IJLTER.ORG Vol 21 No 2 February 2022

International Journal
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Learning, Teaching
And
Educational Research
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1694-2493
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Vol.21 No.2

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
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Vol. 21, No. 2 (February 2022)
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VOLUME 21 NUMBER 2 February 2022
Table of Contents
Teachers’ Perceptions about Leadership: Towards an Innovative Collaborative Teacher Leadership Development
Framework for Schools ..........................................................................................................................................................1
Edwin Darrell De Klerk, Natalie Jane Pauline Smith
Adopting Virtual Classes during the COVID-19 Lockdown: Interrogating New Approaches to Teaching and the
Exclusion of Learners in Rural Settings ............................................................................................................................. 18
Raphael Nhongo, Liqhwa Siziba
Effects of a Neuroscience-Based Instructional Guide on College Student Learning ................................................... 34
Rosario Mireya Romero Parra, Luis Andres Barboza Arenas, Lorena C. Espina-Romero, Eduardo Jesús Garcés Rosendo,
Carlos Hernán Rodríguez Ángeles
Employee Perceptions of the Effectiveness of E-training to Meet Performance Evaluation Requirements ............. 49
Areej M. Altwijri, Tahani I. Aldosemani
Analysis of the English Language Needs of the Saudi Tourism Workforce: A First Step into Designing ESP
Teaching Materials................................................................................................................................................................ 72
Eidhah Abdullah AbdulRaheem Al-Malki, Choudhary Zahid Javid, Muhammad Umar Farooq, Ghazi Fahad Algethami,
Adel Awadh Al-Harthi
Entry Requirements as Predictors of the Academic Performance of Postgraduate Students in Universities in
Zimbabwe.............................................................................................................................................................................. 89
Norman Rudhumbu, Patience Kelebogile Mudau
Effects of Concept Mapping and Cooperative Mastery Learning Strategies on Students’ Achievement in
Photosynthesis and Attitudes towards Instructional Strategies................................................................................... 107
Emmanuel Bizimana, Dieudonné Mutangana, Adrian Mwesigye
Determinants of Quality Education Delivery in Selected Public Universities in Ghana: Students’ Perceptions... 133
Anthony Akwesi Owusu
Rural STEM Preservice Teachers’ Acceptance of Virtual Learning.............................................................................. 155
David Mutambara, Admire Chibisa
The Experiences of Emergency-Remote Teaching Via Zoom: The Case of Natural-Science Teachers Handling of
Deaf/Hard-of-Hearing Learners in South Africa........................................................................................................... 176
Olufemi Timothy Adigun
State University Students’ Learning Locations and Remote Learning Challenges During the COVID-19 Pandemic
............................................................................................................................................................................................... 195
Cristie Ann L. Jaca
Does Student Involvement in Practical Learning Strengthen Deeper Learning Competencies? ............................. 211
Agus Prianto, Umi Nur Qomariyah, Firman Firman

Filipino Teachers’ Attitudes towards Distance Learning during the Covid-19 Pandemic ....................................... 232
Angelito Palma Bautista Jr., Dianne Morta Balibrea, Doris Gelvoligaya Bleza
Influence of E-Counseling Skills on Counseling Self-Efficacy Among E-Counselors in Malaysia .......................... 251
Zaida Nor Zainudin, Lee Wei Rong, Alia Sarah Asri, Yusni Mohamad Yusop, Nor Aniza Ahmad, Siti Aishah Hassan
Perception on the Online Classes Challenges Experienced during the COVID-19 Pandemic by LSPU Computer
Studies Students.................................................................................................................................................................. 268
Marco Jr. N. Del Rosario, Ronnel A. dela Cruz
Educators’ Motivation and Intention within the UTAUT Model to Adopt the Flipped Classroom: A Scoping
Review.................................................................................................................................................................................. 285
Rusliza Yahaya, Mohamad Rohieszan Ramdan, Noor Lela Ahmad, Rosmini Ismail, Khalizul Khalid, Mohd Abdullah Jusoh,
Rosmah Mat Isa
Pre- and In-service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Beliefs: A Case Study of an English Language Teacher Education
Programme in Albania....................................................................................................................................................... 303
Enriketa Sogutlu
Factors Influencing Elementary Teachers’ Readiness in Delivering Sex Education amidst Covid-19 pandemic.. 320
Nhung T.P. Nguyen, An T.T. Chu, Ly H. Tran, Son X. Pham, Hien N. Nguyen, Vinh T. Nguyen
Improving Critical Thinking Skills in Teaching through Problem-Based Learning for Students: A Scoping Review
............................................................................................................................................................................................... 342
Azila Abdul Razak, Mohamad Rohieszan Ramdan, Nurhanie Mahjom, Mohd Nazir Md. Zabit, Fidlizan Muhammad, Mohd
Yahya Mohd Hussin, Nor Liza Abdullah
User Acceptance of Google Classroom-Assisted Learning: The Case of Malaysian Form Six Economics Students
............................................................................................................................................................................................... 363
Noornadiah Md. Sari, Khoo Yin Yin, Zainizam Zakariya, Ramlee Ismail
Exploring the Influence of Teacher-Student Interaction Strength, Interaction Time, Interaction Distance and
Interaction Content on International Student Satisfaction with Online Courses ....................................................... 380
Xiaozhuan Wang, Aminuddin Bin Hassan, How Shwu Pyng, Han Ye
Centralize or Decentralize? - The Question Currently Facing Schools in Qatar......................................................... 397
Al-Kubaisi Huda
Mathematics Teachers’ Perceptions of Soft Skills Integration in Mathematics Teaching and Learning in Secondary
Schools in Mazabuka District, Zambia............................................................................................................................. 419
Chileshe Busaka, Septimi Reuben Kitta, Odette Umugiraneza

1
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 1-17, February 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.1
Received Nov 1, 2021; Revised Jan 28, 2022; Accepted Feb 14, 2022
Teachers’ Perceptions about Leadership:
Towards an Innovative Collaborative Teacher
Leadership Development Framework for Schools
Edwin Darrell De Klerk*
Sol Plaatje University, Kimberley, South Africa
Natalie Jane Pauline Smith
Sol Plaatje University, Kimberley, South Africa
Abstract. The development of the literature on teacher leadership in the
academic realm has been exponential, but the quest for more leadership
knowledge seems to be inexhaustible. The purpose of this paper is to
analyze teachers’ perceptions with respect to their leadership abilities.
Email interviews were conducted with nine teachers from two primary
and two secondary schools to obtain their views regarding teacher
leadership, whilst affording them opportunities to make suggestions for
collaborative teacher leadership development. Having employed a
phenomenological approach and thematic analysis as method, this paper
proposes a collaborative teacher leadership development framework
(CTLDF). Significant about the CTLDF is that teacher leaders should
consider ausgang as a way of opening the door for collaboration, homo
economicus as a collaborative act and parrhesia as autonomy towards
collaborative teacher leadership. The findings reveal that teacher leaders
should cultivate a readiness to create opportunities for collaborative
leadership development. The study recommends that teacher leaders
should first have to be cognizant about their own individual strengths,
whilst slowly starting initiatives to collaborate in order to sustain
improvements in teacher leadership practices.
Keywords: ausgang; collaborative teacher leadership; homo economicus;
parrhesia; teacher leaders
1. Introduction
Whilst many teachers live with idealistic imperatives to “be one’s own person and
to give expression to one’s individual philosophy” (Case et al., 2011, p. 686), the
COVID-19 pandemic has required teacher leaders to seize opportunities to
*
Corresponding author: Edwin Darrell de Klerk, darrell.deklerk@nwu.ac.za

