomes; this is referred to as the 2n (diploid) number, in which n means number of chromosomes. In humans, 2n = 46 chromosomes.
In each gamete (sex) cell, there is only one set of chromosomes; this is referred to as the 1n (haploid) number. In humans, 1n = 23 chromosomes. This means the.
ANEUPLOIDY (Introduction, classification, merits and demerits)Bushra Hafeez
Aneuploidy is a type of chromosomal abnormality in which numbers of chromosomes are abnormal.Generally, the aneuploid chromosome set differs from wild type by only one or a small number of chromosomes. It is a genetic disorder causes birth defects. It is the second major category of chromosome mutations in which chromosome number is abnormal.
Aneuploid nomenclature is based on the number of copies of the specific chromosome in the aneuploid state. For example, the aneuploid condition 2n − 1 is called monosomic (meaning “one chromosome”) because only one copy of some specific chromosome is present instead of the usual two found in its diploid progenitor. The aneuploid 2n + 1 is called trisomic,2n − 2 is nullisomic, and n + 1 is disomic.
Activity 4 Understanding the basics of meiosisMitosis and mei.docxcoubroughcosta
Activity 4: Understanding the basics of meiosis
Mitosis and meiosis both lead to new daughter cells, but meiosis sets up organisms for sexual
reproduction. Meiosis produces cells (sperm and egg in humans) with only one set of chromosomes so that when fertilization occurs, it results in a new cell with two sets of chromosomes (one from the egg and one from the sperm). This is how there is genetic recombination of DNA resulting in unique individuals.
Before we talk about what can go wrong in meiosis, you need to be clear about the process itself and how genetic recombination in particular occurs. To this end, complete the following set of questions.
Questions
1. In the following diagram, draw what a cell with 1 chromosome would look like in the stages of meiosis. Prophase 1 is filled in for you and includes replicated homologous chromosomes; the black replicated chromosome is from the reproducing male’s mom and the grey replicated chromosome is from dad.
2. In your diagram from question 1:
a. How many tetrads are formed? _______________
b. How many chromosomes are in the sperm? _______________
3. In what stage(s) of meiosis:
a. Are tetrads formed? ________________________________
b. Does crossing over occur? ________________________________
c. Do the chromosomes move to the poles? ________________________________
d. Do replicated chromosomes separate? ________________________________
e. Does the cytoplasm divide? ________________________________
4. What processes in meiosis result in genetically unique daughter cells? When do these processes occur? (Note: There are two main processes; discuss both).
5. Compare and contrast meiosis with mitosis to complete the following table.
Table 2. Comparison of key characteristics between meiosis and mitosis.
Characteristics
Mitosis
Meiosis
Type of organisms it occurs in
# of chromosomes in human parent cell
Number of times chromosomes replicate
Number of cell divisions
Crossing over occurs? (Y/N)
Type of daughter cells produced
Number of daughter cells produced
Daughter cells identical to parent cell? (Y/N)
Daughter cells are: 1n or 2n?
# of chromosomes in human daughter cells
Activity 3: Chromosomes in mitosis and meiosis
In the nucleus of the cell are the chromosomes that are composed of the hereditary material DNA. In every somatic (body) cell of a human there are 46 chromosomes. Each species may have a different number of chromosomes than another species.
Since each somatic cell of an organism contains the same number of chromosomes, there must be a duplication of material before the nucleus divides during mitosis. In each somatic cell, there are two sets of chromosomes; this is referred to as the 2n (diploid) number, in which n means number of chromosomes. In humans, 2n = 46 chromosomes.
In each gamete (sex) cell, there is only one set of chromosomes; this is referred to as the 1n (haploid) number. In humans, 1n = 23 chromosomes. This means the.
With the discovery in 1956 that the correct chromosome number in humans is 46, the new era of clinical
cytogenetics began its rapid growth. During the next few years, several major chromosomal
syndromes with altered numbers of chromosomes were reported, i.e. Downsyndrome (trisomy21),
turner syndrome (45,x) and klinefelter syndrome (47,xxy). Since then it has been well established that
chromosome abnormalities contribute significantly to genetic disease resulting in reproductive loss,
infertility, stillbirths, congenital anomalies, abnormal sexual developmentmental retardation and
pathogenesis of malignancy.specific chromosome abnormalities have been associated with over 60
identifiable syndromes. They are present in at least 50% of spontaneous abortions, 6% of stillbirths,
about 5% of couples with two or more miscarriages and approximately 0.5% of newborns. In women
aged 35 or over, chromosome abnormalities are detected in about 2% of all pregnancies. Some of the
abnormalities and their clinical consequences will be Discussed in the following sections.
Genes, Chromosomes, and Genetic Code: Relevance and ImplicationsJen Gragera
Genes are the thing that determines your unique traits from the inside out. They play an important role in your overall health but they can also make you more susceptible for certain health problems and diseases, in the first place those that run in your family. Most diseases are a result of a combination of multiple factors including dietary, lifestyle and environmental factors. However, it is also possible to develop health problems exclusively due to genetic abnormalities and mutations.
Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
Be familiar with patterns of inheritance for autosomal and sex linked genes
Understand the concept of “Linked Genes”
Understand how traits affected by incomplete dominance and codominance differ from autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive traits
Understand how nondisjunction of chromosomes can lead to disorders.
