IJLTER.ORG Vol 21 No 11 November 2022

International Journal
of
Learning, Teaching
And
Educational Research
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1694-2493
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IJLTER.ORG
Vol.21 No.11

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
(IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 11 (November 2022)
Print version: 1694-2493
Online version: 1694-2116
IJLTER
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
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VOLUME 21 NUMBER 11 November 2022
Table of Contents
Curriculum Advisors’ and Teachers’ Perceptions of Teaching Reading in Foundation Phase Classrooms...............1
Martha Khosa
A Case Study on the Impact of Digital Relationships on Unaccompanied Minors during the COVID-19 Lockdown
.................................................................................................................................................................................................15
Francesca Coin, Monica Banzato
TikTok Use as Strategy to Improve Knowledge Acquisition and Build Engagement to Learn Literature in ESL
Classrooms............................................................................................................................................................................. 33
Sharmini Thanga Rajan, Hanita Hanim Ismail
Training Teachers Using Action Research for Innovation in Early Childhood Education Literacy .......................... 54
Aysha Saeed AlShamsi, Aysha Khamis AlShamsi, Alia Nhairl AlKetbi
Implementation of Teacher Capacitation Programs to Integrate Climate Change Education: The Case Study of
Geography Teaching in South African Secondary Schools ............................................................................................. 73
Mzuyanda Percival Mavuso, Kayode Babatunde Olawumi, Xolani Khalo, Babalwa Kafu-Quvane, Busiswa Mzilikazi
Integrating a Mobile-Learning Platform for Enhancing Clinical Teaching: The Learners’ Perspective.................... 87
Ma Saung Oo, Susie Schofield, San Thitsa Aung, Mya Mya Thwin, San San Oo, Khin Than Yee, Mar Mar Lwin, Alik
Riasadesa Zakaria
Narrative Perspective of the School Trajectory of At-Risk Students............................................................................ 112
Abraham Bernárdez-Gómez, Eva María González Barea, María Jesús Rodríguez entrena
Mainstreaming Gender Perspectives in Modular Instruction....................................................................................... 129
Jevera C. Domogen, Joyce D. Cuyangoan, Lloyd F. Ilacad
Understanding EFL International Students’ Academic Listening Strategies: A Literature Review ........................ 152
Ahlam Ali Salim Halali, Lilliati Ismail, Arshad Abd Samad, Abu Bakar Razali, Nooreen Noordin
Exploiting Influential Factors in Teaching Oriented Towards the Development of Learners’ Capacity................ 173
Le Khanh Tuan
Alternative Digital Credentials: UAE’s First Adopters’ Assessment and Evaluation Part (2) .................................188
El-Farra Samar
Language Learning through Digital Media: Investigating the Strategies among Selected International Students in
the Philippines..................................................................................................................................................................... 208
Jeffrey Rosario Ancheta
Madrasah Management Strategy as the Education Base for Religious Cadre............................................................ 227
Minnah El Widdah

Evaluating the Accreditation Results of Christian Colleges in Indonesia Using the Context, Input, Process, and
Product (CIPP) Model ........................................................................................................................................................ 243
Jungjungan Simorangkir, Marina Letara Nababan, Winarti Agustina, May Rauli Simamora, Arjun Sinamo, Johanes
Waldes Hasugian
The Role of Metacognition (Metacomprehension) and Inferential Ability on Reading Comprehension Ability ..262
Tanto Aljauharie Tantowie, Dadang Sunendar, Rahman Rahman, Tatat Hartati
Effectiveness of a Training Program in Improving Scientific Writing Skills Based on APA 7 Style among
Postgraduate Students ....................................................................................................................................................... 282
Sherif Adel Gaber, Sayed Ibrahim Ali
Formative Assessment: Component of Teaching-Learning Process in the University Context in Post-COVID-19
............................................................................................................................................................................................... 300
Edgar L. Martínez-Huamán, John Peter Aguirre Landa, Víctor Enrique Lizama Mendoza, Cecilia Edith García Rivas Plata
Learning Challenges in the New Senior High School English Curriculum in the Philippines ................................ 315
Ma. Rita R. Aranda
Levelling System Model: Approach to Physical Literacy.............................................................................................. 334
Cucu Hidayat, Anggi Setia Lengkana, Rizal Ahmad Fauzi, Aang Rohyana, Mia Rosalina, Dadang Budi Hermawan, Didik
Purwanto
Teachers’ Experiences of Teaching Financial Literacy in Economic and Management Sciences (EMS) in Preparing
Learners for FET Phase Accounting .................................................................................................................................357
Siyacela Nzuza, Jabulisile Ngwenya, Sithembele Ndovela
Efficacy of the SMARTV3UMS Learning Management System in Art and Design Courses.................................... 374
Lilian Lee Shiau Gee, Victor Pangayan
The Mediated Role of Satisfaction in Boosting the Perceived Progress via Interaction in Online Learning:
Empirical Evidence from Private Universities in Vietnam............................................................................................ 393
Hung Nguyen Tien, Sang Tang My, Thai Nguyen Duy, Dinh Nguyen Ngoc
Exploring the Facilitation of the Student Learning Process Through Dominant Teaching Techniques ................. 409
Jehona Rrustemi, Vlora Sylaj
Rwandan Senior Secondary Physics Students’ Views on Nature of Science .............................................................. 426
Jean Bosco Bugingo, Lakhan Lal Yadav, K. K. Mashood
Formative Research to Strengthen Enquiry Competence in University Students...................................................... 443
Osmer Campos-Ugaz, Walter Antonio Campos-Ugaz, Ronald M. Hernández, Silvia Georgina Aguinaga Doig, Janeth
Benedicta Falla Ortíz, Miguel A. Saavedra-López, Rafael Garay-Argandoña