2
http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter
perform their day-to-day work more skillfully. Importantly, the perception of
leadership has become so significant that it is nearly impossible to study the past
and the present without seeing leaders and leadership everywhere. Thus,
although much research has been conducted regarding leadership development,
COVID-19 has required a change in the way individuals speak or write about
teacher leadership - from one subjugated interpretation of leadership toward a
deeper understanding of concepts thereof. In this paper, the focus has shifted from
meanings about leadership to that of teacher leadership development because we
believe that schools should be “poised to help teachers to be the beacon of light”
(Behrstock-Sherratt et al., 2020, p. 1). The shift of focus is significant because
teachers should “be empowered to be actors of change” (Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development, 2020, pp. 3–4) during and beyond the
COVID-19 pandemic. Notably, the current crisis has created opportunities to
uplift teacher leaders, whilst celebrating and recognizing the extraordinary
leadership teachers are exhibiting.
Beyond the dispositions, skills and knowledge exemplified by teacher leaders,
they should epitomize a movement-in-action to promote the teaching occupation
into a respected profession. The indication of “movement-in action” can be
associated with a view by Zhang et al. (2021) who postulate that to develop
teachers’ leadership skills, thought and time should be invested to follow a
collaborative approach. The aforementioned statement is significant because
collaborative leadership advances through the practice of influencing teachers
and engendering proficiency through collaboration (Zhang et al., 2021). In their
dissertation on teacher leadership development, Gratacós et al. (2021) aimed to
develop an understanding of teacher leadership as portrayed in official
documents in Spain. The appraisal of those documents exposed an inadequate
appreciation of the significance of teacher leadership. Their results suggested that
there is a need to further develop teacher leaders as a consequence of changing
circumstances experienced by the teaching profession. In another paper, Mitchell
(2021) focused on developing teacher leadership during unprecedented times of
change. The aim of Mitchell’s (2021) paper was to acquire more information
regarding the development and growth of teacher leaders in Kansas during the
2020–2021 COVID-19 pandemic. The findings revealed that during times like
COVID-19, increased opportunities exist for teacher leadership development. The
paper recommended that leadership development should be versed in learning
styles that foster collaboration in an attempt to grow teachers’ collective efficacy
(Mitchell, 2021).
Apart from research that focused on teacher leadership, we regard it as significant
to provide a synopsis of a few teacher leadership development frameworks
already in the public domain (Table 1).

3
Table 1: Teacher Leadership Development Frameworks in the Public Domain
Author(s) Year of
publication
Teacher leadership
development
framework
Core aspects of teacher
leadership development
framework
Angelle 2017 Four-factor model
of teacher
leadership
The role of teachers outside
the classroom, expertise and
roles in instructional
practices,
independence/enablement,
collaboration as well as
participation and engagement
Cheung et al. 2018 Defining teacher
leadership: A
framework
Collaboration,
encouragement, modelling
and availability of resources
Berg &
Zoellick
2019 Teacher leadership:
toward a new
conceptual
framework
Legitimacy, support, objective
and method
The aforementioned frameworks aimed at addressing ambiguities in meaning
regarding teacher leadership, whilst advocating for more knowledge in this field.
Our paper adheres to the call for further research on teacher leadership
development in unprecedented times like the COVID-19 pandemic. It is similar to
the aforementioned studies in that the notion of collaboration in terms of teacher
leadership development is strongly foregrounded. It is different in that we are
drawing on the views of South African teachers in four schools in the Northern
Cape province of South Africa to propose a collaborative teacher leadership
development framework (CTLDF). By analyzing the views of teachers, we “share
the stories and voices of everyday teachers who take a social justice stance and act
on it” (Baker-Doyle, 2017, p. 8). In so doing, a CTLDF may assist teacher leaders
to keep track of changes and developments regarding teacher leadership in
schools.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Changing the mind-set about teacher leadership development amid
COVID-19
Individuals construct their social reality in ways that reflect and reinforce their
mind-sets (Gergen, 2015), and the mindfulness of such potential can be an
influential power for developing their sense of fulfilment (McGonigal, 2015).
Notably, mind-sets are core sets of beliefs that become the lenses through which
individuals appreciate, understand, and reply to the world within which they live
and work (Gergen, 2015). The more individuals see the world as an opportunity
to develop, the more they seem to find opportunities for development to happen.
This implies that the more schools allow for a mind-set change regarding teacher
leadership, the more teachers would develop capacities for personal growth,
which is an important contributor to leadership development. Furthermore, the
notion of teacher leadership development suggests that teachers may become
more aware of who they are and how they can be showing up at work in a more
authentic way (Drago-Severson & Blum-DeStefano, 2018). Thus, as teacher

4
leaders gain more confidence, they can start to shift the lens toward their
colleagues and provide encouragement and support for them as they engage in
collective growth in schools.
COVID-19 has required teachers to change their taken-for-granted frames of
reference (mind-sets). Significant about a change regarding frames of reference is
that teacher leaders are required to become “more inclusive, discriminating,
open, emotionally capable of change, and reflective so that they may
generate beliefs and opinions that will prove more true or justified to guide
action” (Mezirow, 2000, p. 8). To illustrate, COVID-19 has opened
opportunities for “teachers to be trained how to lead with self-awareness
and self-regulation”, “schools to allow teachers to lead changes” and
“teachers to give meaning to changes through descriptions, feelings and
expectations” (De Klerk & Smith, 2021, p. 62). Interpreting the view of De
Klerk and Smith (2021, p. 62), teacher leadership development should be
thought of as a process of empowering teachers to achieve what they believe
is worth achieving and what they want to achieve in future.
Consequently, teacher leadership development should be understood to be
at the center of changing “values into actions, visions into realities, obstacles
into innovations, separateness into solidarity, and risks into rewards” (Smith
& Riley, 2012, p. 57). In this regard, teacher leadership development should
be about teachers getting opportunities to live their potential and worth so
that they can see leadership in themselves, whilst unleashing such potential
in those around them.
2.2 Collaborative teacher leadership as transformative learning experience
One of the main elements for successful collaborative action in teacher
development is that there should be a demonstration of intellectual and emotional
ripeness, aiming at a mind-set change to allow teachers to become more eager to
deal with and to solve challenges in schools (Vicente et al., 2018). Arguably,
collaborative intellectual efforts in terms of teacher leadership may be considered
as a mutual knowledge practice in which all teachers are involved in combining
thinking about leadership in an inventive way. This implies that collaborative
teacher leadership has an unlimited possibility to yield collaborative affiliations
where individuals share challenges and opportunities and, in so doing, ease the
responsibility of teachers to attain enhanced leadership performance (Pasetto et
al., 2021).
Despite unlimited possibilities, collaborative teacher leadership development
seems not to be without any challenges. Firstly, teacher leadership has yet to take
an official position in schools’ administration because teacher leaders’ unclear
standing may encourage skepticism on the part of colleagues, thus encumbering
collaboration (Johnson, 2019). Secondly, teacher leaders may experience hostility
from their colleagues and the aspiration for additional and profounder
collaboration could be perceived negatively by their colleagues (Landa &
Donaldson, 2020). Notwithstanding these limitations, COVID-19 has brought new
opportunities to rethink collaborative teacher leadership. Our argument resonates

5
with the thought that “teacher leadership recognizes teachers’ instructional
expertise as an asset for educational improvement, capitalizes upon teachers’
relationships with their colleagues to support change, and may provide career
advancement opportunities to improve job satisfaction and the
professionalization of teaching” (Berg et al., 2019, p. 3). Based on Berg et al.’s
(2019) assertion, more opportunities for collaborative teacher leadership
development may be a worthwhile transformative learning experience in schools.
To ensure that teacher leadership development becomes a transformative learning
experience, “a high degree of trust will be needed, as the collective glue, to ensure
that issues are addressed collectively as they arise” (Harris & Jones, 2020, p. 246).
This statement implies that teacher leaders, when working collaboratively, should
first transform problematic mind-sets (expectations and assumptions) about
leadership by making it more emotional, thoughtful and open to change. Thus, in
an endeavor to make collaboration worthwhile, teacher leaders should consider
assessing their assumptions, exploring options for new roles, action and
relationships as well as finding transformative ways to nurture new roles and
relationships (Mezirow, 2011). In this instance, teacher leaders should guard
against superficial collaboration by deliberately making an effort to understand
their roles and how they project themselves to others. Arguably, transformative
learning in terms of collaborative teacher leadership should be an organized effort
to assist colleagues to enhance their dispositions, understanding and skills
(Mezirow, 2012) as to what the role of teacher leaders should be. In so doing,
collaborative teacher leadership may encourage individuals to become more
autonomous, creative, self-reflective and inclusive.
2.3 Reasons for rethinking collaborative teacher leadership amid COVID-19
The potential and possibility of teacher leadership are regarded as a fundamental
matter within the global dialogue about educational change and reform because
the manner in which teachers contribute to transformation, and dynamically
contribute towards leading transformation, has been demonstrated to be
significant to the attainment of any development effort. In this regard, COVID-19
has required that in order to lead change, there should be a move from working
in silos and new emphasis should be placed on working collaboratively in schools
(Education Development Trust, 2020a). We, like Harris and Jones (2019, p. 125),
argue that teacher leaders who work collaboratively are individuals who will do
“amazing things; they will initiate, innovate, implement and share a wide range
of projects which can develop collaborative professional learning, improve
practice and support student learning.” When teacher leaders are thus afforded
opportunities to move out of their comfort zones, they may be positioned to think
differently, whilst reimagining what a more equitable, resilient and effective
school environment might look like.
Furthermore, it has become imperative to investigate how leadership is presently
developing, whilst it has become more significant for teachers to be willing to
participate in leadership development. It should also be considered that
innovative collaboration methods can create ideal spaces where teachers can learn
how to strengthen their ability to provide quality education for all (Education
Development Trust, 2020b). Significantly, collaboration between teacher leaders

