IJLTER.ORG Vol 21 No 7 July 2022

International Journal
of
Learning, Teaching
And
Educational Research
p-ISSN:
1694-2493
e-ISSN:
1694-2116
IJLTER.ORG
Vol.21 No.7

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
(IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 7 (July 2022)
Print version: 1694-2493
Online version: 1694-2116
IJLTER
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 7
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations,
broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machines or similar means, and storage in data banks.
Society for Research and Knowledge Management

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational
Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal which has been
established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the
fields of learning, teaching and educational research.
Aims and Objectives
The main objective of this journal is to provide a platform for educators,
teachers, trainers, academicians, scientists and researchers from over the
world to present the results of their research activities in the following
fields: innovative methodologies in learning, teaching and assessment;
multimedia in digital learning; e-learning; m-learning; e-education;
knowledge management; infrastructure support for online learning;
virtual learning environments; open education; ICT and education;
digital classrooms; blended learning; social networks and education; e-
tutoring: learning management systems; educational portals, classroom
management issues, educational case studies, etc.
Indexing and Abstracting
Research is indexed in Scopus since 2018. The Journal is also indexed in
Google Scholar and CNKI. All articles published in IJLTER are assigned
a unique DOI number.

Foreword
We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of
Learning, Teaching and Educational Research.
Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal committed to
publishing high-quality articles in the field of education. Submissions
may include full-length articles, case studies and innovative solutions to
problems faced by students, educators and directors of educational
organisations. To learn more about this journal, please visit the website
http://www.ijlter.org.
We are grateful to the editor-in-chief, members of the Editorial Board
and the reviewers for accepting only high quality articles in this issue.
We seize this opportunity to thank them for their great collaboration.
The Editorial Board is composed of renowned people from across the
world. Each paper is reviewed by at least two blind reviewers.
We will endeavour to ensure the reputation and quality of this journal
with this issue.
Editors of the July 2022 Issue

VOLUME 21 NUMBER 7 July 2022
Table of Contents
Determinants of High School Learners' Continuous Use of Mobile Learning during the Covid-19 A Phenomenon-
Based Learning Enquiry: University Students’ Self-Leadership Actions on the Social Impact of Covid-19 ..............1
Edwin Darrell De Klerk, June Monica Palmer, Alfred Modise
Defining Formative Electronic Assessment in Undergraduate Mathematics: A Reflective Approach ..................... 24
Benjamin Tatira, Israel Kariyana
Building Pupils’ Creativity at Lower Secondary School: Science Teachers’ Perspectives in Urban and Rural Areas
.................................................................................................................................................................................................40
Rendi Restiana Sukardi, Wahyu Sopandi, Riandi ., Yuli Rahmawati, Syifahayu ., Meilinda ., Siti Maryam Rohimah, Yullys
Helsa
Attitudes of Ecuadorian Secondary School Teaching Staff towards Online STEM Development in 2022 ............... 59
Derling Jose Mendoza Velazco, Elizeth Mayrene Flores Hinostroza, Janeth Elizabeth Salvador Moreno, Jose Fernando Paz
Cerda, Mercedes Viviana Sánchez Barros
Teachers’ Viewpoint of Metacognitive Strategy Instruction in Listening during Remote Teaching in Oman:
Challenges and Strategies.................................................................................................................................................... 82
Surya Subrahmanyam Vellanki, Saadat Mond, Zahid Kamran Khan, Lekha Gopalakrishnan Nair
Perceptions of Teaching Approach and Academic Performance among Senior Two Students in Musanze:
Mediating Role of Mathematics Anxiety and Career Aspiration ................................................................................. 107
Emmanuel Iyamuremye, Irenee Ndayambaje, Charles Magoba Muwonge
Effect of Blended Learning Models and Self-Efficacy on Mathematical Problem-Solving Ability.......................... 127
Muhammad Jamaluddin, Mustaji Mustaji, Bachtiar S. Bahri
Awareness of Co-Teaching Administration among Teachers of Resource Room Program ..................................... 145
Suhail Mahmoud Al-Zoubi, Mohammed Hadi Alfagih, Buthiana Elias Awais
"I Can Teach With My Videos": How Do Teachers Teach English to Young Learners in a Technology-Limited
Environment?...................................................................................................................................................................... 158
Yuli Astutik, Slamet Setiawan, Syafi'ul Anam, Suhartono
Applying Active Learning Strategies to Develop the Professional Teaching Competency of Chinese College
Student Teachers in the Context of Geography Education ........................................................................................... 178
Xiuying Yang, Pengfei Chen
Academic Advising Policy and Procedure in a Selected Federal University in the United Arab Emirates (UAE)197
Alanood Alshamsi, Laila Mohebi
A Call to Strengthen Instructional Leadership to Support Learner Achievement During and Post COVID-19: A
Systematic Literature Review Approach ......................................................................................................................... 219
Lilian Ifunanya Nwosu, Martha Matashu, Assan Thomas Buabeng

Investigating the Extent of Training Needs of Teachers of Students with Learning Disabilities: A Survey of
Teachers’ Perspectives........................................................................................................................................................ 241
Nouf Rashdan Almutairi
Chinese College Students' Perceived Teacher Autonomy Support and Engagement: A Moderated Mediation
Model.................................................................................................................................................................................... 269
Chen Han, Jian-Hao Huang
Teaching in a Pandemic: An Exploratory Study into University Instructors’ Perceptions of Work-from-Home
Opportunities and Challenges during the COVID-19 Lockdown in South Africa .................................................... 286
Kazeem Ajasa Badaru, Kemi Olajumoke Adu, Emmanuel Olusola Adu, Ntombozuko Duku
The Influence of Policy Factors on the Quality of Secondary Education in the Rural Communities of South-
Western Nigeria ..................................................................................................................................................................305
John Olayemi Okunlola, Winston Hendricks
Exploring Perceptions of Online Feedback in Teaching EFL Speaking and Writing Skills during the COVID-19
Pandemic.............................................................................................................................................................................. 330
Paul Gonzalez-Torres, Paola Cabrera-Solano, Luz Castillo-Cuesta
Academic Staff’s Motivation for Online Teaching in Nigerian Universities: Empirical Evidence from the
University of Ibadan........................................................................................................................................................... 345
Sunday A. Itasanmi, Mathew T. Oni, Violet O. Ekpenyong, Oluwatoyin A. Ajani, Oluwatosin G. Omorinkoba
Academic Performance before and during the State of Emergency due to Covid-19: Analysis from the Perspective
of Distance Education......................................................................................................................................................... 366
Omar Chamorro-Atalaya, Soledad Olivares-Zegarra, Raquel Atoche-Wong, Marco Anton-De los Santos, Maritte Fierro-
Bravo, Kathy Ruiz-Carrasco, Elio Huaman-Flores, Madison Huarcaya-Godoy, Carlos Chávez-Herrera
Assessing Satisfaction of Science School Subject Teachers and Leaders in Rwanda on the Continuous Professional
Development through Online Learning .......................................................................................................................... 379
Venuste Nsengimana, Opanga David, Alphonse Uworwabayeho, Evariste Minani, Leon Mugabo, Theophile Nsengimana
The Itinerant Curriculum as a Key to Responsiveness in the Era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution in Nigerian
Higher Education................................................................................................................................................................ 397
Kehdinga George Fomunyam
Self-Explaining Photosynthesis to Achieve Conceptual Change: An Analysis of Explanation Content ................ 410
Merrin Oliver, Virginia Troemel

1
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 1-23, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.1
Received Mar 30, 2022; Revised Jun 25, 2022; Accepted Jul 14, 2022
A Phenomenon-Based Learning Enquiry:
University Students’ Self-Leadership Actions on
the Social Impact of Covid-19
Edwin Darrell De Klerk*
North-West University, Mahikeng, South Africa
June Monica Palmer
Central University of Technology, Free State, South Africa
Alfred Modise
Central University of Technology, Free State, South Africa
Abstract. The aim of this paper was to gain deeper insight into Bachelor
of Education Honors (B.Ed. Hons) students’ self-leadership actions in
response to the social impact of COVID-19 on their academic lives.
Notwithstanding the growing body of literature showing the impact of
COVID-19 on education, the social influence of the pandemic on the
academic lives of students in higher education institutions (HEIs) remains
contentious. Since the implementation of lockdowns and social isolation
internationally, COVID-19, as a social phenomenon, has required creative
responses from students in HEIs to advance academically. Through a
phenomenon-based learning (PhenoBL) enquiry and applying narrative
methodology, students’ responses were analyzed by means of
McCormack’s (2000) four lenses, namely the lens of language, the lens of
narrative processed, the lens of context and the lens of moments. Emails
were sent to all B.Ed. Hons students to express their views and
understanding of the influence of COVID-19 on their academic lives as
postgraduate students. Five students responded and were afforded the
opportunity to provide their insights and understanding of the
phenomenon whilst exploring self-leadership actions for change toward
transformative practices in their learning spaces. The results revealed
that, through engaging in PhenoBL activities, students were able to
employ adaptive practices and inquiry-based activities to enhance self-
leadership abilities through self-influence and self-trust. The paper
recommends that HEIs should consider PhenoBL activities for self-
leadership as transformative practices of social justice to address the
social complexities of the COVID-19 pandemic and its influence on the
academic lives of university students.
*
Corresponding author: Edwin Darrell De Klerk, darrell.deklerk@nwu.ac.za