Linked genes: are those that reside on the same chromosome and tend to be inherited together
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes
Autosomal genes reside on the autosomal chromosomes (pairs 1-22)
Sex-linked genes are found on the sex chromosomes
(pair 23, usually on the X)
Autosomal genes are usually represented by a pair of alleles
The phenotype of the gene reflects the dominant or recessive relationship of the alleles.
Most autosomal genetic diseases are autosomal recessive meaning the individual need to be homozygous recessive to exhibit the condition
(example: cystic fibrosis) Production of abnormmaly thick mucus. Leading to the blockage of panreatic duct, intestines and respiratory infection.
Huntington’s disease is an autosomal dominant disorder meaning that is a single Huntingtons allele is inherited, the individual will have the disease.
Some alleles do not show a dominance hierarchy
Incomplete dominance: the phenotype of a heterozygous genotype is intermediate in appearance
Codominance: each allele in the genotype for a particular gene will be expressed in the phenotype
Males and females differ in their sex chromosome combination
(females XX; males XY)
Because the X contains genes and the Y “does not”, inheritance patterns of sex-linked genes vary between the sexes
recessive traits more prevalent in males
Genetic disorders can also occur due to errors in the number of inherited chromosomes
This condition arises through a problem that occurs during meiosis
Although female mammals, including humans, inherit two X chromosomes, one X chromosome in each cell becomes almost completely inactivated during embryonic development.
Barr body
Nondisjunction:
Leads to aneuploidy:
Aneuploidy: is the condition of having less than or more than the normal diploid number of chromosomes, and is the most frequently observed type of cytogenetic abnormality.
Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes during sexual life cycles.
Morgan traced a gene to a specific chromosome.
Sex-linked genes have unique patterns of inheritance.
Alterations of chromosome numbers or structure cause some genetic disorders.
Linked genes tend to be inherited together because they are located on the same chromosome.
Independent assortment of chromosomes and crossing over produce genetic variation (recombinants)
Geneticists can use recombination data to map a chromosomes genetic loci.
Chromosomal basis for sex is dependent upon the organism.
In what ways are humans also primatesSolutionBoth humans and .pdfinfo824691
In what ways are humans also primates?
Solution
Both humans and primates (Pottos, lemurs) do possess vertebral column and possess finger digits
for the catching prey. The primates are often locomotion on its front knuckles, which is same as
primate character of locomotion in apes, gorillas and chimpanzees & humans. The behavioral
aspects and hunting prey finally chewing & eating the prey are main similar aspects of primates
and humans commonly
Primates have enable to keep its claws followed by middle digits similar to humans that support
its entire weight along with metacarpophalangeal joints and interphalangeal joints finally
produces \"hook-and-pull\" digger with enlarged supraspinous fossa. This type of movement is
going to enable to increase pulling power of forelimbs.
The adaptations historically developed by primates are nearly similar to humans for
\"homeostatic capabilities\", such as “various excretory routes & connective tissues such as
blood” to eliminate nitrogenous waste etc. They have neurological innervations to these organs
to mediate homeostasis similar to humans. For example, skin and sweating is often referred as an
evolutionary adaptation in primates because sweat glands in humans (vertebrate animals)
eliminate nitrogenous wastes such as urea, uric acid because they live in terrestrial and land
environment. The development of nephrons and lungs to eliminate excess bicarbonate to keep
the body with homeostasis is another major homeostatic capability. The body is going to
generate heat from the liver and body hair on the humans & primates do maintain constant body
temperature (negative feedback for thermoregulation) to mediate homeostasis finally to promote
metabolism. Other anti-stress hormones released in gorillas body often maintain homeostasis.
i need Understand the role of capillaries in fluidnutrient exchange.pdfinfo824691
i need Understand the role of capillaries in fluid/nutrient exchange. How is blood directed to or
away from particular capillary beds?
Solution
Capillaries are the tiniest blood vessels that are present in the body of an organism and facilitate
the transition between arteries and veins. The Arteries bring the blood from the heart to the
various organs of the body and the size of these vessels decreases to form arterioles and the
further decreases till the time it becomes a capillary. These capillaries are small in size but more
in number and thus form a network over any specific organ. these capillaries then as the blood
flows further turn into broader blood vessels and eventually the veins which carry the blood back
to the heart. These capillaries can be called as microscopic blood vessels as many a times they
may have walls that are made of only a single celled endothelial layer. Their microscopic
structure makes material exchange possible as capillaries are the only blood vessels that can
carry out the fluid and nutrient exchange. Due to the presence of a large network the surface area
for exchange by these capillaries is huge. The capillaries at any time hold only about 5% of the
total blood volume and the human body has approximately 40 billion capillaries. the size of the
capillaries is only 5–10 nm in diameter. At any given time only a around 25 percent of capillaries
are fully filled with blood, especially in tissues at rest, as blood flow in microvessels is
dependent on the metabolic activity of the tissue and is regulated at the sites of their origin by
sphincter muscles.
There are three types of capillaries based on their structures – Continuous capillaries, fenestrated
capillaries and sinusoids. Continuous capillaries are found in the skin and muscles which have an
uninterrupted lining of endothelial cells held together by tight junctions. Fenestrated capillaries
are found wherever active capillary absorption or filtrate formation occurs like small intestine
etc., having pores in the endothelium to facilitate diffusion. The Sinusoids have a slow blood
flow and are modified by leaky pored capillaries with lumens for exchange of large molecules.