6
can facilitate more universal methodologies to education developments and
provide heightened connection and endless progress. As it has become more
significant to build durable relationships and, when working collaboratively,
teacher leaders should have a new awareness of their experiences inside the self
(their mind-set), whilst paying attention to what is happening around them
(Wilson, 2021). In so doing, they may be able to cultivate new habits of mind
which is a fundamental disposition to develop during collaboration in schools.
Such habits include “being aware of and reflecting on current, present, and past
experiences in a non-judgmental manner, demonstrating flexibility and
appropriate responsiveness when problem solving, resiliency during difficult
times, and demonstrating empathy and compassion towards others” (Wilson,
2021, p. 7).
As the role of school leaders has become a more demanding duty, this paper
supports the need for understanding collaborative teacher leadership amid
COVID-19, which may be significant for future leadership development in
schools. We argue that teacher leaders who want to make an effort to work
collaboratively should demonstrate a growth mind-set towards building positive
relationships with colleagues, learners and the entire school community. Notably,
rethinking teacher leadership is influential because of its ability to develop
teachers’ self-esteem and value of their functioning through better commitment
and collaboration (Kamaruzaman et al., 2020).
3. Research methodology
We employed a phenomenological approach in this paper to hear and interpret
the different perceptions of teachers in their unique school contexts. By sharing
their perceptions of how their leadership qualities were developed, teachers could
re-experience the positive emotions of thinking differently, of assisting, of re-
thinking established ways of doing and, in so doing, reflect on how they actually
developed and applied leadership qualities (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). The
sharing of perceptions aligns with phenomenology because it assists in
identifying phenomena as perceived by participants in a particular setting (Lester,
1999). Thus, researchers are able to gather rich information and perceptions
through qualitative methods such as interviews. By having afforded the
participants an opportunity to share their perceptions, we were able to propose
an innovative collaborative teacher leadership framework for future collaboration
among teachers in schools.
A phenomenological approach was effective in bringing to the fore the
perceptions of teachers from their own perspectives (Lester, 1999). The use of
phenomenology was appropriate because were afforded opportunities to provide
detailed interpretations and descriptions of the participants’ lived experiences
through bracketing (Qutoshi, 2018). The use of bracketing in phenomenology is
significant for research to gain insights into lived experiences. According to
Speziale and Carpenter (2007), bracketing is an effective way to ensure validity of
the collection and analysis of data. The connection between teachers’ perceptions
as well as the environments they found themselves in were highlighted. An
application of phenomenology enabled us to obtain valuable information and to

7
present findings with a more in-depth understanding about collaborative teacher
leadership amid COVID-19. We, therefore, delved deep into the perceptions of the
teachers to bring to the fore the rich, underlying tenets of collaborative teacher
leadership. We hold the view that the knowledge gained may offer the reader an
innovative understanding of the phenomenon under study and extra insight so
that it can be applied to different school contexts.
4. Applying social constructivism as theoretical lens
This paper was supported by a social-constructivist theory (SCT) because it
involved the application of interpretive and naturalistic methods to interpret and
intelligently think about phenomena in terms of understandings individuals
assign to them (Pouliot, 2007). Human consciousness is seen as the result of a
person’s social connections with significant persons (Kozulin, 1990). Individuals’
perceptions of reality are linked to their experiences which, in turn, are linked to
individual communication in the social context. At the same time, the way in
which individuals describe the social world has an impact on meaning creation
because their interactions add to information about others and the creation of new
knowledge. An application of social constructivism in this paper can thus be
deemed relevant because teachers were afforded opportunities to share their
perceptions about their involvement in collaborative efforts regarding teacher
leadership amid COVID-19. Notably, nine participants from four different schools
in the Pixley Ka Seme (PKS) district of the Northern Cape province in South Africa
expressed their views on how they understood their own roles as teacher leaders,
whilst starting to work towards collaborating with colleagues.
We were cognizant that socially constructed realities should be regarded as
ongoing because individuals act according to their own understanding of things
(Thomas et al., 2014). Our focus was thus on the participants’ learning which took
place because of their collaborations within a specific environment, that is, teacher
leadership amid COVID-19. Social constructivism is thus a theory of learning that
deals with the attainment of information regarding the lived experiences of
individuals (Mogashoa, 2014). Of significance to this paper is the notion that social
constructivism promotes problem solving and collaboration in order to construct
meaningful knowledge.
5. Sampling and data collection tools
This paper is the third research study that is part of a research project undertaken
in Douglas schools in the Northern Cape province of South Africa. Douglas is a
rural and agricultural town located close to the confluence of the Vaal and Orange
Rivers. We visited four schools in Douglas to discuss our research projects with
teachers and senior management team members. For this study, we purposively
selected nine teachers, representing four schools (two primary and two secondary
schools), to tell their stories about teacher leadership amid the COVID-19
pandemic. The selection of participants for this study was based on the view of
Yin (2011) who claims that selected participants can bring richness and relevance
of information in relation to a study’s research questions. Information-rich cases
are those from which we can collect extensive data about the central matters of

8
collaborative teacher leadership because such cases yield insights and in-depth
understanding (Patton, 2015).
We made use of email interviews to enable participants to share their perceptions
about teacher leadership during the COVID-19 pandemic because email can be
effectively used when conducting in-depth interviews (Meho, 2006) to generate
rich qualitative data (Costello et al., 2017). Researchers are thus in a position to
explore the thoughts, beliefs and feelings of the participants, whilst allowing
individuals to identify those issues that have personal significance and meaning
to them (Taylor, 1989, p. 52). Thus, using email interviews to capture the
perceptions of the participants was more than just “look for and hear story”
(Clandinin & Connelly, 2000, p. 78). Rather, the use of email interviews enabled
the teachers’ involvement, and its asynchronicity made it easy for them to build
storylines at a speed suitable to them, contrasting the controlled space and time
they might have experienced in a telephonic or face-to-face interview (James,
2016). Email interviews offered the participants an approach of communication
that give the selected participants the opportunity to consider their answers
(Illingworth, 2006). Interestingly, our participants took the opportunity to think
and talk about information regarding collaborative teacher leadership that might
otherwise have continued to be silent and imperceptible. We, therefore, argue that
email interviews were potentially enabling because they allowed participants to
be in control of where, how and when they wanted to respond to the questions
(Bowker & Tuffin, 2004). On the other hand, email interviews may equally be
regarded as frustrating for researchers because of a lack of power over the
sequential course of interviews. Fortunately, we agreed that our participants
would respond to the email interview in their own time, allowing them to take
authority of the process of sharing their perceptions regarding teacher leadership.
Notably, the participants were eager to complete the email interviews and
responded to us within a short period of time.
Email interviews were useful, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, because
asynchronous email interviewing allows continued engagement with research
and provides participants with time to collect and articulate their thoughts, while
concurrently ensuring the safety of both participants and researchers (Amri et al.,
2021). On receipt of responses, participants were immediately de-identified, the
responses were transferred to individual word documents (each with its own
encryption codes) to ensure safety of the data. We then sorted the data before
starting our process of analysis.
6. Data analysis
We employed thematic analysis to analyze the perceptions of the participants. We
were aware that while generating themes based on research data, thematic
analysis was flexible, which could lead to inconsistency and contradiction
(Holloway & Todres, 2003). To address the aforementioned disadvantage of
thematic analysis, we kept records of the raw data which assisted us to systemize,
relate, and cross-reference data (Halpren, 1983). This also helped to create a clear
audit trail of the data we would be using. In this paper, thematic analysis helped
to contextualize data, whilst it gave “the dimension of realism, authenticity,