2
http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter
Keywords: academic lives; COVID-19; higher education institutions;
phenomenon-based learning; self-leadership
1. Introduction
The occurrence of COVID-19 at the end of 2019 troubled higher education
scholarship at an international level, caused considerable challenges for teaching
and learning, whilst it threatened the loss of individuals’ lives (Mengistie, 2021).
With the termination of academic activities at HEIs, the necessity for a speedy
conversion from face-to-face learning to virtual platforms became unavoidable
(Kapasia et al., 2020). Although virtual learning has been perceived as a promising
substitute for conventional learning, an absence of outdoor activity, social
distancing and uneasy sleeping patterns have negatively affected the
psychological safety of many students (Adnan & Anwar 2020).
In South Africa, lockdowns due to the pandemic ensued on 26 March 2020. The
need to establish tight limits on everyone’s access to and participation in their
educational programs, at all levels, was unavoidable. Universities’ on-campus
activities were prohibited, and lecturers were instructed to deliver content using
flexible learning designs. These constraints prompted all lectures for the Bachelor
of Education Honors (B.Ed. Hons) course at a South African university of
technology to be given online, primarily through the institution’s online learning
management system (Blackboard) and Collaborate Ultra. The fact that online
teaching and learning activities, owing to a pandemic, have little resemblance to
purposefully organized online teaching and learning, relegated this unanticipated
transition to remote teaching.
Di Pietro et al. (2020) identify important aspects that should be included in
positive and flexible learning strategies, such as guaranteed internet access and
availability of digital technology like computers, laptops, or tablets, and the use
of appropriate Virtual Learning Environments (VLE). Such digital technology can
provide students with access to educational resources and equitably connect them
with lecturers to facilitate remote lessons and improve the availability of lecturers.
Du Plessis et al. (2022), however, report that finding a quiet location at home to
engage in studies, little engagement with family members as well as challenges
with Internet connection were some of the concerns South African students voiced
during the COVID-19 pandemic. Interrupted electricity supply was also a
concern, with certain places experiencing power outages even before load-
shedding was reinstated across the country. A rapid appraisal of virtual media
regarding the status of student learning in South African HEIS as from the onset
of the COVID-19 pandemic revealed, amongst others, the need for students to
adapt to self-leadership approaches to navigate their academic lives (Du Plessis et
al., 2022).
In terms of the indicated studies (Di Pietro et al., 2020; Du Plessis, 2022), there
seems to be a gap in research regarding students’ ability to apply self-leadership
actions to flourish in their academic lives. In this regard, Afridi et al. (2021) suggest
that more research should be conducted to assist students to understand the

3
relationship between self-leadership and their academic achievement. In
answering the call for more research on self-leadership, we hold the view that the
academic challenges brought forward by COVID-19 requires that students’
abilities to lead themselves during the pandemic be investigated. Despite
students’ struggles to navigate their academic lives and social well-being, COVID-
19 has exposed prospects for innovation and creativity with novel choices in terms
of self-leadership and learning in HEIs. Consequently, our intention was to draw
from students’ creativity to unearth how they employed self-leadership through
an application of phenomenon-based activities to address the social complexities
of the COVID-19 pandemic and its influence on their academic lives. To analyze
students’ responses, the following question guided our research: How did
university students enact self-leadership through phenomenon-based activities in
addressing the social complexities of COVID-19 and its influence on their academic lives?
Complementary to the main research question, the sub-questions were:
• What information could be obtained from B.Ed. Hons students regarding their
application of self-leadership to improve their academic lives during COVID-
19? And
• How could PhenoBL activities be proposed for students’ self-leadership
abilities to address the social complexities of the COVID-19 pandemic and its
influence on their academic lives?
To provide information with respect to our research questions, we first conducted
a literature review on constructs relevant to self-leadership, followed by an
analysis of students’ responses and PhenoBL activities for their self-leadership
abilities during and beyond the pandemic.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Social complexities of COVID-19 on the academic lives of students in HEIs
Students in HEIs are an exceptional social group with dynamic lifestyles founded
on interactions and associations, university and physical activities, as well as
attending meetings (Villani et al. 2021). COVID-19, however, significantly
transformed students’ lives. While we are unaware of the exact impact of the
virus, we are cognizant of the worsening of students’ academic lives in HEIs due
to the influence of COVID-19. Alghamdi (2021) reports that social complexities
like low online education infrastructure, absence from the social environment,
social alienation and distancing, as well as burdens placed on learning time, were
only a few examples of the discomfort students experienced in terms of their
academic lives. The pressure to perform well academically in a progressively
demanding setting, combined with a range of routine changes due to COVID-19,
contributed to suboptimal academic and social wellbeing (Burns, Dagnall & Holt,
2020). Students’ sense of individual aptitude can contribute to suboptimal comfort
and an apparent sense of reduced happiness if they experienced a loss of
competence pertaining to academic lives.
Despite the crisis caused by COVID-19, students had to reconsider the ways in
which learning usually took place. Teti, Schatz and Liebenberg (2020, p. 1)
maintain that whilst pandemics like COVID-19 are, “revealing and reinforcing,
they also catalyse new social and cultural relations; lay bare inequalities and

4
anxieties, discrimination and division as well as solidarities and collective action”.
Against this background, students were obliged to find alternative ways as to how
to navigate their academic lives and consider adaptive responses to education
challenges with which they were confronted (Reimers et al., 2020). Thus, to learn
and develop to their full potential, students were required to implement inclusive
academic practices themselves (Khanna & Kareem, 2021).
Arguably, HEIs should thus be open to the voices of students which can be
regarded a more inclusive response to the COVID-19 pandemic and its
consequential influence on their academic lives. Giving students a say in decision-
making to articulate their needs and ideas may improve their self-leadership
abilities so that they can autonomously contribute to developing themselves
during times of crisis (International Labour Organisation, 2020).
2.2 The power of self-leadership
Self-leadership can be regarded as a practice through which individuals
encourage themselves to attain the self-motivation and self-direction required to
perform and behave in appropriate ways (Gharanfoli & Kemal, 2021). Individuals
should realize that self-leadership is about taking action to ascertain who one is,
what one can do, and where one is going (Delport, Van Jaarsveld & Challens,
2021). Having taken cognizance of the afore-mentioned actions, we were intrigued
by the notion that self-leadership may be regarded as a way to “set goals for your
life; lead by example; be fearless; embrace new ideas and opportunities; question
everything; do what is right, not what is easy; be the change you want to see in
the world” (Browning, 2018, p. 12) Words like “fearless”, “new”, “question
everything” and “not what is easy” may be associated with self-leadership in
times of crisis. Firstly, “fearless” can be associated with behavioral awareness in
that individuals position themselves such that they motivate the self to be
successful (Schultz, 2021). Secondly, both “not what is easy” and “new” relate to
individuals’ adaptive ability in leading the self, whilst engaging in naturally
motivating tasks (Inam et al., 2021). Thirdly, “question everything” refers to an
intolerance of accepting negative experiences as detrimental, whilst asking
questions to the self in order to develop self-trust and commitment, and
embracing new ideas and opportunities (Campos et al., 2020).
The viewpoints regarding self-leadership as discussed in this paper hold strong
reference with PhenoBL in that it acknowledges that students can make decisions
and contest unfavourable circumstances in an attempt to lead the self in an
autonomous and meaningful manner.
2.3 The philosophy behind phenomenon-based learning
Symeonidis and Schwarz (2016) indicate that Finland transformed its domestic
primary education syllabus for elementary education in 2014. During the
transformation process, indigenous syllabi were established and steadily
presented in schools as from August 2016. Finland’s domestic curriculum
theorizes learning as a collective and directed practice in which students have a
dynamic and autonomous role, setting their personal aims and solving challenges
both collaboratively and self-reliantly (Finnish National Board of Education

5
[FNBE], 2016). During the process of learning, students become attentive to their
individual learning and develop learning-to-learn abilities in that,
they learn to set goals and to solve problems both independently and
together with others. While acquiring new knowledge and skills, the
pupils learn to reflect on their learning, experiences, and emotions.
Positive emotional experiences, the joy of learning and creative activities
promote learning and inspire the pupils to develop their competence
(FNBE, 2016, Section 2.3).
Drawing on Nielsen and Davies (2018), the afore-mentioned definition of
phenomenon-based learning may be useful to HEIs to assist students to deal with
the social complexities of COVID-19 in several ways. Firstly, students were
involved in the learning of the phenomenon because it came from their actual
educational sphere and was applicable to their everyday existence. Secondly,
students took accountability for their individual learning because they were able
to interpret their own experiences regarding the social impact of COVID-19 on
their academic lives. Thirdly, students develop 21st century abilities like
communication, teamwork, creative and critical thinking during the practice of
innovative learning.
Significantly, an application of PhenoBL implies that students would implement
self-leadership skills by taking actual world matters and develop solutions
appropriate to themselves. In this regard, the relationship between PhenoBL and
self-leadership signifies that, “we can make use of the human readiness to wonder,
investigate, and go beyond personal ideas” (Lonka, 2018, p. 178). The afore-mentioned
relationship between PhenoBL and self-leadership is an indication of how
students can affect their own cognition, behaviour and motivation (Schultz, 2021),
whilst they position themselves such that they are able to tell their stories of
personal engagement to improve their academic lives during COVID-19.
3. Research methodology
To understand university students’ personal and unique experiences within the
social context they found themselves, this qualitative study applied a narrative
methodology. Connelly and Clandinin (1990) assert that narrative researchers
search for ways to understand and then present real-life experiences through the
stories of research participants. In this paper, we focused on the narratives of five
B.Ed. Hons students regarding their experience of the social impact of COVID-19
on their academic lives. We sent emails to all students enrolled in the B.Ed. Hons
course at a South African university and received responses from five students
who expressed interest in the study. Hennick and Kaiser (2021) purports that
small sizes in qualitative research should be regarded as adequate because they
are effective in reaching data saturation.
Narratives are not simply stories that are told but are a technique of analysis that
applies storytelling to reveal particular information through dialogue and
reflection (Wang & Geale, 2015). Narratives can be regarded as individuals’
personal interpretations of their experiences (Holloway & Galvin, 2017). Thus, by
allowing the B.Ed. Hons students to tell their stories, they were positioned to
provide rich accounts of their experiences, whilst the researchers were positioned