The structurally different capillaries are present to facilitate the transport according to the
functional requirement of the body.
The main function of capillaries is exchange of material – Gases, nutrients and fluids. The
exchange of gases is primarily of oxygen and carbon di oxide. This exchange occurs by basic
diffusion through the semipermeable layers. The gases move from higher to lower concentration.
In the lungs the oxygen enters the blood though the blood capillaries and the carbon di oxide is
taken up at regions where oxygen is given out of the blood, in organs that have accumulated the
increased carbon di oxide levels after respiration process is done. Gases can easily pass through
the semi permeable layers of the capillary walls. The lipid soluble substances can also easily pass
.
More Related Content
Similar to During Mitosis and Meiosis, describe how and where errors might be m.pdf
With the discovery in 1956 that the correct chromosome number in humans is 46, the new era of clinical
cytogenetics began its rapid growth. During the next few years, several major chromosomal
syndromes with altered numbers of chromosomes were reported, i.e. Downsyndrome (trisomy21),
turner syndrome (45,x) and klinefelter syndrome (47,xxy). Since then it has been well established that
chromosome abnormalities contribute significantly to genetic disease resulting in reproductive loss,
infertility, stillbirths, congenital anomalies, abnormal sexual developmentmental retardation and
pathogenesis of malignancy.specific chromosome abnormalities have been associated with over 60
identifiable syndromes. They are present in at least 50% of spontaneous abortions, 6% of stillbirths,
about 5% of couples with two or more miscarriages and approximately 0.5% of newborns. In women
aged 35 or over, chromosome abnormalities are detected in about 2% of all pregnancies. Some of the
abnormalities and their clinical consequences will be Discussed in the following sections.
Genes, Chromosomes, and Genetic Code: Relevance and ImplicationsJen Gragera
Genes are the thing that determines your unique traits from the inside out. They play an important role in your overall health but they can also make you more susceptible for certain health problems and diseases, in the first place those that run in your family. Most diseases are a result of a combination of multiple factors including dietary, lifestyle and environmental factors. However, it is also possible to develop health problems exclusively due to genetic abnormalities and mutations.
Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
Be familiar with patterns of inheritance for autosomal and sex linked genes
Understand the concept of “Linked Genes”
Understand how traits affected by incomplete dominance and codominance differ from autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive traits
Understand how nondisjunction of chromosomes can lead to disorders.
Linked genes: are those that reside on the same chromosome and tend to be inherited together
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes
Autosomal genes reside on the autosomal chromosomes (pairs 1-22)
Sex-linked genes are found on the sex chromosomes
(pair 23, usually on the X)
Autosomal genes are usually represented by a pair of alleles
The phenotype of the gene reflects the dominant or recessive relationship of the alleles.
Most autosomal genetic diseases are autosomal recessive meaning the individual need to be homozygous recessive to exhibit the condition
(example: cystic fibrosis) Production of abnormmaly thick mucus. Leading to the blockage of panreatic duct, intestines and respiratory infection.
Huntington’s disease is an autosomal dominant disorder meaning that is a single Huntingtons allele is inherited, the individual will have the disease.
Some alleles do not show a dominance hierarchy
Incomplete dominance: the phenotype of a heterozygous genotype is intermediate in appearance
Codominance: each allele in the genotype for a particular gene will be expressed in the phenotype
Males and females differ in their sex chromosome combination
(females XX; males XY)
Because the X contains genes and the Y “does not”, inheritance patterns of sex-linked genes vary between the sexes
recessive traits more prevalent in males
Genetic disorders can also occur due to errors in the number of inherited chromosomes
This condition arises through a problem that occurs during meiosis
Although female mammals, including humans, inherit two X chromosomes, one X chromosome in each cell becomes almost completely inactivated during embryonic development.
Barr body
Nondisjunction:
Leads to aneuploidy:
Aneuploidy: is the condition of having less than or more than the normal diploid number of chromosomes, and is the most frequently observed type of cytogenetic abnormality.
Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes during sexual life cycles.
Morgan traced a gene to a specific chromosome.
Sex-linked genes have unique patterns of inheritance.
Alterations of chromosome numbers or structure cause some genetic disorders.
Linked genes tend to be inherited together because they are located on the same chromosome.
Independent assortment of chromosomes and crossing over produce genetic variation (recombinants)
Geneticists can use recombination data to map a chromosomes genetic loci.
Chromosomal basis for sex is dependent upon the organism.
In what ways are humans also primatesSolutionBoth humans and .pdfinfo824691
In what ways are humans also primates?
Solution
Both humans and primates (Pottos, lemurs) do possess vertebral column and possess finger digits
for the catching prey. The primates are often locomotion on its front knuckles, which is same as
primate character of locomotion in apes, gorillas and chimpanzees & humans. The behavioral
aspects and hunting prey finally chewing & eating the prey are main similar aspects of primates
and humans commonly
Primates have enable to keep its claws followed by middle digits similar to humans that support
its entire weight along with metacarpophalangeal joints and interphalangeal joints finally
produces \"hook-and-pull\" digger with enlarged supraspinous fossa. This type of movement is
going to enable to increase pulling power of forelimbs.