9
humanity, personality, emotions, views and values in a situation” (Chikoko, 2015,
p. 91). Our analysis involved a summary of the data in terms of similar words,
expressions, patterns or themes. We started by organizing and preparing the data.
Data were organized into stories for each participant. In so doing, we were able to
become acquainted with the data. According to Nieuwenhuis (2017), a worthy
analysis depends on an understanding of the data. During this step, we
transferred the content of the email interviews and summarized participants’
perceptions in their own words. The participants were indicated as T01 to T09,
implying that there was nothing that could potentially make them identifiable.
We read the data again and kept reflective notes which helped us to analytically
consider insights and ideas as patterns became visible from the data (Pandey &
Pandey, 2015). The coding procedure was the third stage in which the data was
coded manually. Coding is defined as, “the process of reading carefully through
your transcribed data, line by line, and dividing it into meaningful analytical units
... as marking the segments of data symbols, descriptive words or unique
identifying names” (Nieuwenhuis, 2017, p. 116). We reviewed and re-read the
narratives and took cognizance of all repetitive views, thoughts, and patterns.
Guided by the aim of this paper, we recovered and produced all the codes that
could be connected with teachers’ views regarding collaborative teacher
leadership amid COVID-19. We coded repetitive words and fundamental words
with the aim of grouping and linking trails for an easy interpretation of the data.
We then categorized codes into a structure by building a main code list that helped
us in making sense of the data (Nieuwenhuis, 2017). Codes were positioned into
reliable groups and, for this paper, the nine teachers’ views which represented the
codes the best, were grouped together for analysis. The codes were reduced to
three main themes, namely: ausgang as a way of opening the door for
collaboration; homo economicus as a collaborative act; and parrhesia as autonomy
towards collaborative teacher leadership.
7. Findings and discussion
To present the findings, we used codes T01 to T09 to recognize the participants.
Significantly, the results align with contemporary research concerning the
influence of COVID-19 on educational matters such as collaborative teacher
leadership development. We, henceforth, propose the following culturally
responsive leadership framework (CRLF) in support of our findings and
subsequent discussion (Figure 1):

10
Figure 1: Collaborative teacher leadership development framework (CTLDF)
7.1 Ausgang as a way of opening the door for collaboration
COVID-19 has required teacher leaders to search for new meaning and purpose,
an urge to become less docile, whilst reclaiming a connection with others in a
significant manner. In such instance, teacher leaders may be looking for “an exit”
or “a way out” (ausgang), taking a microscopic look at the roles they need to play
to bring meaning to the school environment (De Klerk, 2014). We argue that
ausgang (an exit or a way out) refers to teacher leaders’ ability to choose what
actions are suitable to lead and then carry out those actions in an autonomous
way. The three teachers (T01–T03) whose responses best represented views
regarding ausgang, to escape from docility in their schools during COVID-19,
responded as follows:
“Teacher leaders should create a positive a learning environment for
children to flourish in his own capacity, making it possible for a child to
develop as an individual. Teacher leaders must be able to take charge, they
have to step up and be extra vigilant. I am of opinion that whilst taking
steps to improve the situation at school, we must find ways to work
together with other teachers to set an example and to reach particular
goals.” [T01]
“I think that one should earn respect by starting to take charge of the
challenges that we are facing. One can for instance start by being focused
on the task at hand and then be available when others need you. I also
think that it is important to start a supporting group to start working on
a healthy learning environment which will be beneficial to all in future.”
[T02]
“Like in any business, the school is also a place where someone should take
lead of things, to organize and to assist others. I think a way to start to be
Ausgang
Homo
economicus
Parrhesia
escape from
docility to steer
collaboration
help the self
with the aim to
foster
collaboration
create
significance to
own lives and
that of others
Taking care of the
self, whilst slowly
starting initiatives
to collaborate and
share knowledge,
whilst sustaining
improvements in
teacher leadership
practices

11
a leader is to be assertive in terms of what you want to do, to work with
enthusiasm. Teacher leaders should then, when they take charge of
themselves, strengthen the hands of other so that everybody can
contribute to changes. So, from growing as an individual and then
growing together is definitely something worthwhile to ensure a brighter
future for the school environment, albeit challenges like the COVID-19
pandemic.” [T03]
In terms of ausgang, indications such as “should create”, “take charge”, “step up”
and “to start” signify that teachers have mastered knowledge about themselves
and the meanings regarding teacher leadership. This implies that teacher leaders
should take a stance to move away from the confines that a pandemic like COVID-
19 may bring. By making use of ausgang, teacher leaders would position
themselves to take responsibility for who they are and what they can do.
Arguably, if teacher leaders would examine their personal capacities, promote a
mindfulness of their professional confines, but apply their minds, they would be
able to move beyond the boundaries of any pandemic. By taking charge of the
self, they may then be in a position to work in collaboration with others. This
aligns with the literature review in this paper in that COVID-19 has encouraged
teacher leaders to step up to become more inclusive, perceptive, vulnerable,
sensitively capable of transformation, and thoughtful so that they may guide
themselves whilst planning towards working collaboratively with others. At
the same time this aligns with the theoretical framework in that the participants
described the realities regarding their ausgang during COVID-19 and how they
interacted with others towards stronger collaborative leadership in future.
7.2 Homo economicus as collaborative act
Drawing on De Klerk (2014), homo economicus refers to free and autonomous
beings who use opportunities to learn about the veiled self, to take care of the self
and then to free the self from educational challenges that may arise. During such
discovery, the homo economicus is regarded as an entrepreneur, an individual
capable and responsible for taking care of the self. Thus, teacher leaders have to
learn that to take a leap of faith may be significant in achieving sharper focus and
effectiveness. The teachers (T04–T06) whose views could be closely aligned with
the notion of homo economicus, are noted:
“A teacher leader should take the lead in first and be an example and
together with that is to make well-planned decisions. To help the self,
teachers should participate in professional learning activities. Although
my leadership role in our school is relatively small, I still regard it as
important. I also collaborate and make plans for specific interventions and
to give support and help.” [T04]
“I regard it as important to have an idea what it is to help myself and how
to grow before I can actually be of assistance to others. I think this is
important because teacher leaders should have great leader qualities and
an excellent work etiquette. We will then be able to serve others, see their
needs and challenges and do something about it. This is what I call helping
the self to help other.” [T05]

12
“I want to start off to say that every teacher is a leader in their own class.
Teachers should show their individual strength in the way they showcase
their skills. To help yourself, teachers should be obliged to attend a
leadership course, even if it is only to understand what leadership entails.
During COVID-19 I argued that leaders should set the example to be in
control of the self, whilst motivating others - this is a great way to ensure
good collaboration with teachers in future. In so doing, I help myself and
others to understand our shortcoming while working on improving
ourselves.” [T06]
The homo economicus takes care of the self and, derived from the participants’
responses, phrases like “lead in first”, “helping the self” and “control of the self”
are clear examples of self-care. Arguably, when teacher leaders want to exercise
self-care, they should question their own actions, interrogate their educational
beliefs and objectives which would guide them as to what they should do and,
consequently, what they should learn to lead from their experiences. In so doing,
teacher leaders would deliberately assess their beliefs and explore ways to
improve individual abilities, whilst finding transformative ways to nurture new
roles and relationships. This may result in teachers becoming more approachable
in terms of efforts to communicate, collaborative preparation as well as taking
responsibility for contemporary leadership abilities to help the self, whilst
creating opportunities towards collaborative growth. This aligns with the
theoretical framework in this paper in that individuals should consider the
thought that socially constructed realities should be regarded as ongoing, and
individuals should, therefore, act on their interpretation and knowledge in terms
of teacher leadership development.
7.3 Parrhesia as autonomy towards collaborative teacher leadership
The purpose of parrhesia, besides directing oneself in an open and free manner, is
to foster the construction of a contemporary and analytically thoughtful self
(Foucault, 1983). When aligned with the COVID-19 pandemic, the aim of such
construction would be to circumvent being held as a slave of the situation
individuals find themselves in, but rather to attain mastery over the regulations
posed upon them. The participants (T07–T09) expressed themselves in the
following way:
“In collaborating with other colleagues at the schools, may contribute to
improvements becoming a reality. One should be goal-oriented, taking
small steps at a time. One should, therefore, take a stance to be in control
of your own practices and development – this will make it easier to work
together with other colleagues.” [T07]
“Teacher leaders should have courage, integrity, passion, positive attitude
and a lot of commitment. They should draw on their individual strengths
and abilities. In this way, helping one another, we can all grow
professionally.” [T08]
“Development of the self and others is very important. Remember, a
motivated teacher is crucial to success in the classroom. I believe that
teacher leaders who are in control of their practices, will also be able to