6
to make meaning of students’ narratives. We regarded this as important because
the students’ voices (Trahar, 2013) regarding the social impact of COVID-19 on
their academic lives might have remained silent. An understanding of their
narratives was based on the presupposition that the students were already
conscious of the content of their stories (Murmann & Avraamidou, 2014), and that
such content was used by them to understand their own experiences, whilst they
were able to tell their stories.
4. Transformative learning theory
HEIs play a significant role as “future-shapers” of students and are platforms for
ethnic, societal, and financial transformation, rendering it as an ideal environment
to address challenges that they might have encountered during the COVID-19
pandemic. In this paper, B.Ed. Hons students from a university of technology in
South Africa were afforded an opportunity to provide their insights and
understanding of the phenomenon whilst exploring self-leadership actions for
change. Such exploration had relevance to the social complexities of COVID-19 on
their academic lives. Having requested the students to look back on their
experiences, we were able to analyze their perspectives, applying transformative
learning as theoretical lens.
Transformative learning theory, “has evolved into a comprehensive and complex
description of how learners construe, validate, and reformulate the meaning of
their experience" (Cranton, 1994, p. 22). Thus, when individuals are involved in
serious thinking about their experiences, the possibilities exist that they might
take action to change their perspectives of particular experiences (Mezirow, 1981;
Fleming, 2022). Significantly, learning takes place when individuals provide
evidence that they are willing to reconsider their orientation frames, abandon
existing habits of mind and consider different appreciate options in an attempt to
act differently instead of legitimating what they already know about their current
situation (Mezirow, 2000).
We looked at the students’ experiences through the lenses of transformative
learning, particularly how they implemented innovative strategies to navigate
their academic lives during the COVID-19 pandemic. Mezirow (1991) reiterates
that, when individuals understand how their beliefs and assumptions might have
been dissimilar in the past, and when they are willing to change their ways of
thinking, they would be able to plan a course of transformative action. Drawing
on Spooner and John (2020), transformative learning during a pandemic is ideal
as it empowers and frees students from disruptive thinking that may impede
sound judgment and action with respect to their academic lives. This implies that
they can contemplate the kinds of transformative learning strategies required to
understand a situation or problem. The acquisition of new knowledge, adopting
innovative viewpoints and interpretations of their experiences are significant to
making meaning and advancing learning (Mezirow, 1991; Fleming, 2018). In this
research, the students were afforded opportunities to share transformative
perspectives that might have been muted, repressed, or possibly never been heard
of before (De Klerk, 2014).

7
5. Sampling and data collection tools
Within the context of this paper, the narratives of five B.Ed. Hons students at a
university of technology in South Africa were gathered to understand their
experiences concerning the social impact of COVID-19 on their academic lives.
The B.Ed. Hons students, in the department of educational management, usually
study for a period of one year full-time, whilst part-time studies are for a period
of two years. During the planning phase of the paper, the first author wrote an
email to all B.Ed. Hons students to ascertain their availability to participate in this
study. This was done because the students were preparing themselves for final
assessment activities at the time. We, therefore, made use of voluntary response
sampling to maximize the reaction ratio and reduce the likelihood of non-
response predispositions (Lehdonvirta et al., 2020). This form of communication
was possible because all students have access to digital technology and the
internet. Although the issue of internet coverage was not a problem at all, only
five students responded. To ensure objectivity, trustworthiness, and honesty
(Golafshani 2003), the same question was emailed to each of the participants. The
students’ responses were emailed to us and in case of uncertainties, follow-up
questions were prepared. The responses were then copied and pasted onto a Word®
document, the participants were de-identified and pseudonyms were assigned
(Fritz & Vandermause 2018). The scripts were then read and prepared for analysis.
Of significance is the argument that the five students who responded were
adequate for this research because qualitative research does not focus on numbers,
but rather on the richness of the data provided by the participants (Kim, 2016).
We requested the assistance of a colleague to verify the total number of responses.
When using narratives, “people make sense of their lived health and well-being
in their social context as they understand it, including their self-belief-oriented
stories” (Ntinda, 2020, p. 1). To enable the students to tell their stories regarding
the social impact of COVID-19 on their academic lives, we requested the students
to write a personal narrative (story) based on the following:
Write a narrative (maximum two pages) in which you express your views
and understanding of the influence COVID-19 has exerted on your
academic life as a postgraduate student. In your narrative, please indicate
the specific challenges you experienced (such as social, emotional,
academic) and what actions, behaviours, or transformational practices
you implemented to cope with the pandemic to ensure that you are
successful in your studies.
We allowed the students to email their responses to us because, the responses
from participants can result in well-written, rich and informative accounts (Mann,
2016). Email responses were in order because all the students were technologically
savvy and expressed their comfort to communicate their stories in written text
(Dahlin, 2021). The students’ responses through email were valuable, particularly
during the COVID-19 pandemic, because it provided them with adequate time to
assemble and organize their views, while concomitantly guaranteeing the
protection of both researchers and participants (Amri, Angelakis & Logan, 2021).
On receipt of the students’ narratives, their names were removed, pseudonyms

8
were allocated to each student, and the responses were saved in different word
documents (with separate encryption codes) to guarantee protection of the data.
The data was then organized before the analysis process commenced.
6. Data analysis
We employed McCormack’s (2000) four lenses to provide a malleable structure
for the scrutiny of the narrative data because it enabled us to take fundamental
stories and themes of experience in the original story and disclose these to the
reader with honesty. It is important to note that, “each story would be unique, but
there may also have been interconnecting themes between stories – drawing these
out may have added to the evidence that brings new understandings” (Dibley,
2011, p. 14). Firstly, the lens of language guided us to focus on the words used by
the students, what influenced their selections of words, what they told and how
they told it. Secondly, we then applied the lens of narrative processes in
combination with the lens of language, focusing on the way the students
structured their words to tell their unique stories. Thirdly, the lens of context
provided us with an opportunity to understand the students’ stories about the
social impact of COVID-19 on their academic lives. McCormack (2000) indicates
that stories are not told in a void but are located within a particular context.
Fourthly, the lens of moments focuses on the point in a story when the narrators
come to a different understanding of issues, implying “a sudden leap of
understanding that unexpectedly emerges as the storyteller addresses previously
unrecognised issues” (Dibley, 2011, p. 17). It was during this lens that we derived
self-leadership actions which were based on PhenoBL activities which can be
implemented by HEIs to address the social dynamics of COVID-19 with respect
to students’ academic lives.
To apply McCormack’s (2000) lenses, we reread the students’ narratives and
applied some techniques in identifying themes before conducting an analysis of
their stories. Firstly, to apply the lens of language in connection with the lens of
narrative processes (McCormack, 2000), we applied word repetition which
enabled us to explain the emotional experience of students. Drawing on Jing
(2015), words that are repeated or emphasized by participants can be regarded as
evidence for a theme. Thus, the more frequent a concept occurs in texts, the more
likely it is a theme. Evident from the students’ responses is the frequent use of the
word “fear” which was indicative of their emotional experiences during the
COVID-19 pandemic and which led to the formulation of the first theme: students’
emotional experiences as they learn. Secondly, to apply the lens of context, we focused
on what was being told by the students, that is, what they were telling about the
social impact of COVID-19 on their academic lives. This led to the formulation of
the second theme: the social impact of COVID-19 on students’ academic lives. Thirdly,
to apply the lens of moments, we reread the students’ narratives and found
moments of epiphany - moments where they unknowingly applied PhenoBL
activities for self-leadership to resist the social impact of COVID-19 on their
academic lives. This led to the formulation of the third theme: PhenoBL activities
for self-leadership to improve academic lives.

9
During the analysis and discussion, we remained true to the students’ original
stories, and in so doing, we were able to demonstrate that the reported findings
were situated in the original data.
7. Findings and discussion
To present the findings and discussion, we assigned the following pseudonyms
to the students: Boikhutso, Lindiwe, Puseletso, Kgomotso and Babalwa. The
findings and discussions are presented in the order the three identified themes
were identified: students’ emotional experiences as they learn, the social impact of
COVID-19 on students’ academic lives and self-leadership actions for improved academic
lives.
7.1 Students’ emotional experiences as they learn
We focused on words that were repeated by all the participants and then analyzed
the tone used by the students to describe their emotions during COVID-19 whilst
busy with their B.Ed. Hons studies. Peterman (2020) describes tone as narrators’
attitude towards an event, considering how the language had been used. The tone
in which “fear” was used, painted a gloomy picture of students’ emotional
experiences whilst learning took place during the COVID-19 pandemic. The
students expressed themselves in the following ways:
What hurt me the most was that I had followed all the instructions we
were told to follow in order to avoid getting infected. I was in denial that
I was sick. My biggest fear was that I would infect my siblings as I spend
a lot of time with them. [Boikhutso]
COVID-19 came into students’ lives at bad times. It was emotionally,
socially, and academically draining. It was fearful. It was hard for me.
[Puseletso]
I was living in great fear of contracting the virus and constantly worry
about my future as well as how I am going to progress with studies since
universities have been closed. What was hard for me was that we had to
be in isolation which ultimately affected my emotional well-being as well
as my social life. [Kgomotso]
We as students faced challenges that our lecturers are unaware of. We
feared failure and felt that we could not cope at times. [Lindiwe]
Although it was a fearful experience, COVID-19 had minimal impact
on my postgraduate studies. Due to the fact that I am working while
studying towards my B.Ed. Hons, COVID-19 changed everything for the
best. [Babalwa]
The use of “fear” and “fearful” is indicative of a tone that feels heavy and serious.
This supports the literature in this paper which indicates that the circumstances
in which the students found themselves contributed to discomfort in their
personal and academic lives (Alghamdi, 2021). To emphasize the emotional
uneasiness that they experienced, the use of “fear” and “fearful” further found
expression in phrases such as “I was going to die”, “scaring me” as well as