The adaptations historically developed by primates are nearly similar to humans for
\"homeostatic capabilities\", such as “various excretory routes & connective tissues such as
blood” to eliminate nitrogenous waste etc. They have neurological innervations to these organs
to mediate homeostasis similar to humans. For example, skin and sweating is often referred as an
evolutionary adaptation in primates because sweat glands in humans (vertebrate animals)
eliminate nitrogenous wastes such as urea, uric acid because they live in terrestrial and land
environment. The development of nephrons and lungs to eliminate excess bicarbonate to keep
the body with homeostasis is another major homeostatic capability. The body is going to
generate heat from the liver and body hair on the humans & primates do maintain constant body
temperature (negative feedback for thermoregulation) to mediate homeostasis finally to promote
metabolism. Other anti-stress hormones released in gorillas body often maintain homeostasis.
i need Understand the role of capillaries in fluidnutrient exchange.pdfinfo824691
i need Understand the role of capillaries in fluid/nutrient exchange. How is blood directed to or
away from particular capillary beds?
Solution
Capillaries are the tiniest blood vessels that are present in the body of an organism and facilitate
the transition between arteries and veins. The Arteries bring the blood from the heart to the
various organs of the body and the size of these vessels decreases to form arterioles and the
further decreases till the time it becomes a capillary. These capillaries are small in size but more
in number and thus form a network over any specific organ. these capillaries then as the blood
flows further turn into broader blood vessels and eventually the veins which carry the blood back
to the heart. These capillaries can be called as microscopic blood vessels as many a times they
may have walls that are made of only a single celled endothelial layer. Their microscopic
structure makes material exchange possible as capillaries are the only blood vessels that can
carry out the fluid and nutrient exchange. Due to the presence of a large network the surface area
for exchange by these capillaries is huge. The capillaries at any time hold only about 5% of the
total blood volume and the human body has approximately 40 billion capillaries. the size of the
capillaries is only 5–10 nm in diameter. At any given time only a around 25 percent of capillaries
are fully filled with blood, especially in tissues at rest, as blood flow in microvessels is
dependent on the metabolic activity of the tissue and is regulated at the sites of their origin by
sphincter muscles.
There are three types of capillaries based on their structures – Continuous capillaries, fenestrated
capillaries and sinusoids. Continuous capillaries are found in the skin and muscles which have an
uninterrupted lining of endothelial cells held together by tight junctions. Fenestrated capillaries
are found wherever active capillary absorption or filtrate formation occurs like small intestine
etc., having pores in the endothelium to facilitate diffusion. The Sinusoids have a slow blood
flow and are modified by leaky pored capillaries with lumens for exchange of large molecules.
The structurally different capillaries are present to facilitate the transport according to the
functional requirement of the body.
The main function of capillaries is exchange of material – Gases, nutrients and fluids. The
exchange of gases is primarily of oxygen and carbon di oxide. This exchange occurs by basic
diffusion through the semipermeable layers. The gases move from higher to lower concentration.
In the lungs the oxygen enters the blood though the blood capillaries and the carbon di oxide is
taken up at regions where oxygen is given out of the blood, in organs that have accumulated the
increased carbon di oxide levels after respiration process is done. Gases can easily pass through
the semi permeable layers of the capillary walls. The lipid soluble substances can also easily pass
.
Give an explanation of the trait below. SolutionIt is dominant.pdfinfo824691
Give an explanation of the trait below.
Solution
It is dominant pedigree.The pedigree of a trait contolled by dominant gene action.The traits
exhibiting dominant gene action have the following conditions:
1.affected individuals have at least one affected parent
2.the phenotype generally appears every generation
3.two unaffected parents only have unaffected offspring.
External decision makers would look primarily to financial accounting.pdfinfo824691
External decision makers would look primarily to financial accounting information to assist
them in making decisions on: Select one: O A. Paying income tax. O B. Capital budgeting C.
Granting credit. D. Production of goods.
Solution
And is option C
They access and analyse financial statements so as to check the financial health of the company
and thus help them in decision of granting credit.
ecosystem ecologyTheme Physical Template of Terrestrial Environme.pdfinfo824691
ecosystem ecology
Theme: Physical Template of Terrestrial Environments – Heterogeneity
Discuss the physical diversity of terrestrial environments at a global scale
and the abiotic factors responsible for heterogeneity at that scale
Solution
Terrestrial environments are generally has large heterogeneity because of habitat provided by
plants which is favourable for most habitats ,plants are present in both above and below ground.
Moreover, physical gradients tend to be steeper, and extremes, for instance of temperature, tend
to be greater in terrestrial environments. Thus it has more habitat diversity.
. The most important abiotic factors responsible for heterogeneity are temperature ranges,
moisture availability, light, and nutrient availability, which together
determine what types of life are most likely to flourish in specific regions and what
environmental
challenges they will face..