13
share different teaching approaches, encourage each other to attend
workshops based on teacher development and work as a team.” [T09]
The participants’ responses reveal that they regard “an autonomous self” as
important for teacher leadership development, whilst they also seemed to be
prepared to work towards collaborating with colleagues. This is echoed in phrases
such as “in control of your own practices”, “draw on their individual strengths”
and “development of the self and others”. Arguably, to act on the notion of
parrhesia, teacher leaders may become the authors of their individual leadership
capacities and understandings where they create meaning in their personal lives
and those of others without weakening the locus of the individual self. From the
literature review in this paper it can be derived that autonomy is motivated by a
necessity for individual and professional development, so that self-directed
teacher leaders may seek out opportunities over the course of their careers to
develop further, whilst being more ready to collaborate with others. This aligns
with the theoretical framework in this paper in that teacher leaders were afforded
the opportunity to describe their leadership abilities amid COVID-19 and how it
has impacted on meaning creation because their interactions added to information
about themselves and how they would like to see collaboration with others.
8. Conclusion
The purpose of this paper was to analyze teacher perceptions with respect to their
leadership abilities amid the COVID-19 pandemic, whilst also making
suggestions for collaborative teacher leadership development. In lieu of an
analysis of participants’ narratives, a CTLDF was proposed. The framework
recommends that teacher leaders, in their endeavor to improve their leadership
abilities, also make room for collaborative teacher leadership in future. Firstly,
ausgang urges a move out of a state of docility to a deliberate effort to act upon
the desire to collaborate with others to improve leadership in schools. Secondly,
homo economicus suggests that teacher leaders should be innovative and
responsive, whilst creating opportunities for collaborative growth. Thirdly,
parrhesia notes that the teacher leaders should acknowledge that working
towards collaboration may be a process and, therefore, they must prepare
themselves to effectively collaborate with others.
This paper supports earlier findings in the academic literature. For instance,
Fairman and Mackenzie (2014) have discussed the significance of relationships,
collaboration, collegiality and trust in supporting teacher leaders; development
and school improvement. Their findings revealed that teacher leaders who
perform duties as teacher leaders rarely saw their work as significant, whilst they
acknowledged that working collaboratively had a greater impact on school
improvement. Complementary to the aforementioned study, our study
contributes to knowledge in that it proposes a CTLDF with innovative strategies
which have not yet been associated with future teacher leadership development.
Arguably, the CTLDF provides thoughts to accelerate progress in terms of
collaborative teacher leadership development, whilst it foregrounds teacher
leaders’ authority regarding collaborative efforts for professional growth.

14
9. Limitations
Although this paper is the third of a series as part of a research project at a
university in South Africa, it only captured the narratives of nine teachers at four
schools. In addition, it excluded the voices of senior management teams regarding
their perceptions of teacher leadership.
10. Recommendations
This paper recommends that senior management team members’ thoughts
regarding teacher leadership development in schools should be put under the
spotlight from a performative narrative point of view. We also recommend that
action research be conducted to test the implementation of the proposed CTLDF
in schools.
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Appendix 1
Email interview grid on teachers’ perceptions about teacher leadership
Purpose of the
study
To apply transformative learning to invest in knowledge
acquisition regarding teacher leadership in schools with
specific reference to collaborative teacher leadership
1. Why do you think, it is important that teachers are developed as teacher
leaders in schools?
2. In your opinion, wat are the contributions that teachers as leaders can
make to education and the school environment in particular?
3. How would you describe a teacher leader? Please elaborate on the specific
characteristics you deem necessary that a teacher leader should possess.
4. Why do you think it is important to motivate teachers to participate in
professional learning activities? Would you regard it as fundamental?
Please motivate.
5. Can you tell me more about your leadership experience before and during
the COVID-19 pandemic? Which duties were you entrusted with? Describe
your reactions, fears, approaches etc.
6. How will you demonstrate that you consistently listen to the people
affected by your efforts?
7. How would you as teacher leader collaborate with your colleagues to
improve the learner academic achievement in your school? Please cite
examples if possible.
8. How would you assist a colleague who is having difficulty with his/her
teaching?
9. What would you consider to be some of the best methods to use to achieve
the educational goals set by policy groups (e.g. department of education).
10. Would you regard mentoring as a part of your responsibility as a
professional teacher? Motivate why you say so.

18
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non-commercial-No Derivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 18-33, February 2022
Received Nov 12, 2021; Revised Jan 25, 2022; Accepted Feb 7, 2022
Adopting Virtual Classes during the COVID-19
Lockdown: Interrogating New Approaches to Teaching
and the Exclusion of Learners in Rural Settings
Raphael Nhongo*
North-West University, Mafikeng, South Africa
Liqhwa Siziba
North-West University, Mafikeng, South Africa
Abstract. A variety of instructional strategies were devised to ensure
continuity in education during the COVID-19 lockdown. This paper
interrogates the exclusion of learners in rural settings of Zimbabwe as a
result of the methods of teaching that were adopted by the government
during the COVID-19 lockdown. The paper seeks to answer the question;
how are the strategies meant to ensure continuity in education during the
lockdown excluding learners in rural settings? The strategies that were
adopted by the government have been identified to be contributing to the
exclusion of learners in rural settings. Data was collected through semi-
structured interviews from 20 teachers who teach in rural areas at two of
Zimbabwe’s ten provinces. The interviews were done as a follow-up to
the approaches of remote teaching adopted during the lockdown. The
study argues that the adoption of uniform approaches to teaching and
learning throughout the country during COVID-19 lockdown would not
suffice as the functionality of each approach depends on the
infrastructure and the economic conditions characteristic of each
particular geographical location. The strategies adopted during the
pandemic in a low-income country like Zimbabwe should not be
permanent but should simply be an emergency response. Learners in
rural settings are bound to be excluded in education during the pandemic
if policymakers enact ‘one size fits all’ approaches meant for abrupt
implementation. Strategies that suit the idea of emergency remote
teaching during the pandemic are the most favourable.
Keywords: COVID-19; virtual classroom; exclusion; lockdown; rural
settings
*
Corresponding author: Raphael Nhongo, raphaelnhongo@gmail.com

19
1. Introduction
For education to continue in schools during the COVID-19 lockdown, various
measures were suggested with some taking effect and some remaining as
proposals. The proposed actions were to facilitate instruction through online
classrooms, to deliver lessons via radio and also to have the lessons conducted via
social media, specifically WhatsApp. However, the implementation of these
teaching and learning approaches in Zimbabwe’s schools were associated with
several challenges. Such challenges included unfamiliarity with Information and
Communication Technology (ICT), access to gadgets for sending and receiving
lessons, network accessibility, availability of electricity and affordability of data
to access the information. However, in noticing these shortcomings, the Ministry
of Primary and Secondary Education (MPSE) proposed the use of radio in lessons
delivery for primary and secondary school learners in addition to online
classrooms. The MPSE also identified learners in rural settings as the ones facing
more challenges and there was a need therefore, to also avail hard copies of
lessons broadcast on radio. In a live broadcast interview on South African
television station, SABC 1 on 04 May 2020, James Elder, the representative for
United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) in Southern
Africa outlined a strategy by his organisation to negotiate with governments in
his jurisdiction to support and implement the use of radio for conducting lessons
during the COVID-19 induced school closures.
The paper looks at how remote teaching excludes learners in rural settings of
Zimbabwe, specifically those in the southern parts of the country in Matabeleland
North and Matabeleland South provinces. UNICEF has observed that in Eastern
and Southern Africa, internet accessibility is constrained as only one in five (22%)
households have access to the internet. In comparison, 84% of the rural people,
where the majority of learners reside, have no access to electricity (UNICEF, 2020).
Most rural communities in Zimbabwe are underserved or unserved at all
concerning radio signals (Barakabitze et al., 2019; Gwaka et al., 2018; Sunil, 2021).
Because of the challenges related to limited or no internet connectivity and radio
signal in rural areas, it is therefore prudent to investigate the exclusion of rural
learners in education during the COVID-19 induced lockdown. The study
analyses the approaches that were proposed and adopted in Zimbabwe with the
main focus being to outline how remote teaching excludes learners in rural
communities. This study shows that learners in rural areas continue to be
excluded in remote teaching during the COVID-19 lockdown because the MPSE
did not consider the state of ICT infrastructure and the economic conditions in
rural settings as compared to urban areas. Predecessor studies have
recommended online teaching as the most immediate solution for ensuring
continuity in education during a crisis. However, this study suggests that before
the adoption of any remote teaching and instructional strategy, a pre-assessment
of available resources is required. The paper also advocates for the adoption of
varied instructional strategies informed by the state of ICT infrastructure and the
prevailing economic conditions. The discussion begins by looking at experiences
of China and South Africa in ensuring continuity in education during school
closures.