10
“emotionally, socially and academically drained”. Arguably, the language used
by the students created a sense of despair, sadness, and worthlessness. Such
negative tones can be associated with a reduced confidence and a lack of belief
that academic achievement would have been possible. Cherry (2021) holds the
view that individuals with little confidence are usually more insecure about their
abilities and may distrust the possibilities to thrive. They may not be interested in
attempting innovative things because they are sceptical if they would achieve
positive outcomes. Evidently, the “fear” that the students experienced initially
raised concerns as to whether they would have been successful in their academic
work whilst they were struggling with issues such as a loss of self-worth and
dignity (Abdel-Khalek, 2016).
Interestingly, although Babalwa also used “fearful”, she regarded the whole
experience with COVID-19 in a more positive light. Babalwa’s response is,
however, not far-fetched. In line with the literature review in this paper, when
individuals find themselves amidst a crisis like COVID-19, some are able to apply
intelligence to understand what is happening around them (Reimers et al., 2020),
adapting again and again as situations change. Thus, although the student’s
response is contradictory to language with a negative tone, Babalwa later
indicated that “I do believe we should keep on adapting and changing the way
we learn and teach.”
7.2 The social impact of COVID-19 on students’ academic lives
An unavailability of internet services, learning equipment (such as notebooks,
smartphones, and tablets) as well as the speed and cost of the delivery of study
materials are some of the social issues that negatively impacted students’
academic lives during COVID-19 (Mahdy, 2020). For instance, many students
struggled to create opportunities for self-study and lacked the ability to complete
lessons that required a practical application of knowledge, greatly reducing the
complete sense of scholarship which encompasses inclusion, inspiration and
commitment (Zhao, 2021). The students told the following stories about the social
impact of COVID-19 on their academic lives.
I adapted well to the new changes but when I had contracted Covid-19, it
inconvenienced me a lot academically. Some of the tasks required students
to do them in groups, online of course, and I couldn`t participate. This
means that I was not gonna get marks because I did not give my input on
the group formal task. Some students are old and are not familiar with
learning online, so technology is not their thing. And I am one of them.
[Boikhutso]
We were not allowed to access computer lab due to Covid-19 level 3. It
was painful because we had a computer module, name Computer Practice.
The module requires the student to have either a computer or a laptop to
do activities and write tests. I had a problem with my laptop and that
created a problem for me. [Puseletso]
I also experienced a great challenge of producing a work of poor quality
because online learning was a new experience to most of us and as results
I lacked basic principles of academic writing of assignments which

11
ultimately had negative impact on my assessment scores. I was
discouraged throughout the course of the year because I had run out of
ideas as how can I best improve my academic results. [Kgomotso]
One of the difficulties I encountered was that all of the question papers
were in the same format. We are being wiped clean by the same cloth
because of students who are not serious about their work, not realising
that some of us desperately need help and support. Academic difficulties
have arisen as a result of the pandemic. We don't get timely feedback on
our performance, and we only realize we need help when it's too late.
[Lindiwe]
Everything changed from doing things and attending classes on a preset
time, to you yourself determining when to do what. The lectures where
helpful and could be reached at any given time via WhatsApp. This made
everything much easier whenever you had a problem you just asked, and
an answer was given to you. You did not have to wait for the next lecture
session to ask questions. [Babalwa]
Despite favourable conditions, that is the possible safe circumstances at home
during COVID-19, Boikhutso’s remarks signify that students experienced slow
academic achievement while learning from home, resulting in them suffering
learning losses (Engzell, Frey & Verhagen, 2021). A study by Dorn et al. (2020)
report that lockdowns and closure of higher education institutions in the United
States experienced learning losses which, “exacerbate existing achievement gaps”
and the resulting “hurt could last a lifetime” (p. 1). Boikhutso’s experience of a
lack of participation as well as a fear of failure can, therefore, directly be related
to learning losses. Considering the notion that learning is an active practice that
builds on previous learning, learning losses contributed to a possible loss of
previously attained skills on which supplementary learning could have built
(Kuhfeld et al., 2020).
Puseletso’s viewpoint indicate that digital tools like laptops and computers can
be aligned with the notion that, not only does digital marginalization lead to a
division of knowledge, but it also limits opportunities for intercultural
communication, understanding and networking (Resta & Laferrière, 2015).
Although challenges with the use of digital tools are not new, the students’
experiences during COVID-19 indicated an increased lack of meaningful access to
a computer or the Internet. Consequently, a lack of access translated into missed
lessons, the inability to find useful learning materials, and difficulties completing
assignments. Evident from Puseletso’s response as well as information from the
academic literature is that the digital divide during COVID-19 had made it almost
impossible for many students to enjoy meaningful academic lives. Consequently,
many of the students who struggled the hardest to thrive academically might have
found it even harder during COVID-19, having experienced interruptions in their
academic endeavours which might not be easy to rectify (Garcia & Weiss, 2020).
Although virtual learning, remote learning and persistent education became a
remedy for this unparalleled international pandemic, many students found it

12
hard to adapt to the new circumstances in which they found themselves (Pokhrel
& Chhetri, 2021). The struggle to adapt and to deliver work of quality is
emphasised by Kgomotso and Lindiwe. Challenges such as accessibility,
affordability, flexibility, and a lack of support can be interpreted as Kgomotso and
Lindiwe’s experiences of education in a crisis. Such crisis finds meaning in the
difficulty students experience in terms of adapting from onsite teaching to an
online setting, as well as the challenge for students to rethink and redesign the
ways in which they used to work (Jandrić et al., 2020).
Babalwa’s response is an indication that she did not believe that COVID-19 had
an adverse effect on her academic live. Although she was not specific regarding
the exact reason for her seemingly positive experience, particular characteristics
such as consideration, autonomy, motivation and encouraging learning
behaviours usually contribute to resilience during difficult situations like COVID-
19 (Singaram, Naidoo & Singh, 2022). Resilience involves the ability of individuals
to plan for, adjust and react to a crisis and in this regard Babalwa seemed to have
found alternative ways of learning, whilst creating flexible pathways to pursue
her academic life (Martin & Furiv, 2020).
7.3 Phenomenon-based learning activities for self-leadership to improve
academic lives
Through phenomenon-based learning, “students have an active and self-
regulatory role, setting their own goals and solving problems both independently
and collaboratively” (FNBE, 2016, Section 2.3). During the processes of learning,
students become attentive to their particular self-leadership abilities by, “leading
oneself toward performance of naturally motivating tasks as well as managing oneself to
do work that must be done but is not naturally motivating” (Neuhaus, 2021, p. 1). The
latter views align with McCormack’s (2000) lens of moments in that the students’
responses reveal that they found themselves at moments where they had to
implement innovative activities to autonomously lead themselves toward
academic success. The students shared their epiphany moments in the following
ways:
I then decided …[Boikhutso]
Then at midnight…Puseletso]
I got the idea… [Kgomotso]
I realised that… [Lindiwe]
I became cognizant…[Babalwa]
The above phrases are indicative of those particular moments the students
realised that they were capable to enact self-leadership through PhenoBL
activities to address their own academic needs. According to Dweck (2016), such
moments of realisation refer to the development of a growing mindset – a belief
of individuals’ ability to develop and change things themselves. In terms of the
development of their mindsets to change things for themselves, we were able to
dervive PhenoBL learning activities from the students’ responses which could be
aligned with self-leadership for the improvement of academic lives amid
challenges students may encounter.

13
It should be reiterated that PhenoBL presupposes that students can set their own
goals, thus work independently or they can engage with others to solve problems
collaboratively (FNBE, 2016, Section 2.3). Gleaned from their responses, three
students (60%) indicated that they implemented authentic learning, whilst the
remaining two (40%) indicated that they implemented inquiry-based learning for
self-leadership.
Firstly, authentic learning, as a feature of phenomenon-based learning
presupposes that individuals are in a position to use approaches, materials and
tools which are indispensable in everyday circumstances to solve difficulties
(Symeonidis & Schwartz, 2016). Boikhutso, Babalwa and Puseletso’s responses
signify how they implemented authentic learning for self-leadership during the
COVID-19 pandemic:
I decided to teach myself how to do things online instead of relying on my
group of students. I decided to push myself with the notes and study
material. [Boikhutso]
For me, it was a time to determine for myself when to do what. We have
technology at our fingertips, let’s use it to our advantage. [Babalwa]
I would take photos of the chapters required for assignments. I would
transfer those photos that has chapters to my laptop so that I can be able
to write my assignments. [Puseletso]
Authentic learning emerges in the use of “to teach myself”, “to determine for
myself” and “to write my assignments” and is associated with the way in which
individuals direct their own learning. It is that moment when individuals “take
the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning
needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for
learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and
evaluating learning outcomes” (Gresham, 2019, p. 1). When related to PhenoBL,
authentic learning, in the form of “with the notes and study material”,
“technology” and “take photos of the chapters” brings genuine practices and
processes into the learning situation. In this way, the students managed to lead
themselves to take responsibility for what they learned, when they learned, where
they learned, and the method in which they learned (Gresham, 2019). It is evident
that the students’ authentic PhenoBL activities contributed to the development of
self-leadership during COVID-19. In this regard, self-leadership emerges in the
way the student implemented learning practices to intentionally influence their
thinking, feelings, and actions in a bid to achieve specific objectives (Warren, 2021)
– in this instance, to achieve success in terms of their academic lives. When
students discover such inner strength, that is, placing emphasis on self-leadership
through active engagement with everyday circumstances to solve difficulties that
are relevant to their academic lives (Symeonidis & Schwartz, 2016), they may be
in a position to know themselves, whilst developing their strengths, aspirations
and interests.
Secondly, inquiry-based learning, as a feature of phenomenon-based learning
assumes that students formulate individual questions and collaboratively