Distribution of Resources Whether a resource is distributed evenly a.pdfinfo824691
Distribution of Resources Whether a resource is distributed evenly among member, of a
population is often an important political or economic question How can we measure this? How
can we decide if the distribution of wealth in this country is becoming more or less equitable
over time? How can we measure which country has the most equitable income distribution? This
problem describes a way of making such measurements. Suppose the resource is distributed
evenly. Then any 20% of the population will have 20% of the resource. Similarly, any 30% will
have 30% of the resource and so on. If. however, the resource is not distributed evenly, the
poorest pft of the population (in terms of this resource) will nut have of p% goods. Suppose F(x)
represents the fraction of the resources owned by the poorest fraction i of the population. Thus
F(0.4) = 0.1 means that the poorest 40% of the population owns 10% ol the resource. What
would F be if the resource were distributed evenly? What must be true of any such F ? What
must F(0) and F(1) equal? Is F increasing or decreasing? Is the graph of F concave up or concave
down? Gini\'s index of inequality, G. is one way to measure how evenly the resource is
distributed It is defined by G = 2 integrate 1 0 [x- F(x)] dx. Show graphically what G
represents.
Solution
a) If the resource were distributed evenly then F(0.4)=0.4
i.e the poorest 40% of the population would have 40% of the total population
b) F is increasing with increse in x but after reaching 1 it is constant.
F is concave up
F(0)=0
F(1)=1
c)G here represents how the values are distributed.
Describe the mechanism of action of drugs effective against viral in.pdfinfo824691
Describe the mechanism of action of drugs effective against viral infections.
Solution
Viruses are organisms that do not possess cell walls or cell membranes. Moreover many viruses
are made up of envelopes which are identical to cell membranes of humans. This is why it
becomes a difficult task to target a virus through other conventional drugs.
Antiviral drugs generally target the genetic material of the virus i.e. DNA or RNA. These are
generally nucleoside analogs which stop synthesis of DNA or RNA by getting incorporated in
the growing chain. There are some antiviral drugs which induce mutation in the viral genetic
machinery thus killing the virus.
Some anti viral drugs can prevent entry or exit of the virus to or from an infected cell by
preventing fusion of viral envelope with cell membranes of the host cell..
Define indirect finance, direct finance, debt, and equity.Solut.pdfinfo824691
Define: indirect finance, direct finance, debt, and equity.
Solution
Direct finance: When a firm borrows funds directly issuing securities from financial market i.e.
without help of any financial institution. Direct finance can be in nature of equity or debt
Indirect finance: When firm borrows funds using financial intermediaries to raise capital for the
firm. Indirect finance can be in nature of equity or debt.
Equity: Equity is unit or certificate which represents the ownership in the firm. The ownership is
proportionate to the value of the share or equity purchased. Equity shareholders have voting
rights in the firm. No fixed payment is obligated towards equity.
Debt: Debt is borrowing which a firm owes to its creditors. Debt is for specific period of time. A
fixed payment is obligated towards debt which is called interest or coupon..
Chapter 17 True False Questions 1. Hemostasis is the production of fo.pdfinfo824691
Chapter 17 True False Questions 1. Hemostasis is the production of formed elements of blood
True False 2. Blood viscosity stems mainly from electrolytes and monomers dissolved in plasma.
True False 3. Lymphoid her esis occurs mainly in the bone marrow. mopoi True False 4. oxygen
and carbon dioxide bind to different parts of hemoglobin. True False 5. The liver stores excess
iron in ferritin. True False 6. The most important components of the cytoplasm of RBCs are
hemoglobin and carbonic anhydrase. True False
Solution
1. This statement is False. Homeostasis is a tendency towards a relatively stable equilibrium
between interdependent elements , especially as maintained by physiological processes.
2. This statement is false. The blood viscosity is due to the presence of erythrocytes than any
others factors.
3. This statement is False. Lymphoid Haemopoiesis is the formation of lymphocytes. It occurs
mostly in the Thymus.
4. This statement is true. Oxygen and carbon dioxide combines to different parts of haemoglobin
to form oxyhemoglobin and carbaminohemoglobin.
5. This statement is True. The liver stores excess of iron in the form of ferritin. ferritin is a blood
cell protein which stores iron.
6. This statement is True. The most important component of cytoplasm of RBCS are
haemoglobin and carbonic anhydrase..
An object is placed 12.9 cm in front of the cornea. (The cornea is t.pdfinfo824691
An object is placed 12.9 cm in front of the cornea. (The cornea is thin ans has approximately
parallel sides so that the reflection that occurs as light travels from air to cornea to aqueous
humor is essentially the same as though the aqueous humor were directly in contact with the air.
The aqueous humor has index of refraction n = 1.34 and the radius of curvature of cornea is 7.8
mm.)
(b) The image formed by the cornea serves as an object for the lens. Treat the lens as a thin lens
7 mm behind the cornea. Find the optical power of the lens necessary to form an image on the
retina, 30 mm from the center of the lens.
Solution
len\'s maker formula
1/f = (n-1)*(1/R1 + 1/R2 )
=> 1/f = (1.34 -1)*(2/7.8)
=> f = 11.5 mm
location of image
v = (12.9*1.15)/(12.9-1.15) = 1.262 cm
The image at this location acts as object for the lens. Thus, the object distance for the lens is 0.7
cm- 1.262 cm= -0.562 cm
=> v2 = -0.562*3)/(-0.562+3) = -0.6915 cm
P = 1/f = 1/0.03 = - 33.33 D.
An archaeal contaminant is discovered in a shipment of sausages. To .pdfinfo824691
An archaeal contaminant is discovered in a shipment of sausages. To which of the following
groups would this contaminant most likely belong?
A-methanogens
B-thermophiles
C-hyperthermophiles
D-halophiles
Solution
correct answer is METHANOGENS
Thermophiles, Hyperthermophiles or halohiles will be contaminating, if extreme conditions of
temperature or salt concentration is present.