20
2. New Instructional Approaches during the Covid-19 Induced School
Closures
The COVID-19 induced school closures have been more serious because they
affected all schools in the world, unlike during other pandemics where education
in specific countries was affected. The 1918 influenza pandemic which had
devastating effects stretching from 1918 to 1919 took the lives of 50 to 100 million
people worldwide (Gallo & Trompetto, 2020; King & Londrigan, 2021; Krishnan
et al., 2020; Liang et al., 2021; Owusu-Fordjour, Koomson, Hanson, 2020;
Psacharopoulos et al., 2020). It has been proven that the 1918 influenza was more
deadly than the COVID-19 pandemic (King & Londrigan, 2021; Lee & Rhee, 2021;
Liang et al., 2021; Scarpa et al., 2020; Yamin, 2020). Yamin (2020) points out that
historically, the first corona virus surfaced in 1965 with symptoms of common
cold and thereafter, five different strands of this virus emerged. Before COVID-
19, the most severe of these viruses was the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
(SARS), which infected about eight thousand people and took the lives of around
800 (Yamin, 2020). At the end of 2002, China implemented a variety of measures
including stopping face-to-face instruction in some parts of the country to curtail
the spread of SARS (Cauchemez et al., 2014; Huang et al., 2020). Similarly, in 2009,
the outbreak of H1N1 Flu did not spare the education sector in countries that
include China, Italy, Serbia, New Zealand, Thailand, and United States
(Cauchemez et al., 2014; Huang et al., 2020). The closure of schools as a result of
H1N1 Flu was shorter than the time that it has taken with COVID-19 so far.
Governments, worldwide implemented school closures as a way of controlling
the spread of COVID-19 in early 2020 (Burzynska & Contreras, 2020; Viner et al.,
2020). History shows that the only time that Zimbabwe closed schools was from
1977 to 1980 as a result of the liberation struggle (Kriger, 1988; Nhongo &
Tshotsho, 2021). It is vital to begin by looking at the experiences of other countries
to understand how they adopted new approaches to ensure continuity in
education during the COVID-19 induced lockdown. China’s experience is
particularly essential for this study, as some of its methods and approaches were
used to analyse those adopted by Zimbabwe. South Africa’s lessons were also
reviewed to make a pre-exposure of the challenges that result in the exclusion of
rural learners.
There is strong evidence shared worldwide which suggests that the first cases of
COVID-19 were detected in the Chinese city of Wuhan, also identified as the
epicentre of the pandemic before it spread to other parts of China and the rest of
the world. China was the first nation worldwide to provide remote instruction to
hundreds of millions of learners during the COVID-19 pandemic (Huang et al.,
2020). The government of China initiated many emergency strategies for
managing COVID-19. These included social distancing and the subsequent
closing of schools (McAleer, 2020; Wang et al., 2020). The government of China
launched the “Disrupted Classes, Undisrupted Learning” plan (Huang et al, 2020)
also referred to as the “Suspending Classes Without Stopping Learning” strategy
(Zhang et al., 2020). This plan was meant to ensure continuity in education during
the lockdown period by providing easily accessible online education to above 270
million learners from home (Huang et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020). While the two
concepts, “Disrupted Classes, Undisrupted Learning” and “Suspending Classes

21
Without Stopping Learning” carry the same meaning, the variation in
terminology could most probably be explained in terms of the approaches that
were involved in Chinese-English translation.
In implementing teaching and learning through the “Suspending Classes Without
Stopping Learning” strategy (Zhang et al., 2020) or “Disrupted Classes,
Undisrupted Learning” (Huang et al., 2020), the government of China took five
steps to implement the plan:
1. The government of China made efforts in implementing the
provision of reliable network. The Education Ministry and several
telecom operators worked together in developing the online
teaching platforms. China approved 37 organisations and internet
providers to provide online educational platforms.
2. Training of teachers. China’s department of education got
seriously involved in training and preparing teachers for online
instruction. Localised training of teachers was also organised by
the schools in complementing the government’s initiative.
3. It was enabling schools and local authorities to provide online
instruction with available resources. To ensure accessibility of
knowledge and resources to all learners, particularly those in rural
areas, China used satellite television receivers to reach out to those
without internet coverage.
4. It was formulating plans for preparing learners for post-COVID
return to school. The development of courses that taught learners
about the pandemic was initiated.
5. It was working on guidelines for school reopening after the
pandemic. The government put in place a plan to have schools
opening in a staggered manner (Zhang et al., 2020).
The plan adopted by China could be adopted by other countries, including
Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe is characterised by network problems as will be shown in
the discussions. These challenges end up being a potential to exclude learners in
areas with network problems. There is need therefore, for the government to
engage various network providers such as Econet, Netone, Telecel and Powertel
to avail affordable data packages and also partner with the government in
improving ICT infrastructure.
As of 23 May 2020, South Africa was the hardest hit African country with 21,343
cases of COVID-19, followed by Algeria with 8,308 cases, and Lesotho being the
least affected with only 1 case. South Africa adopted a variety of measures to
ensure continuity in education during the lockdown, and those measures were
dominated by online teaching and learning just like China and other countries in
the world. Dube (2020) reflected on the problems faced by learners in rural
settings in South Africa during the COVID-19 lockdown. Dube (2020) was looking
at problems faced by learners in the adoption of new approaches to teaching,
while the current study is looking at how similar problems result in the exclusion
of learners in rural settings. However, this study is similar to the one done by
Dube (2020) in that they both reflect on problems faced in rural settings in the

22
education sector during the COVID-19 lockdown. Dube (2020) argues that
learners in rural settings face unprecedented problems in transitioning to a ‘new
normal’ in education. Similarly, Mahlaba (2020) highlights the importance of self-
directed learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Ramrathan (2020) focused on
the South African education during the COVID-19 pandemic and argued for a
curriculum that is relevant and responsive to the issues and challenges of the
country within a global world. While the South African government is promoting
online education as the only option during COVID-19, this model excludes the
bulk of learners in rural settings from accessing education, due to a lack of devices
to access the internet and low-tech software (Dube, 2020). In addition to the
challenges faced by learners, Dube (2020) also focused on the exclusion of rural
leaners in South Africa. Molise and Dube (2020) note that emergency online
teaching (EOT) was adopted in South Africa during COVID-19 school closures as
a way of ensuring continuity in education. The idea behind the adoption of EOT
was informed by the realisation that some teachers were incompetent in ICT,
while others were inexperienced, all this in addition to poor internet connectivity
(Molise & Dube, 2020; Mukuna & Aloka, 2020). The results of their study revealed
that EOT is desirable and doable, especially in rural schools.
The implementation of online teaching has not been without challenges in many
countries around the world. Al-Naabi and Al-Abri (2021) did a cross-sectional
survey where they wanted to hear the perceptions of teachers about the
implementation of ERT during the COVID-19 lockdown at Omani higher
education. The findings of their study indicated that teachers’ academic
qualifications and prior experience influenced the success of e-learning practices.
A similar study was carried out by Batac et al. (2021) who looked at teachers’
perceptions, experiences and insights in using blended learning during the
COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines. In using blended learning, the teachers
experienced challenges such as readiness, technology literacy, financial
difficulties, health risks and access to technology (Batac et al., 2021). Alghamdi
and Al-Ghamdi (2021) researched on elementary teachers’ thoughts about
distance education and learning twenty-first century skills during COVID-19
pandemic. The results of the study showed that the research participants were for
the idea of transformation of knowledge and resources used in teaching and
learning in the modern era (Alghamdi & Al-Ghamdi, 2021). The current study
investigates challenges that are faced in implementing ERT in rural schools.
3. Emergency Remote Teaching as an Ideal Strategy
The arguments raised in this paper are guided by emergency remote teaching
(ERT) as a conceptual idea. According to Hodges et al. (2020), ERT entails
temporarily shifting from the usual instructional method to the adoption of
educational support that is reliable, instant and manageable. ERT is temporary
but requires the use of different strategies and priorities from those of traditional
face-to-face teaching (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020). The main feature of ERT is that it
uses fully remote instructional strategies that is normally delivered face-to-face,
that would return to the traditional format once the pandemic is over (Hodges et
al. 2020). ERT does not necessarily require a recreation of a robust educational