14
construct knowledge during the learning process (Silander, 2015a). Kgomotso and
Lindiwe’s responses signify how they implemented inquiry-based learning for
self-leadership during the COVID-19 pandemic:
I got the idea to join postgraduate groups on social media platforms in
which we encourage each other thorughout the course of our study.
[Kgomotso]
I realised that I found it helpful to interact with my fellow classmates in
order to cope with the challenges. I’ve also realised that I’ve learned a lot
about technology. [Lindiwe]
When phenomenon-based learning transpires in a collaborative setting, “it
supports the socio-constructivist and sociocultural learning theories, in which
information is not seen only as an internal element of an individual; instead,
information is seen as being formed in a social context” (Silander, 2015b, p. 19).
Phrases like “join postgraduate groups on social media platforms” and “to
interact with my fellow classmates” are indicative of the creation of social
platforms in which learning took place. It seems that whilst working
collaboratively, the students changed their frames of references regarding the way
they lead themselves to enjoy successful academic moments. In so doing, the
students became lively scholars who accepted accountability for their learning,
whilst developing a flexible understanding of their academic tasks. In this
instance, inquiry-based learning emerges in the form of active learning that gives
students the agency to lead themselves in such a way that they acquire ownership
and agency of their learning (Lonka, 2018). When students take on self-leadership
in online learning, they intentionally influence their own thinking, feelings, and
actions to ensure that they enjoy positive academic lives. Thus, whilst applying
inquiry-based learning, the students’ self-leadership abilities surfaced as skills
“for leading oneself across challenging and performing situations towards goal
achievement and necessitated goal setting and goal striving” (Eseryel, 2020, p.
125). Despite the difficult situation brought about by COVID-19, the students
exercised self-leadership in the way they applied processes (social media
platforms and technology) that seemingly contributed to their optimal
functioning as leaders, having combined individual and collaborative efforts
(Goldsby et al., 2021). A summary of findings is provided in Table 1.
Table 1: Summary of findings
Finding 1 Finding 2 Finding 3 Finding 4
When individuals
find themselves
amid a crisis like
COVID-19, some
can apply
intelligence to
understand what is
happening around
them, whilst
adapting multiple
times as situations
change.
Students found it
difficult to thrive
academically during
the COVID-19
pandemic because of
the enormous
interruptions in
their academic
endeavours which
might not be easily
rectifiable.
PhenoBL activities
can assist students
with self-leadership
so that they might be
in a position to set
their own goals, thus
working
independently or
while engaging with
others to solve
problems
collaboratively.
As students
engage in self-
leadership
actions, they
intentionally
influence their
own thinking,
and approaches
to ensure that
they influence
their academic
lives positively.

15
The findings in Table 1 are supported by the transformative learning theory
because students are encouraged to act differently instead of legitimating what
they already know about their current situation (Mezirow, 2000). In so doing,
students have the opportunity to engage in serious thinking about their
experience where possibilities exist that they might change their perspectives and
take action to transform their academic lives. The findings, aligned with the
transformative learning theory, also speak to our research questions.
The first sub-researched was answered by means of students’ willingness to share
information about their application of self-leadership during COVID-19. Students
identified moments where they experienced an epiphany about their academic
lives and indicated how they might have developed a mindset to change their
perspectives. Additionally, students indicated how they frequently explored
solutions autonomously to address challenges they experienced and how they
developed constructive thought strategies which enabled them to positively
influence their own cognition, feelings, motivation, and behaviour. An
application of authentic learning may contribute to students discovering who they
are and what they are capable of in terms of their learning. Finally, when students
realised that they could lead themselves amid difficult situations, they applauded
the prospect of being self-leaders of their own learning whilst also helping others.
The second sub-research question was answered by discussing possible PhenoBL
activities which may be applied by HEIs to train students in using self-leadership.
Firstly, we recommend that HEIs apply more advanced technologies so that
students can adapt easier; constantly observe students’ progress; and create
innovative teaching and learning strategies so that they achieve success in their
academic lives. These technologies may include, amongst others, Universal
Design of Learning (UDL), more expressive presentations of new academic
content using multimedia and more self-directed learning activities. Secondly,
HEIs should put communication platforms in place so that students are enabled
to share experiences and emotions whilst they are not on campus. Thirdly, HEIs
should consider students’ active participation in their academic endeavours as a
means to ensure that they can become independent thinkers, discussants, and
responsible learners within a challenging environment.
The findings revealed that students’ attempts to use PhenoBL activities for self-
leadership have implications for HEIs. Drawing on Khanna and Kareem (2021),
HEIs should be open to hearing the voices of students which can be regarded as a
more inclusive response to the COVID-19 pandemic and its consequential
influence on their academic lives.
8. Implications for higher education institutions
The analysis of students’ responses holds transformative social justice
implications for HEIs. Considering the literature review in this paper (Reimers et
al., 2020; Khanna & Kareem, 2021) as well as the analysis of students’ responses,
HEIs should consider PhenoBL activities for self-leadership as transformative
practice for social justice to address the social complexities of the COVID-19
pandemic and its influence on students’ academic lives (Figure 1).

16
Figure 1: Transformative social justice implications for higher education institutions
We recommend that HEIs should play an adaptive role by applying technologies
that would constantly observe student progress and use data to unceasingly
transform learning opportunities that will speak to the needs and behaviours of
individuals. For instance, HEIs may implement more vigorous self-learning
programmes to advance students’ innovation abilities through autonomous
learning (Ziyu & Jing, 2019). In so doing, students may be in a position to find
engaging and interesting real-world solutions to solve academic challenges
(Mathewson, 2019). Such positioning may be regarded as a transformative social
justice act in that HEIs would provide enabling spaces in which students are able
to lead themselves, whilst developing a sense of their own agency for academic
success (De Klerk & Palmer, 2020; De Klerk & Smith, 2021).
Furthermore, HEIs must create dialogue spaces for meaning construction,
focusing on students’ experiences, emotions, and abilities whilst they are not on
campus. Dialogue spaces should become shared spaces where manifold
interpretations can be explored and advanced (Jesson, Fontich & Myhill, 2016) as
well as spaces for reflection and critical thinking (Palmgren-Neuvonen, Littleton
& Hirvonen, 2021). From a transformative social justice perspective, dialogue
spaces may advance opportunities to build collaboration where constructive
transformation can be planned and endorsed. Students are thus afforded an
opportunity to take on significant self-leadership roles with the potential to
endure any noteworthy impact that goes beyond their academic programme
(Rodriquez et al., 2021).
HEIs must consider active participation as a means to ensure that students become
independent thinkers, discussants and responsible learners amidst a challenging
environment. In an active participatory environment, students play key roles in
knowledge development, concept application to their daily lives, question design,
data collection and sharing their own views while connecting with and being
involved in real world situations (Al Mamun, Lawrie & Wright, 2020). When
•Adaptive learning
•Inquiry-based
learning
PhenoBL
Activities
•influence the self
•develop self-trust
and commitment
•innovative ways of
leading the self
Self-leadership
• adaptive roles
• dialogue spaces
• active
participation
Implications for
HEIs

17
aligned with PhenoBL and self-leadership, active participation may empower
students to take ownership of their learning through diversification of learning
objectives and working approaches to achieve success in their academic lives
(Symeonidis & Schwartz, 2016).
We contend that transformative social justice practices in HEIs may assist students
to engage in a deeper, richer, more textured, and nuanced understanding of
themselves and their world. Moreover, HEIs will be able to empower students
and “have them realize that they, as a collective, have the power to make positive
changes in their lived realities” (Orlowski, 2019, p. 31). One way of accomplishing
transformative social justice actions would be to help students understand that
they have the potential to be conscious actors in the social relations that affect
them in terms of their academic lives (Orlowski, 2015).
9. Conclusion
This paper answered the research question: How can university students enact self-
leadership through phenomenon-based activities in addressing the social complexities of
COVID-19 and its influence on their academic lives? Having employed McCormack’s
(2000) lenses to analyse the students’ responses, this paper contributes to the
knowledge corpus by having highlighted significant information with regards to
self-leadership through an application of PhenoBL.
Our paper supports previous outcomes in the academic literature. Afridi et al.
(2021) tested the correlation between students’ self-leadership abilities,
performance outcomes and self-efficacy in the virtual academic milieu. Their
findings revealed that when students demonstrate a high level of self-leadership,
they are able to experience improved levels of performance satisfaction and self-
efficacy. Complementary to their study, our paper found that a higher level of
self-leadership is possible through an application of phenomenon-based learning.
10. Limitations
Only five students from a university of technology in South Africa were willing
to participate in this study. It thus excludes the voices of a larger student corpus
who might have had different opinions of self-leadership through phenomenon-
based learning during COVID-19.
11. Recommendations
This paper recommends that similar and comparative studies be conducted at
different higher education institutions to elicit the voices of more students
regarding their self-leadership competence during times of crisis, but also during
a post COVID-19 era. Issues such as self-influence, self-efficacy, self-directed
learning, and self-achievement may be regarded as significant aspects to be
considered when a comparative study regarding students’ self-leadership
competence is conducted.
12. References
Abdel-Khalek, A. M. (2016). Introduction to the Psychology of self-esteem. In F. Holloway
(Ed.). Self-esteem: perspectives, influences, and improvement strategies (pp. 1–23). Nova
Science Publisher.