Methanogens are present in the spoilage of shipment and produce methane leading to foul
smelling..
8. A box of parts contains 8 good items and 2 defective items. If 2 .pdfinfo824691
8. A box of parts contains 8 good items and 2 defective items. If 2 are selected at random with
replacement, - that is, the first item is replaced before the second is drawn - find the
probability that the first is defective and the second is good.
Solution
Here,
P(good) = 8/10 = 0.8
P(defective) = 2/10 = 0.2
Thus,
P(defective then good) = P(defective) P(good) = 0.2*0.8 = 0.16 [answer].
A microbiologist obtains two samples one of a virus and the other of.pdfinfo824691
A microbiologist obtains two samples: one of a virus and the other of a viroid. He mixes the
labels and is not sure which is which. What is one molecule that he could analyze and try to
detect the presence of that would help him distinguish between the two and put the correct labels
on?
Solution
Viiruses have either DNA or RNA genome as the genetic material covered with a protein capsid
but viroids and virusoids consist of naked RNA. Viroids lack protein coat. The other difference
is viruses are of various shapes and sizes but viroids and virusoids are covalently closed circular
RNA molecules.Viruses infect all organisms but viriods infect only plants.
Can someone please explain part E to me. Its the only one I dont.pdfinfo824691
Can someone please explain part E to me. It\'s the only one I don\'t understand. I posted the
previews b/c its needed for part E but I don\'t really get it.
Solution
As we can see, our data set is composed of only 0, 1, 2, which are all close to each other.
Thus, there are no outliers, or unusual values.
Now, we see that the graph is relatively symmetric, as the peak is at the middle, and to its left
and right are not very different heights.
Thus,
OPTION E: There are no outliers in this relatively symmetric, mound shaped distribution.
[ANSWER].
A two-way ANOVA with interaction has how many sources of variation.pdfinfo824691
A two-way ANOVA with interaction has how many sources of variation?
a. 4
b. 2
c. 3
d. 5
Solution
A two-way ANOVA with interaction has how many sources of variation?
Ans is 5SourceSSdfMSFMain Effect AgivenA,
a-1SS / dfMS(A) / MS(W)Main Effect BgivenB,
b-1SS / dfMS(B) / MS(W)Interaction EffectgivenA*B,
(a-1)(b-1)SS / dfMS(A*B) / MS(W)WithingivenN - ab,
ab(n-1)SS / dfTotalsum of othersN - 1,
abn - 1.
2. Start capturing packets then open a webpage. a. “Follow” the TCP .pdfinfo824691
2. Start capturing packets then open a webpage. a. “Follow” the TCP Stream and describe what
you see. b. Filter by HTTP and describe what you see. c. Select an HTTP packet in the packet list
pane. In the packet details frame, click on the Frame, Ethernet, IP, and TCP parts of the packet to
see more information. Describe what you see
Solution.
Bioinformatics sequencing excercise. Sequencing the human genome sta.pdfinfo824691
Bioinformatics sequencing excercise. Sequencing the human genome started with how many
base pairs? Where are all of those base pairs located? Sequencing that many base pairs was and
still is not feasible. So what did scientists do to begin the international effort to sequence the
genome? What two processes were used to sequence the human genome? What is the difference
between the two processes? Sequencing of the genome helps to know the sequence of the genes
and mapping is to identify location of genes and distance between genes on the chromosomes.
Who was the director of the International Human Genome Sequencing Project? Why is this
process call hierarchical clone by clone sequencing? The DNA is split up into fragments ready
for sequencing. What is the Golden Tiling Path? Where does it fit into the process on the
illustration of the hierarchical clone by clone sequencing process. What is the purpose of using
BACs in the sequencing process? How long are the sequences carried by each BAC clone?
What is un
Solution
1) The Human Genome Project started in 1990 and aimed in sequencing all three billion base
pairs. The genome was broken into 150,000 base pairs in length and then ligated and cloned into
BAC
2) The nucleotides Adenine, Thymine, Guanine and cytosine are located in the DNA in the
nucleus. Mitochondria and chloroplast also carry genetic material as plasmid hence they are self
replicating.
3) The DNA was cut into fragments of 150,000 base pairs and ligated into BAC. They created a
shortgun and assembled and sequenced it.
5)Francis Collins is the director of NHGRI
9) 150,000 base pairs are present in one BAC. it takes about 20,000 different BAC clones to
contain the 3 billion pairs.
Write a function in C++ to generate an N-node random binary search t.pdfinfo824691
Write a function in C++ to generate an N-node random binary search tree with distinct keys 1
through N.
Assume that you have available a function, randInt(lower,upper), that generates a uniform
random integer in the appropriate closed interval.
What is the running time of your routine?