23
system, but it involves the promotion of temporary access to instruction through
the use of readily available resources and infrastructure.
ERT does not require expensive and complex intervention strategies but it simply
utilises readily available, affordable and accessible resources. Although online
teaching can be part of ERT, where ICT infrastructure is developed, it should be
noted that it is not always the case that online teaching can be ERT especially in
developing countries like Zimbabwe where there is poor ICT infrastructure.
According to Aguliera and Nightengale-Lee (2020), ERT can be distinguished
from online teaching in that ERT is an abrupt shift from classroom based
instruction and accommodates strategies that do not require too much planning.
ERT should not be labelled as online teaching considering existing and known
diversity in educational approaches (Talidong, 2020). Designing a robust online
learning curriculum and putting up adequate ICT infrastructure would take time
before it can be operational to enable learners to access instructional material
(Toquero, 2020). Zimbabwe is in a ‘crisis within a crisis’ because while it is facing
the COVID-19 pandemic, it is at the same time experiencing serious economic
hardships. Trying to set up online teaching as a strategy for providing instruction
across the country during the COVID-19 school closures would remain a pipe
dream in Zimbabwe. ERT affords educators freedom and flexibility to choose
from a variety of instructional options in the midst of a crisis (Toquero, 2020).
The study uses ERT as an approach to show that the strategies for ensuring
continuity in teaching and learning in Zimbabwe require consideration of
accessibility, availability and affordability of resources to be used. ERT requires
pre-assessment of available resources so that there is minimal disruption to
continuity in teaching and learning during school closures. We use ERT here to
assess the three strategies which are online teaching, teaching through radio, and
the use of WhatsApp; and to reveal how the adoption of these strategies excluded
and included learners from rural settings in Zimbabwe.
4. Methodology
In pursuit of unravelling how the new instructional approaches excluded learners
from rural settings, a qualitative phenomenological research design was used. The
paper looks at how the three instructional strategies for remote teaching that
Zimbabwe adopted during the COVID-19 lockdown resulted in the exclusion of
learners in rural settings. The phenomenological design requires that interviews
be employed in order to understand human experiences (Creswell, 2017). Semi-
structured interviews with 20 teachers from 20 schools in Matabeleland South and
Matabeleland North provinces in Zimbabwe were conducted. The semi-
structured interviews were conducted with teachers from both primary and
secondary schools on how the new approaches to teaching and learning as a
response to the COVID-19 lockdown excluded or had the potential to
disadvantage rural learners. The strategies that were identified to be in use
included online teaching, the radio and WhatsApp. All these approaches
excluded rural learners in a variety of ways, the major challenge being that of
spontaneously devising and implementing the new strategies.

24
The 20 teachers were interviewed through WhatsApp and phone calls depending
on the channel preferred by the research participant. These methods were used
because the interviews were conducted during the COVID-19 lockdown when
movements were restricted. The major criteria for selecting teachers was that they
taught at a rural school that falls in either Matabeleland South or Matabeleland
North. These research participants were selected through purposeful sampling
and snowball sampling. Purposeful sampling sometimes referred to as
judgemental sampling is where research participants are selected because they
have specific characteristics that are ideal for the research (Vehovar et al., 2016).
Snowball sampling is where research participants with similar characteristics
create a network that makes it ideal for the researcher to identify them (Vehovar
et al., 2016). Although a total of 20 teachers were interviewed, the data presented
came from only 12 teachers since they are the ones that provided data which is
suitable for this paper.
As an ethical procedure, the real names of research participants were not used in
data presentation and discussion, but rather, pseudonyms were used. Table 1
below shows the pseudonyms that were used to anonymise the research
participants. Clearance was sought from MPSE before interviewing the teachers.
The data gathered from the research participants was destroyed soon after the
publication of this paper.
Table 1: Pseudonyms for research participants
CODE PSEUDONYM
1 Slie
2 Sibo
3 Nana
4 Mpue
5 Daisy
6 Nothando
7 Mamba
8 Talan
9 Tawa
10 Mpo
11 Nicky
12 Angy
5. Exclusion of Rural Learners through Remote Teaching
The approaches that have been adopted in teaching and learning as a response to
COVID-19 lockdown call for remote instruction. Hodges et al. (2020) note that
researchers in educational technology have referred to the types of modes of
education that fall under remote teaching as distance learning, distributed
learning, blended learning, online learning and mobile learning. However,
Hodges et al. (2020) proposed “emergency remote teaching” to refer to
instructional methods of delivery during the pandemic.
5.1 Online Learning
Online learning can take place in synchronous or asynchronous situations using
a variety of ICT devices such as mobile phones, tablets, laptops and desktops with

25
internet access. Synchronous learning is a more structured instructional method
where the subjects take place in real-time in live virtual classroom settings (Casey
et al., 2018). In asynchronous classes, students cannot get feedback instantly and
instructional material is not provided in real-time classes, but on different
learning management platforms (Casey et al., 2018).
The MPSE of Zimbabwe recommended the adoption of the use of a platform
called Ruzivo as a way of providing instruction to learners during the COVID-19
lockdown. Ruzivo is a subsidiary of Higherlife Foundation and works in
partnership with the MPSE (Ruzivo, 2020). It is an online instructional platform
targeting both primary and secondary school learners (Ruzivo, 2019). Ruzivo was
not established as an emergency remote teaching platform to cater for education
during the COVID-19 lockdown, but it was set up through Higherlife Foundation
in 2019. Higherlife Foundation’s mandate is to uplift education from the
grassroots up to tertiary level without excluding learners from rural settings
(Ruzivo, 2019). Ruzivo is learner-centred, and knowledge is personalised,
allowing each learner to work at their own pace without their teacher and get
immediate feedback on completed exercises. Although this platform was
designed to reach out to learners in rural areas, the same learners whom it was
intended for are excluded because it requires internet for one to use it. Both the
internet and the devices to access Ruzivo are not readily available in rural areas,
rendering this platform a preserve of a very few learners in rural settings.
For online learning to take place, learners require gadgets such as smartphones,
tablets, laptops or desktops. They also need internet access, data and electricity.
However, all these materials and services are not easily accessible to rural learners
since the majority of them come from disadvantaged backgrounds. The teachers
indicated that learners in rural areas could not afford to buy devices for accessing
learning material online. Slie, indicated that “relevant gadgets in rural areas are
the old model type of cell phones, few have smartphones, cost and maintenance
of these gadgets is also high”. On the other hand, Sibo registered her observation
that “Some learners do not have the gadgets for online teaching like phones and
laptops. Parents do not have money to buy the gadgets”. Mpue, said “Computers
are available at the school but learners do not have access to the school because of
the lockdown, so they remain excluded in online learning”. Nana’s opinion was
that “Some people in rural areas do not have smartphones and data is expensive
plus with this COVID-19, movements are limited hence no helping hands from
the neighbours”. These observations by teachers indicate that learners in rural
settings are excluded from online learning because they do not have devices to
access online classes.
The unavailability of mobile network and electricity to power the devices also
play a massive role in the exclusion of learners from online teaching in rural
settings. To this end, Daisy noted that:
In Beitbridge West, Zimbabwe’s network is a challenge. In most areas
such as Dombo, Madali, Mtangamchena, Masera, Toporo there is no
network at all. Shashe also has no network at all...Parents are relying on
South African networks which at times cut off, hence online learning
might be a challenge to the rural child.