18
Adnan, M., & Anwar, K. (2020). Online learning amid the COVID-19 pandemic: Students’
perspectives. Journal of Pedagogical Sociology and Psychology, 2(1), 45–51.
Afridi, F. E. A., Jan, S., Ayaz, B., & Irfan, M. (2021). Self-Leadership, Self-efficacy, and
Students Adaptive Online Learning Performance during the COVID-19 crisis.
International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change, 15(6), 371–391.
Alghamdi, A. A. (2021). Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the social and educational
aspects of Saudi university students’ lives. PLoS ONE, 16(4), e0250026.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250026
Al Mamun, M. A., Lawrie, G., & Wright, T. (2020). Instructional design of scaffolded online
learning modules for self-directed and inquiry-based learning environments.
Computers & Education, 144, 103695–103712.
Amri, M., Angelakis, C., & Logan, D. (2021). Utilizing asynchronous email interviews for
health research: overview of benefits and drawbacks. BMC Research Notes, 14, 1–
5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-021-05547-2
Browning, M. (2018). Self-leadership: Why it matters. International Journal of Business and
Social Science, 9(2), 14–18.
Burns, D., Dagnall, N., & Holt, M. (2020). Assessing the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic
on Student Wellbeing at Universities in the United Kingdom: A Conceptual
Analysis. Frontiers in Education, 5, 582882.
https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2020.582882
Campos, J. A., Aubert, A., Guo, M., & Joanpere, M. (2020). Improved Leadership Skills
and Aptitudes in an Excellence EMBA Program: Creating Synergies With Dialogic
Leadership to Achieve Social Impact. Frontiers in Psychology, 2020, 1–11.
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00017/full
Cherry, K. (2021). What Is Self-Esteem? https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-self-
esteem-2795868
Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1990). Stories of experience and narrative inquiry.
Educational Researcher, 19(5), 2–14.
Cranton, P. (1994). Self-directed and transformative instructional development. Journal of
Higher Education, 65(6), 726–744.
Dahlin, E. (2021). Email Interviews: A Guide to Research Design and Implementation.
International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 10, 1–10.
https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069211025453
De Klerk, E. D. (2014). Teacher autonomy and professionalism: A policy archaeology perspective.
PhD-dissertation. Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University.
De Klerk, E. D., & Palmer, J. M. (2020). Exploring transformative social justice teaching: A
South African education policy perspective. Issues in Educational Research, 30(3),
828–844.
De Klerk, E. D., & Smith, N. (2021). Transformative Intervention Strategies for Teacher
Leaders During the Pandemic and Beyond. International Journal of Learning,
Teaching and Educational Research, 20(9), 52–67.
Delport, W. K., Van Jaarsveld, L., & Challens, B. (2020). Personality and self-leadership of
school principals as determinants of school performance. Journal of Education,
2021, 202–220.
Dibley, L. (2011). Analyzing Narrative Data using McCormack’s Lenses. Nurse Researcher,
18(3), 13–19.
Di Pietro, G., Biagi, F., Costa, P., Karpiński Z., & Mazza, J. (2020). The likely impact of
COVID-19 on education: Reflections based on the existing literature and international
datasets. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.

19
Dorn, E., Hancock, B., Sarakatsannis, J., & Viruleg, E. (2021). COVID-19 and education: The
lingering effects of unfinished learning.
https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/education/our-insights/covid-19-and-
education-the-lingering-effects-of-unfinished-learning
Du Plessis, M., Jansen van Vuuren, C. D., Simons, A., Frantz, J., Roman, N., & Andipatin,
M. (2022). South African Higher Education Institutions at the Beginning of the
Covid-19 Pandemic: Sense-Making and Lessons Learnt. Frontiers in Education, 6,
Article. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.740016
Dweck, C. S. (2016). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House.
Engzell, P., Frey, A., & Verhagen, M. D. (2021). Learning loss due to school closures during
the COVID-19 pandemic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(17),
e2022376118.
Eseryel, U.Y. (2020). Enabling IT self-leadership in online education. Interdisciplinary
Journal of e-Skills and Lifelong Learning, 16, 123–142.
Finnish National Board of Education (FNBE). (2016). National Core Curriculum for Basic
Education 2014. Helsinki: Finnish National Board of Education.
Fleming, T. (2018). Attachment theory and transformative learning: Rethinking the origins
of meaning making. In M. Welch, V. Marsick, & D. Hope (Eds.). Building
transformative community. Proceedings of the XII Transformative Learning
Conference (pp. 288–294). New York.
Fleming, T. (2022). Mezirow’s theory of transformative learning: In dialogue with
Honneth’s critical theory. In E. Kostara, A. Gavrielatos & D. Loads (Eds.).
Transformative learning theory and praxis (3–14). London & New York: Taylor &
Francis Group.
Fritz, R. L., & Vandermause, R. (2018). Data Collection via In-Depth Email Interviewing:
Lessons From the Field. Qualitative Health Research, 28(10), 1640–1649.
Garcia, E., & Weiss, E. (2020). Lessons from pre-pandemic research to inform relief, recovery, and
rebuilding. https://www.epi.org/publication/the-consequences-of-the-covid-19-
pandemic-for-education-performance-and-equity-in-the-united-states-what-can-
we-learn-from-pre-pandemic-research-to-inform-relief-recovery-and-
rebuilding/
Gharanfoli, S., & Kemal, K. (2021). Self-Leadership, a universal or situational concept?
https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1566891/FULLTEXT02
Goldsby, M. G., Goldsby, E. A., Neck, C. B., Neck, C. P., & Mathews, R. (2021). Self-
Leadership: A Four Decade Review of the Literature and Trainings. Administrative
Sciences, 11, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci11010025
Gresham, J. D. (2019). Self-directed learning: Empowering authentic learner autonomy through
self-agency in the secondary school learning environment [Ph.D dissertation, San
Francisco, CA: California Institute of Integral Studies].
Hennick, M., & Kaiser, B. N. (2021). Sample sizes for saturation in qualitative research: A
systematic review of empirical tests. Social Science & Medicine, 292(2022), 1–10.
Holloway, I., & Galvin, K. (2017). Qualitative research in nursing and healthcare (4th ed.).
Hoboken, N.J: Wiley Blackwell.
Inam, A., Ho, J. A., Sheikh, A. A., Shafqat, M., & Najam, U. (2021). How self-leadership
enhances normative commitment and work performance by engaging people at
work? Current Psychology, 2021, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01697-
5
International Labour Organisation. (2020). COVID-19 disrupts education of more than 70 per
cent of youth. https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-
ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_753060/lang--en/index

20
Jandrić, P., Haye, D., Truelove, I., Levinson, P., Mayo, P., Ryberg… Hayes, S. (2020).
Teaching in the Age of Covid-19. Postdigital Science and Education, 2, 1069–1230.
Jesson, R., Fontich, X., & Myhill, D. (2016). Creating dialogic spaces: talk as a mediational
tool in becoming a writer. International Journal of Educational Research, 80, 155–163.
Jing, W. (2015). Theme and Thematic Progression in English Writing Teaching. Journal of
Education and Practice, 6(21), 178–187.
Kapasia, N., Paul, P., Roy, A., Saha, J., Zaveri, A., Mallick, R., Barman, B., Das, P., &
Chouhan, P. (2021). Impact of lockdown on learning status of undergraduate and
postgraduate students during COVID-19 pandemic in West Bengal, India.
Children and Youth Services Review, 116, 1–5.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105194
Khanna, R., & Kareem, J. (2021). Creating inclusive spaces in virtual classroom sessions
during the COVID pandemic: An exploratory study of primary class teachers in
India. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 2(2), 1–5.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2021.100038
Kim, C.-Y. (2016). Why research “by” children? Rethinking the assumptions underlying
the facilitation of children as researchers. Children & Society, 30, 230–40.
Kuhfeld, M., Soland, J., Tarasawa, B., Johnson, A., Ruzek, E., & Liu, J. (2020). Projecting the
Potential Impacts of Covid-19 School Closures on Academic Achievement.
EdWorkingPapers No. 20-226. Annenberg: Brown University.
Lehdonvirta, V., Oksanen, A., Räsänen, P., & Blank, G. (2020). Social Media, Web, and
Panel Surveys: Using Non-Probability Samples in Social and Policy Research.
Policy & Internet, 2020, 134–155.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/poi3.238
Lonka, K. (Eds). (2018). Phenomenal learning from Finland. Finland: Edita Publishing.
Mahdy, M. A. A. (2020). The Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Academic Performance
of Veterinary Medical Students. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 2020, 1–8.
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2020.594261/full
Mann, S. (2016). The research interview: Reflective practice and reflexivity in research processes.
Palgrave Macmillan.
Martin, M., & Furiv, U. (2020). COVID-19 tests the resilience of higher education.
https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20201211130427131.
Mathewson, T. G. (2019). The teacher’s role in “phenomenon-based learning”.
https://hechingerreport.org/the-teachers-role-in-phenomenon-based-learning/.
McCormack, C. (2000). From Interview Transcript to Interpretive Story: Part 1- Viewing
the Transcript through Multiple Lenses. Field Methods, 12(4), 282–297.
Mengistie, T. A. (2021). Higher Education Students’ Learning in COVID-19 Pandemic
Period: The Ethiopian Context. Research in Globalization, 3, 1–4.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resglo.2021.100059
Mezirow, J. (1981). A critical theory of adult learning and education. Adult Education
Quarterly, 32(3), 3–24.
Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
Bass.
Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning to think like an adult. In J. Mezirow & Associates (Eds.),
Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress (pp. 3–33). San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Moodie, R. (2016). Learning about self: leadership skills for public health. Journal of Public
Health Research, 5(1), 2–6.