Solution
/ A C++ prgroam to contrcut all unique BSTs for keys from 1 to n
#include
#include
using namespace std;
// node structure
struct node
{
int key;
struct node *left, *right;
};
// A utility function to create a new BST node
struct node *newNode(int item)
{
struct node *temp = new node;
temp->key = item;
temp->left = temp->right = NULL;
return temp;
}
// A utility function to do preorder traversal of BST
void preorder(struct node *root)
{
if (root != NULL)
{
cout << root->key << \" \";
preorder(root->left);
preorder(root->right);
}
}
// function for constructing trees
vector constructTrees(int start, int end)
{
vector list;
/* if start > end then subtree will be empty so returning NULL
in the list */
if (start > end)
{
list.push_back(NULL);
return list;
}
/* iterating through all values from start to end for constructing\\
left and right subtree recursively */
for (int i = start; i <= end; i++)
{
/* constructing left subtree */
vector leftSubtree = constructTrees(start, i - 1);
/* constructing right subtree */
vector rightSubtree = constructTrees(i + 1, end);
/* now looping through all left and right subtrees and connecting
them to ith root below */
for (int j = 0; j < leftSubtree.size(); j++)
{
struct node* left = leftSubtree[j];
for (int k = 0; k < rightSubtree.size(); k++)
{
struct node * right = rightSubtree[k];
struct node * node = newNode(i);// making value i as root
node->left = left; // connect left subtree
node->right = right; // connect right subtree
list.push_back(node); // add this tree to list
}
}
}
return list;
}
// Driver Program to test above functions
int main()
{
// Construct all possible BSTs
vector totalTreesFrom1toN = constructTrees(1, 3);
/* Printing preorder traversal of all constructed BSTs */
cout << \"Preorder traversals of all constructed BSTs are \ \";
for (int i = 0; i < totalTreesFrom1toN.size(); i++)
{
preorder(totalTreesFrom1toN[i]);
cout << endl;
}
return 0;
}
Output:.
Write a paragraph introducing the immunology pertaining to Crohns D.pdfinfo824691
Write a paragraph introducing the immunology pertaining to Crohn\'s Disease. This should be
written in a formal scientific format specific to a scientific audience.
Solution
Answer :
Crohn\'s disease:Its a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that may affect any part of the
gastrointestinal tract from mouth to anus. Signs and symptoms often include abdominal pain,
(which may be bloody if inflammation is severe), fever, and weight loss. Other complications
may occur outside the gastrointestinal tract and include anemia, skin rashes, arthritis,
inflammation of the eye, and feeling tired. The skin rashes may be due to infections as well as
pyoderma gangrenosum or erythema nodosum. Bowel obstruction also commonly occurs and
those with the disease are at greater risk of bowel cancer.
Crohn\'s disease contended that the characteristic intestinal inflammation resulted from a T
celldriven process initiated by usually innocuous commensal bacteria or bacterial products.
Crohn\'s disease has been viewed as a paradigm of a type 1 helper T cell, with raised levels of
interferon and interleukin (IL2). The mucosal inflammation is theorised to be perpetuated by a
failure to down regulate this immunologically activated state with a loss of normal tolerance to
commensal flora. This conception has served as the guiding principle for most current and
investigational agents that aim to suppress what is considered to be an inappropriate immune
response, with most approaches targeting the T cell or T cell products.
Crohn\'s disease is caused by a combination of environmental, immune and bacterial factors in
genetically susceptible individuals. It results in a chronic inflammatory disorder, in which the
body\'s immune system attacks the gastrointestinal tract possibly directed at microbial antigens,
While Crohn\'s is an immune related disease, it does not appear to be an autoimmune disease (in
that the immune system is not being triggered by the body itself). The exact underlying immune
problem is not clear; however, it may be an immunodeficiency state. About half of the overall
risk is related to genetics with more than 70 genes found to be involved. Tobacco smokers are
two times more likely to develop Crohn\'s disease than nonsmokers. It also often begins
aftergastroenteritis. Diagnosis is based on a number of findings including biopsy and appearance
of the bowel wall, medical imaging and description of the disease. Other conditions that can
present similarly include irritable bowel syndrome and Behçet\'s disease..
Why arent conjugative plasmids degraded by Restriction-Modificatio.pdfinfo824691
Why aren\'t conjugative plasmids degraded by Restriction-Modification systems upon transfer to
a recipient cell?
Solution
Majority of RM systems are located on bacterial chromosomes, some of them, especially those
representing type II can be found in naturally occurring plasmids. This may facilitate
dissemination of these genetic elements among bacteria by means of horizontal gene transfer as
suggested by bioinformatic analyses.Their primary role relies on protecting bacteria against
phage invasion.When present in cells, the RM systems, apart from their aforementioned diverse
functions, may also modulate the flow of incoming DNA molecules.So, they can be considered
as key elements that can control circulation of genetic determinants in the environment. RM
systems are rare in plasmids and the host spectrum for such plasmids is rather narrow.
three factors ensure stable maintenance of plasmids are: (i) sites involved in resolution of
plasmid multimers, (ii) a gene coding for endonuclease, and (iii) plasmid copy number control .
So,if conjugative plasmids are degraded by RM system upon transfer to areceipient cell or
descendants of cells that have lost the plasmid encoding a RM system cannot survive due to a
reduced pool of DNA methyltransferase molecules. Lack of sufficient protection of the genomic
DNA against the action of cognate restriction endonuclease leads directly to bacterial cell death..
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
During Mitosis and Meiosis, describe how and where errors might be m.pdf
1. During Mitosis and Meiosis, describe how and where errors might be made then give examples
of some diseases that occur because of such events.