26
Nothando gave the following detailed account:
Online teaching can be a great challenge to rural schools. Let’s consider
schools like Gomoza Primary where there is no electricity. For instance,
there is an NGO called Profoture, which donated ICT gadgets such as
tablets, laptops and projectors. They wanted to ensure that the school
embraces technology in all aspects, but we are failing to make use of those
gadgets because we don't have electricity. Moreover, there is a network
problem at Gomoza, so doing online teaching can also be a challenge as it
requires one to have network access. Learners in Gomoza are also ICT
illiterate since they have less exposure to ICT tools. Learners can't even
do simple things such as switching on a smartphone because they are
rarely exposed to smartphones, so online learning can be challenging.
Mamba said:
Online teaching is a real challenge to most rural areas. For example, in
Gokwe South, schools like Kasuwe, Ngani, Manyoni, Chamatendera,
Huchu, Masosoni and Chireya Simuchembu 1 and 2 in Gokwe North just
to mention a few have no electricity.
Sibo put it in the following words:
There is no network coverage in this area. We use Botswana network
Mascom and Orange, whose airtime and data are expensive to buy using
Pula. Most learners are not computer or ICT literate. The network can
only be accessed at specific locations and one has to go to that point to
access what material online.
Talan from Matabeleland South revealed that:
Poor network and the unavailability of mobile network services are some
of the challenge faced. Some places still do not have viable network system
and if it’s to be done online, those on the digital divide won’t access the
lessons. In Silozwe network is so poor such that one cannot even open
google. So online education will be for those with, then those without
network. Access to network will only be for those with gadgets and money,
meaning online education is only going to embrace the elite mostly and
ignore the plight of the poor and those on the digital divide.
The problems of network availability and access to electricity coupled with lack
of knowledge of the use of ICT tools exclude rural learners from online
instruction.
It was also pointed out that in areas where mobile network is available, learners
can still be excluded from online learning because they cannot afford mobile data.
The teachers indicated that parents and guardians whom learners depend on for
financial support were caught unprepared by the closures of schools and therefore
had no money to buy data to support online learning. Zimbabwe is facing an
economic crisis, and the people in the rural areas who are dependent on
subsistence farming are the hardest hit after the country received poor rainfall
during the 2019-2020 farming season. Tawa revealed that:

27
Most parents in Vulindlela in Ward 16 are dependent on peasant
farming for their survival. So the absence of rain affected their produce
heavily meaning that whatever they got will be channelled towards basic
commodities. Online teaching will be a difficult thing to implement since
no resources will be channelled towards its implementation.
Echoing the same sentiments, Angy retorted that:
Even though some are on a viable network and have phones, they still
won’t manage to access online lessons because of unaffordability of data.
Most Zimbabweans are poor, and parents won’t sacrifice the little they
earn for their children to be online, they would rather chase the expensive
basic commodities. Furthermore, the Silozwe community relies on selling
craftwork to tourists, and lockdown means no tourist visits and no means
of income to parents.
What exacerbates the situation is the frequent and ad hoc upward review of data
prices. For instance, on the 5th of May in 2020, in the midst of a hard lockdown,
mobile network operators hiked the price of data bundles by up to 225% (“Econet
raises data”, 2020).
Online learning has been confused with ERT, and that is the reason why it is
challenging to implement it during the COVID-19 crisis in Zimbabwe. Online
learning excludes learners in rural settings because it is applied under conditions
and in contexts it is not suited. Policymakers opt for the implementation of
policies in a ‘one size fits all’ approach throughout the whole country, yet some
contexts require tailor made approaches specific to their unique conditions. This
preferred approach results in some of these strategies not getting operationalised
especially in contexts where they are not well suited. The MPSE, as an arm of
government has to consider the extent to which the ICT infrastructure is
developed in the rural areas before settling for online teaching as a nationwide
strategy. ERT would not consider online teaching as a possible strategy in rural
settings because the available ICT infrastructure is underdeveloped. Aguliera and
Nightengale-Lee (2020) argue that marginalised communities in rural areas need
to be afforded ERT that utilises readily available resources. In rural areas where
ICT infrastructure is poor, there is need to consider other instructional strategies
that are not necessarily online teaching.
5.2 Learning through Radio
Although most rural areas have no access to the internet, some of them do have
access to a radio signal. In realising that learners in rural areas were going to be
excluded if online teaching was to be taken as the only approach in delivering
instruction during the lockdown, the government of Zimbabwe proposed the
broadcasting of lessons through the radio. To cater for those without radio
receivers, it was suggested that learners from rural schools be availed with hard
copies of lessons broadcast on radio. The government through MPSE revealed
that it had reached an agreement with Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation
(ZBC) to have lessons delivered through radio (Gono, 2020). It was also revealed
that printed material to complement radio lessons was going to be distributed to

28
those areas without radio signal (Gono, 2020). However, it was not clear when
exactly the airing of lessons on the radio would start.
UNICEF also pledged to provide assistance to governments in Southern Africa to
capacitate them for the implementation and dissemination of lessons through
radio (UNICEF, 2020). UNICEF also assured Zimbabwe that those learners who
have no access to radio signal would benefit from printed material (UNICEF,
2020). The efforts made by UNICEF are the same as those proposed by the
government of Zimbabwe which shows that Zimbabwe is banking on the teaching
and learning programmes that are rolled out by UNICEF.
The teachers also concurred that radio was the best platform for delivering lessons
because learners without receivers can substitute them with simple, and cheap
cell phones as radio receivers. The teachers noted that although lesson delivery
through radio had several advantages, it also had its own disadvantages. For
instance, Mpo observed thus:
The option by the government to offer lessons through the radio is much
better but in our case as it is in other neighboring schools, this is again a
non-starter. Yes, almost every home has a radio but just for playing
recorded music as the channels are unreachable as well. The FM radio
stations are only better accessible when one is on top of a mountain. Then
the question is, how many times will a person climb a mountain to get
access to radio signal?
Nicky, the head of one of the schools said:
I am the head of the school and my home is closer to the school but I have
not received any teaching or lessons material. I only read about it in the
newspapers where the minister was talking about areas like ours where
there are no radio waves. We are still waiting for those booklets maybe
they will come one day.
The other challenge was that there was going to be limited time for interactive
engagement between learners and instructors for further explanations and
clarifications. Learners in rural areas could be excluded in that they may not have
access to a network to make calls for clarification and airtime cost remains a severe
challenge for them. Odera (2011) observes that radio is one of the most effective
and affordable educational technologies available in developing countries in
Africa. When considering, ERT, radio sounds as the best option for rural settings
but the challenge is that some areas do not have radio signal while some learners
do not have access to radio receivers.
5.3 WhatsApp as a Learning Platform
Despite being familiar and accessible to many even in rural areas, WhatsApp is
treated with scepticism as a formal learning platform that can compete with online
teaching and traditional face-to-face method. Although teachers have always been
discouraged from using social media as a teaching platform, WhatsApp has
however, gained popularity as an instructional method during the lockdown. As
our societies move towards advancements in information sharing, education is
one area that faces challenges in making sense of this transition (Ostashewski &

29
Reid, 2013). The teachers who were interviewed particularly those teaching
examination classes reported that they never stopped teaching upon school
closures as they continued engaging with learners through WhatsApp. The
teachers mentioned that although WhatsApp was not a formal instructional
method, it was however, more effective than all the other methods of remote
teaching. There is a need to explore ways in which WhatsApp can be formalised
as an acceptable platform for teaching and learning since it is easily accessible.
While WhatsApp has proven to be more convenient than other platforms that
require internet, it should, however, be borne in mind that some rural areas still
have no mobile network coverage. It has to be noted again that in rural areas, not
all learners can afford smartphones that are compatible with the WhatsApp
application.
The teachers said that although WhatsApp was a convenient method for
instruction and lesson delivery, its major challenge was mobile network
accessibility, affordability of data and access to smartphones. Mpo said:
Although WhatsApp is a very effective way, network coverage is the
greatest barrier. It may be faster in reaching the learners but there is no
reliable network coverage. Another impediment is the cost of bundles.
With our school and other surrounding areas, people depend on farming.
This year there is drought and therefore people have no money.
The challenge with WhatsApp is that learners can abuse it by engaging in
mischievous activities during online lessons. Cetinkaya (2017) suggests that
educators have to be cautious when engaging learners through WhatsApp as
studies have shown that learners’ attention is diverted from learning to other
issues that extend beyond academic scope. While WhatsApp can qualify as an
effective ERT method, it has to be complemented by other instructional strategies
so that all learners are accommodated. ERT calls for use of a variety of
instructional strategies instead of sticking to only one. Today’s learners are
inquisitive as they would want to communicate instantly, as such, WhatsApp has
become one of the most popular mobile phone applications that allows for more
spontaneous engagement between learners and their teachers (Mistar & Embi,
2016). Learners in rural areas can benefit from WhatsApp as an ERT strategy if
issues of accessibility and affordability are taken into consideration.
6. Recommendations
The government of Zimbabwe needs to pursue diversified approaches towards
implementing ERT instead of adopting a homogenous approach for the delivery
of lessons in an environment characterised by variations in infrastructural and
economic conditions. Strategies designed for continuity in teaching during the
COVID-19 lockdown should not be taken as a permanent measure but as
emergency measures that need to be implemented with speed. What is essential
is having the same content delivered to learners at the same level throughout the
country but not necessarily through the same modes or same approaches.
Zimbabwe needs to begin by rolling out a comprehensive strategy on remote
teaching. Such a strategy should include a variety of options that suit different

IJLTER.ORG Vol 21 No 2 February 2022

IJLTER.ORG Vol 21 No 2 February 2022

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