21
Murmann, M., & Avraamidou, L. (2014). Animals, emperors, senses: Exploring a story-
based learning design in a museum setting. International Journal of Science
Education, 4, 66–91.
Neuhaus, M. (2021). What is self-leadership? Models, theory, and examples.
https://positivepsychology.com/self-leadership/
Nielsen, V., & Davies, A. (2018). The What, Why, and How of Phenomenon Based Learning.
https://www.onatlas.com/blog/phenomenon-based-learning.
Ntinda, K. (2020). Narrative Research. InP. Liamputtong (Ed.), Handbook of research methods
in health social sciences (pp. 1–12). New York: Springer.
Orlowski, P. (2015). Neoliberalism, its effects on Saskatchewan, and a teacher educator’s
response. Alternate Routes: A Journal of Critical Social Research, 26(1), 223–250.
Orlowski, P. (2019). Freirean conceptions of participatory action research and teaching for
social justice – same struggle, different front. Canadian Journal of Action Research,
20(1), 30–51.
Palmgren-Neuvonen, L., Littleton, K., & Hirvonen, N. (2021). Dialogic spaces in divergent
and convergent collaborative learning tasks. Information and Learning Sciences,
122(5/6), 409–431.
Peterman, A. (2020). How to analyse tone in literature.
https://www.wikihow.com/Analyze-Tone-in-Literature.
Reimers, F., Schleicher, A., Saavedra, J., & Tuominen, S. (2020). Supporting the continuation
of teaching and learning during the COVID-19 Pandemic.
https://www.oecd.org/education/Supporting-the-continuation-of-teaching-
and-learning-during-the-COVID-19-pandemic.pdf
Resta, P., & Laferrière, T. (2015). Digital equity and intercultural education. Education and
Information Technologies, 20(4), 743–756.
Rodriquez, A. J., Ciftci, A., Howell, K., Kokini, K., Wright, B., & Nikalje, A. (2021).
Promoting Equity, Diversity and Social Justice Through Faculty-Led
Transformative Projects.Innovative Higher Education, 2021, 1–22.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-021-09560-y
Schultz, C. M. (2021). The relationship between self-leadership, the future of human
resource management, and work engagement. South African Journal of Human
Resource Management, 19(0), a1701. https://doi.org/10.4102/salhrm.c19i0.1701
Silander, P. (2015a). Rubric for Phenomenon Based Learning.
http://www.phenomenaleducation.info/phenomenon-based-learning.html
Silander, P. (2015b). Digital Pedagogy. In P. Mattila, & P. Silander (Eds.), How to create the
school of the future: Revolutionary thinking and design from Finland (pp. 9-26). Oulu:
University of Oulu, Center for Internet Excellence.
Singaram, V.S., Naidoo, K.L., & Singh, S. (2022). Self-Directed Learning During the COVID-
19 Pandemic: Perspectives of South African Final-Year Health Professions Students.
https://www.dovepress.com/getfile.php?fileID=77378
Spooner, V. S., & John, V. M. (2020). Transformative Learning in a context of deep division:
The importance of learning about self for leadership. South African Journal of
Higher Education, 34(6), 275-293.
Symeonidis, V., & Schwarz, J. F. (2016). Phenomenon-Based Teaching and Learning
through the Pedagogical Lenses of Phenomenology: The Recent Curriculum
Reform in Finland. Forum Oświatowe [Educational Forum], 28(2), 31–47.
Teti, M., Schatz, E., & Liebenberg, L. (2020). Methods in the Time of COVID-19: The Vital
Role of Qualitative Inquiries. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 19, 1–5.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406920920962
Trahar, S. (2013). Contextualising narrative inquiry: developing methodological approaches for
local contexts. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis.

22
Villani, L., Pastorino, R., Molinari, E., Anelli, F., Ricciardi, W., Graffigna, G., & Boccia, S.
(2021). Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on psychological well-being of students
in an Italian university: a web-based crosssectional survey. Globalization and
Health, 17(39), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-021-00680-w
Wang, C. C., & Geale, S.K. (2015). The power of stories: Narrative inquiry as a
methodology in nursing research. International Journal of Nursing Sciences, 2, 195–
198.
Warren, L. L. (2021). Teacher Leadership Begins with Self-Leadership. Teacher Education
and Curriculum Studies, 6(1), 1–4.
Zhao, Y. (2021). Build back better: avoid the learning loss trap. Prospects, 2021, 1–5.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-021-09544-y
Ziyu, L., & Jing, X. (2019). Study on the strategy of improving self-learning ability of
College Students. SHS Web of Conferences 60, 1–4.
https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/20196001005

23
Appendix 1

24
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 24-39, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.2
Received Apr 9, 2022; Revised Jun 20, 2022; Accepted Jul 10, 2022
Defining Formative Electronic Assessment in
Undergraduate Mathematics: A Reflective
Approach
Benjamin Tatira
Walter Sisulu University, Mthatha, South Africa
Israel Kariyana
Walter Sisulu University, Mthatha, South Africa
Abstract. Formative electronic assessment of mathematics on the
Learning Management System is unique. The purpose of this study was
to delineate the process of formative assessment in mathematics through
the students’ experiences during remote online learning. Formative
assessment is part of learning and helps students to monitor their
progress. Data were analysed by identifying themes from the narratives.
It emerged that the e-assessments that are manually written and graded
by the instructor were the best mode of assessment for undergraduate
mathematics. With timely feedback, formative electronic assessment
placed students in a position whereby they took more responsibility for
their learning. As such, students had positive perceptions towards
formative electronic assessment during remote e-learning and were
prepared to proceed with it in future. The study concluded that while
some students proclaimed to have the expertise in the use of e-
assessments, most students did not have the expertise in using e-
assessment tools, as formative e-assessments were not generally offered
in other modules. Participants echoed the sentiments that instructor
expertise in formative electronic assessment design should be
unquestionable to promote enhanced mathematics assessments that
should enable presenting the steps taken to arrive at the answers.
Keywords: formative assessment; electronic assessment; undergraduate
students; e-learning; mathematics
1. Introduction
Teaching and learning in higher education focus on developing an individual
student into an independent learner. To achieve this, teaching and learning are in
constant transformation as new players, pedagogies and paradigms constantly re-
define higher education (Oliver, 2018). This state of affairs has been stimulated by
the exponential growth of digital technologies, increasing globalisation, and calls

25
to bring about social justice in higher education. Humanity is at the threshold of
rapid technological advancements that have the potential to change the way
people work, live and learn. Higher education globally is evolving, witnessing
recent increases in the number of blended courses. and of late, fully online courses
(Xu & Mahenthiran, 2016).
Electronic learning (e-learning) is learning that is facilitated by digital
technologies. It encompasses multiple activities that include the use of the
learning management system (LMS) platform like Moodle or Blackboard
(Buzzetto-More & Alade, 2006). LMSs have been implemented widely in higher
education for a long time (Stone & Zheng, 2014). They are highly interactive
interfaces that are student-centred and accessible to many students with internet
connection anytime, and from anywhere. The downside of LMSs is that they
require familiarisation by both students and instructors (Bradford & Porciello,
2007) and incur huge running costs. LMSs support all kinds of assessment in
higher education (Koneru, 2017), which involves the introduction of test builders
and authorising tools which make it possible for tests, quizzes and assignments
to be created by course instructors (Timmis et al., 2016). However, being web-
based, LMSs are unfavourable to users with limited internet access.
Starting in 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic caused worldwide disruptions to all
levels of education, which necessitated several tertiary education institutions to
migrate entirely to full e-learning (Elzainy et al., 2020; Camilleri, 2021). These e-
learning platforms took the form of (a)synchronous online instruction using
Microsoft Teams, Google Meet, Zoom and others, in efforts to ensure that learning
continued during the times of compulsory school closures (Chen et al., 2021). The
proliferation of full online instruction necessitates new and complementary tools
for assessment (Prieto et al., 2012). The absence of physical contact between
students and instructors necessitated innovative techniques of assessment of
students’ learning (Baleni, 2015). Assessment is one of the factors that promote a
student-centred educational model, thus, it becomes a key factor in promoting
effective learning. According to Timmis et al. (2016), the way institutions create
and use assessment encapsulates their conceptualisation of teaching and learning.
Kundu and Bej (2021) define e-assessment as the use of the computer and/or the
internet to create, deploy, grade and deliver feedback to students on any of the
three forms of assessment, namely prior to learning (diagnostic), of learning
(summative), and for learning (formative). This study was limited to formative
assessment as a driving force for teaching and learning in higher education.
Buzzetto-More and Alade (2005, p. 251) define formative as “an ongoing process
that involves planning, discussion, consensus building, reflection, measuring,
analysing, and improving, based on the data and artefacts gathered about a
learning objective.” Formative assessment is the bedrock for the ongoing process
of learning and teaching (Buzzetto-More & Alade, 2006). This culminates in
formative electronic assessment (FEA), which is the focus of this study.
The Blackboard LMS offers two key types of assessment, which are tests and
assignments. These two constitute e-assessment in this study. Blackboard tests
refer to instructor-created assessment where the deployment and marking are