Solution
Living cells divide to form new cells in order to repair worn-out or damaged tissues throughout
an organism, and (in the gametes only) to enable the exchange of genetic material at the initial
stage of the process of sexual reproduction. (A gamete is a mature sex cell, specifically the ovum
of the female or the spermatozoon of the male.) The two types of cell division are generally
called mitosis and meiosis but, strictly, these terms refer to the stages of division of the cell
nucleus for somatic (non-reproductive) and reproductive cells, respectively.
Mitosis
Mitosis is the type of cell division by which a single cell divides in such a way as to produce two
genetically identical "daughter cells". This is the method by which the body produces new cells
for both growth and repair of aging or damaged tissues throughout the body.
Meiosis
Meiosis is a "reduction division" in which a cell divides into four "daughter cells" each of
which has half of the number of chromosomes of the original cell. Meiosis occurs prior to the
formation of sperm (in males) and ova (in females). Meiosis only occurs in the "gametes".
Meiosis consists of two successive divisions, each of which is divided into four phases. The first
meiotic division is similar to mitosis and the second meiotic division is the "reduction" stage.
Meiosis enables the exchange of genetic material between chromosomes.
Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate
properly during cell division (Mitosis and Meiosis).
There are three forms of nondisjunctions:
1. Failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes to separate in meiosis I,
2. Failure of sister chromatids to separate during meiosis II, and
3. Failure of sister chromatids to separate during mitosis. Nondisjunction results in daughter cells
with abnormal chromosome numbers (aneuploidy).
The result of this error is a cell with an imbalance of chromosomes. Such a cell is said to be
aneuploid. Loss of a single chromosome (2n-1), in which the daughter cell with the defect will
have one chromosome missing from one of its pairs, is referred to as a monosomy.
Gaining a single chromosome, in which the daughter cell with the defect will have one
chromosome in addition to its pairs is referred to as a trisomy. In the event that an aneuploidic
gamete is fertilized, a number of syndromes might result.
2. Monosomy
The only known survivable monosomy in humans is Turner syndrome, where the affected
individual is monosomic for the X chromosome. Other monosomies are usually lethal during
early fetal development.
Turner syndrome (X monosomy) (45, X0)
Karyotype of X monosomy (Turner syndrome): This condition is characterized by the presence
of only one X chromosome and no Y chromosome.
Complete loss of an entire X chromosome accounts for about half the cases of Turner syndrome.
The importance of both X chromosomes during embryonic development is underscored by the
observation that the overwhelming majority (>99%) of fetuses with only one X chromosome
(karyotype 45, X0) are spontaneously aborted.
Autosomal trisomy
The term autosomal trisomy means that a chromosome other than the sex chromosomes X and Y
is present in 3 copies instead of the normal number of 2 in diploid cells.
Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18) and Patau syndrome (trisomy 13)
Human trisomies compatible with life birth, other than Down syndrome (trisomy 21), are
Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18), and Patau syndrome (trisomy 13). Complete trisomies of other
chromosomes are usually not viable and represent a relatively frequent cause of miscarriage.
Only in rare cases of a mosaicism, the presence of a normal cell line, in addition to the trisomic
cell line, may support the development of a viable trisomy of the other chromosomes.
Sex chromosome aneuploidy:
The term sex chromosome aneuploidy summarizes conditions with an abnormal number of sex
chromosomes, i.e. other than XX (female) or XY (male). Formally, X chromosome monosomy
(Turner syndrome) can also be classified as a form of sex chromosome aneuploidy.
a.Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY)
Klinefelter syndrome is the most common sex chromosome aneuploidy in humans. It represents
the most frequent cause of hypogonadism and infertility in men. Most cases are caused by
nondisjunction errors in paternal meiosis I. About eighty percent of individuals with this
syndrome have one extra X chromosome resulting in the karyotype XXY. The remaining cases
have either multiple additional sex chromosomes (48, XXXY; 48, XXYY; 49, XXXXY),
mosaicism (46, XY/47, XXY), or structural chromosome abnormalities.
b. XYY Male (47, XYY)
The incidence of XYY syndrome is approximately 1 in 800-1000 male births. Many cases
remain undiagnosed because of their normal appearance and fertility, and the absence of severe
symptoms. The extra Y chromosome is usually a result of nondisjunction during paternal meiosis
II.
3. c.Trisomy X (47,XXX)
Trisomy X is a form of sex chromosome aneuploidy where females have three instead of two X
chromosomes. Most patients are only mildly affected by neuropsychological and physical
symptoms. This is caused by nondisjunction in maternal meiosis I, 16-18% by nondisjunction in
maternal meiosis II, and the remaining cases by post-zygotic, i.e. mitotic, nondisjunction.
d. Uniparental disomy
Uniparental disomy denotes the situation where both chromosomes of a chromosome pair are
inherited from the same parent and are therefore identical. This phenomenon most likely is the
result of a pregnancy that started as a trisomy due to nondisjunction. Since most trisomies are
lethal, the fetus only survives because it loses one of the three chromosomes and becomes
disomic. Uniparental disomy of chromosome 15 is,
Eg: some cases of Prader-Willi syndrome and Angelman syndrome.
e. Mosaicism syndromes
Mosaicism syndromes can be caused by mitotic nondisjunction in early fetal development. As a
consequence, the organism evolves as a mixture of cell lines with differing ploidy (number of
chromosomes). Mosaicism may be present in some tissues, but not in others. Affected
individuals may have a patchy or assymmetric appearance.
Eg: Pallister-Killian syndrome and Hypomelanosis syndrome