26
automated (Boitshwarelo et al., 2017). Online tests (OTs) have objective questions
the responses to which are pre-determined, and take the form of multiple-choice,
true or false, matching and fill-in-blank. On the other hand, online assignments
(OAs) accommodate longer subjective questions that are deployed and submitted
electronically, but are manually marked by the instructor. The decision to use OTs
or OAs depends on the learning outcomes and the discipline. In mathematics,
most questions require step-by-step solution processes that make online tests
undesirable, especially from the students’ perspective.
The COVID-19 pandemic compelled higher education institutions to engage in
novel teaching methodologies to continue delivering their curricula (Camilleri,
2021). This necessitated e-assessment in sync with the expanded programmes in
e-learning. FEA plays a crucial intermediate role of reinforcing e-learning and
prepares students for summative e-assessment (Boitshwarelo et al., 2017).
Whereas e-learning has been adopted firmly in the higher education spaces, FEA
still is used sporadically and discretionally by individual instructors. Despite
increasing technologies in people’s daily lives, instructors have been slow to adapt
e-assessment modes and practices (Timmis et al., 2016). These assessments require
time, special skills and technical knowhow, which some instructors lack, to ensure
e-assessment of high quality. Based on the response to mathematics courses that
were assessed online, this study pursued the delineation of the process of
formative assessment through students’ experiences during remote online
learning. The research questions for this study were, (i) “To what extent do
undergraduate mathematics students deal with Blackboard FEA in
mathematics?”; (ii) “How do students perceive formative electronic assessment
practices in undergraduate mathematics during full online learning?” and (iii)
“What are the online assessment modes that are preferable in mathematics?” This
study focused on formative assessment that occurs during learning, in contrast to
summative assessment that comes after learning. A literature search revealed no
studies on formative assessment as a bridge to e-learning and online summative
assessment.
2. Literature review
By its very nature, formative assessment plays a key role in learning. A study by
Sosibo (2019) examined the possibilities of students’ active engagement with
content, using self-assessment to broaden the horizon of autonomous learning.
However, the formative self-assessments were not online, in contrast to this study.
The traditional pen-and-paper self-assessment tasks were administered to a case
of 30 preservice teachers. Interview transcriptions were coded, and emergent
themes were identified in the analysis of data. Data in the form of instructor scores
were analysed statistically. The results highlighted the need to increase self-
assessment opportunities across all courses as a way of promoting student-
centred assessment approaches. The contribution of Sosibo’s (2019) study was to
boost students’ autonomous learning, thereby overcoming feelings of
dissatisfaction and anxiety associated with formal assessment. Furthermore,
Prieto et al. (2012) integrated a locally-made online test as an alternative to self-
assessment in mathematics for computer science students. Both instructors and
students had a positive attitude towards the practical use of the tool. Prieto et al.

27
(2012) introduced complementary testing software for mathematics, composed of
multiple-choice questions (MCQs). The present study harboured the same
sentiments, but shifted the focus to instructor-made FEA to help students interact
with content meaningfully.
Fontanillas et al. (2016) conducted a study to analyse students’ perceptions about
the e-assessment approach to pursue the advantages of students’ active role in e-
assessment. This was done towards the end of a course in an online open
university. An online questionnaire was administered to students to elicit their
perceptions and roles in e-assessment. Fontanillas et al. (2016) revealed that
students were highly satisfied participating in e-assessment activities, which
resulted in some improvements in the learning process. In all, students’ active
involvement in learning is envisaged, which leads to huge student benefits.
Similarly, Chen et al. (2021) took further the idea of students’ active engagement
with content through FEA. Students were subjected to frequent tasks, quizzes and
tests in a fully online English course. Thereafter, they sought students’ perceptions
on the engagements using oral records and a questionnaire. The results indicated
that students had positive perceptions regarding FEA and were actively engaged
in all the online activities, which led to an improvement in the scores gained in
the activities. The significance of this study is the vital link of a-synchronous
instruction to asynchronous assessment, which grants instructors opportunities
to design frequent and progressively challenging formative assessment activities
geared at improving achievement of learning outcomes.
In another study, Baleni (2015) investigated how FEA facilitates teaching,
learning, and the manner wherein both instructors and students benefit
therefrom. An online questionnaire was used to gather students and instructors’
experiences on how FEA operates. The results revealed that FEA could nurture
and enrich students’ commitment through perceived students- and assessment-
centred approaches. Baleni (2015) highlighted the significance of instructor-made
e-assessment activities which are tailored to the needs of the course and the
students. Studies by Boitshwarelo et al. (2017) and Buzzetto-More and Alade
(2006) also illustrated the tremendous capacity of digital technologies to be
catalysts to drive and assess students’ learning to prepare them for twenty-first
century learning. The results revealed that assessment requires planning and
foresight so that FEAs are valuable tools that optimise assessment in the digital
age in which we are living. It can be deduced that online tests are best suited for
formative purposes, thereby making technology play a significant role in
delivering and evaluating learning outcomes.
This study was structured on the e-learning theoretical framework proposed by
Apricio et al. (2016). The goal of the e-learning systems theoretical framework is
to determine the participants, the technology used and the services offered related
to e-learning in a study. These pillars guided this study to identify the stakeholder
groups and their interaction with the e-learning systems. Firstly, the stakeholders
consisted of instructors and students who provided and received the service
rendered. Secondly, the technologies used in e-learning provided support in
integrating content, communicating and collaborating. However, in this study

28
students were individuals interacting with e-assessment tasks that had no
collaboration involved. The LMS was the technology used to deliver service and
focus on students’ interaction with mathematics. The LMS tracked and delivered
content to students, assessed students ’learning and reported student progress.
Finally, e-learning services encourage instructor-made learning activities that
support learning that corresponds with the content and instructional strategies.
Instructional strategies for FEA are facilitation and individualised learning. The
activities entail pre-tests and main tests as part of FEA. Pedagogical models for
FEA are autonomous learning.
3. Methodology
A case of one South African university was considered to give an in-depth
exploration of undergraduate mathematics students’ experiences in FEA.
According to Creswell and Creswell (2018), a case study is a detailed description
of phenomena in natural settings. Two year-long undergraduate mathematics
courses were considered at a time when all instructions and assessments were
fully online and remote. The enrolment for two courses was 37 Level 2 and 180
Level 3 students in 2021, but not all these had sat for e-assessment in a
mathematics content. Mathematics was chosen due to its multi-step
computational nature and the first author was the instructor of the two courses.
For students to learn through assessment, the instructor administered four formal
tests to each group. The researchers devised pre-tests for each of the formal tests
that they sat for prior to the main tests. Pre-tests were meant to familiarise
students with the dynamics of e-assessment as they worked towards formal
formative and summative assessments. Initially, all the assessments were OTs and
later OAs.
Eleven students responded to an online open-ended questionnaire distributed in
Google form. The questionnaire briefly sought participants’ perceptions to online
assessment, for example, “Which topics in mathematics are not suitable for online
assessment?” A preliminary data analysis of the questionnaire responses was done
to identify aspects that needed further inquiry. Thereafter, telephonic semi-
structured interviews were conducted to probe students’ deeper experiences in
FEA. The interview questions were higher-order so that the interviewer could ask
probing questions after initial responses where necessary. One of the questions
was, “How do you see the future of online assessment in mathematics in the post-
pandemic era?” The use of two instruments was part of triangulation of data to
ensure data trustworthiness. The researchers undertook a narrative inquiry into
the experiences of 23 conveniently selected students. The sample, thus, comprised
10 second-year and 13 third-year students. The participants were selected through
convenient sampling. The narrative approach allows for a rich description of these
experiences and an exploration of the meanings that the participants derive from
their experiences. Data were analysed qualitatively by identifying themes
emerging from students’ narrations. The analysis of the data to identify themes
followed on the case study research (Creswell and Creswell, 2018). As the students
told their stories, the researchers were able to construct meaning. Narratives,
seemingly, are the best way for participants to relate their experiences (Merriam,
2009).

29
To execute FEAs in OT mode, diverse items were used as illustrated in Figures 1
to 4. MCQs were the most commonly used (Boitshwarelo et al., 2017) and an
example is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: An MCQ item in the OTs
Fill-in items were popular too in OTs, which can be single or multiple, as shown
in Figures 2 and 3 respectively.
Figure 2: A single fill-in item
Figure 3: A multiple fill-in item

30
Finally, OTs had True/False items (shown in Figure 4).
Figure 4: A true/false item in the OT
A mixture of these items was used in the OTs. The examples were drawn from an
OT on Matrices under Linear Algebra. We did not put the sample items for OAs
since these take ordinary long questions, typical of a mathematics test.
4. Results
The researchers analysed the narratives of the participants in both the
questionnaires and interview transcriptions, and the themes which emerged
ranged from general online digital resource concerns to mathematics specific
deliberations. For purposes of anonymity, the participants were coded ‘T1’, ‘T2’
and so on until ‘T23’, where the ordering did not carry any significance. The
emergent themes are presented in the ensuing section.
4.1. Provision of resources by the institution
The sustainability of the institution (U1) to provide digital resources was key to e-
learning. Respondent T13 indicated in the questionnaire that even though U1’s
provision was rudimentary, it was sufficient, “U1 is one of the underprivileged
institutions but they are trying their level best to meet the standard”. In support of this,
T12 posited that U1 managed to have made available the basic tools for online
learning and assessment, that is, laptops and data for students, “Yes, but we do have
laptops and smart phones”. The LMS and Microsoft Teams’ applications were in
place as an institutional provision. Moreover, all students monthly received data
from the institution and for those who were based on campus; the institutional
Wi-Fi provided a robust network to work on. T12 cited the availability of smart-
phones in e-learning. These were not supplied by U1 but proved to be very
popular with the participants. Acquisition and ownership of smart phones did not
put too much pressure on U1. In fact, the availability of personal smart-phones
broadened the base of accessibility to online resources, despite their small screen
sizes.
Digital resources may not be sufficient owing to the rapid push that drove
institutions into full online education. All students agreed that it was the COVID-
19 pandemic that caused U1 to adopt full e-learning. According to T21 and T16,
e-learning was never implemented during the pre-COVID-19 era, even though the
LMS was there:
T21: Online learning was never used before in our institution.
T16: Though we already had Blackboard, we did not use it for almost all the
assessments, but now we use it even for our final examination.

IJLTER.ORG Vol 21 No 7 July 2022

IJLTER.ORG Vol 21 No 7 July 2022

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to IJLTER.ORG Vol 21 No 7 July 2022

Similar to IJLTER.ORG Vol 21 No 7 July 2022 (20)

More from ijlterorg

More from ijlterorg (9)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

IJLTER.ORG Vol 21 No 7 July 2022