1
©Author
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
Vol. 21, No. 11, pp. 1-14, November 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.11.1
Received Jun 30, 2022; Revised Sep 22, 2022; Accepted Nov 18, 2022
Curriculum Advisors’ and Teachers’ Perceptions
of Teaching Reading in Foundation Phase
Classrooms
Martha Khosa
University of KwaZulu-Natal
KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
Abstract. This article aims to examine curriculum advisors’ and teachers’
perceptions of teaching early reading in Foundation Phase classrooms. It
also aims to provide recommendations to alleviate overlaps based on the
findings. A qualitative approach was used to gather data through semi-
structured interviews. Purposeful convenience sampling was used to
study two curriculum advisors and five Grade 1 teachers from five
schools in the Mopani district of Limpopo Province. Data collected were
analysed using thematic analysis. The findings showed that the
curriculum advisors and teachers vary in their perceptions of early
reading. Both curriculum advisors perceived that teachers change slowly,
teach early reading unsystematically, and show superficial compliance,
but do not really abide by guidelines, while teachers say the National
Curriculum does not give them enough time to teach properly or attend
to struggling learners. Teachers also expressed their frustration in
managing large classes. This research article contributes to the body of
knowledge in creating an awareness that new curriculum requirements
are tools used for aligning teachers with change.
Keywords: early reading development; Foundation Phase; home
language; curriculum
1. Introduction
Teaching early reading is a challenge for many Foundation Phase (FP) teachers.
This has a negative impact on learner performance, given the findings that many
learners in South African classrooms fare poorly in reading, despite being tested
in their home language (HL) (Howie et al., 2017; Spaull & Pretorius, 2019).
Research on teachers’ perceptions of early reading has shown that there are many
factors contributing to this crisis. Some of these factors include inadequate early
reading instruction, ineffective teacher training workshops which fail to address
the what and how of changing teacher behaviour in curriculum implementation
(Pretorius & Klapwijk, 2016), and overcrowded classrooms (Spaull, 2016).
Developing early reading skills in the FP classroom requires expert teachers who

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are knowledgeable about reading, know how to remediate reading problems, and
inspire and motivate learners to become skilled readers (Pretorius, Jackson,
McKay, Murray & Spaull, 2016). Despite an explicit curriculum and teachers’
training workshops and interventions, early reading development remains
challenging. Research has shown that many FP (Grades R-3) teachers do not know
how to teach early reading in line with the reading methodologies stipulated in
the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) (Pretorius et al., 2016).
Currently, very little research (if any) has been done regarding CAs’ perspectives
on the challenges of teaching reading in the FP. Studies to date have focused
mostly on teachers’ perceptions of reading instruction in the FP (Cekiso, 2017;
Segooa, 2020). This article aims to learn more about CAs’ and teachers’
perspectives on the challenges of teaching early reading. It offers opportunities
for further observation and analysis of actual CAs’ practices in understanding
their role in curriculum implementation for teaching reading in the FP. The
following are key research questions guiding this paper: “How do CAs view the
challenges of teaching early reading and their support of teachers in the FP
classroom?” and “How do Grade 1 teachers perceive their teaching of early
reading in the FP classrooms?” The article first discusses factors that influence
early reading development. This is followed by describing the research method
used to collect and analyse data. Thereafter, it presents findings, followed by a
discussion and recommendations.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Factors that influence early reading development
Factors such as poor pedagogic content knowledge, weak forms of assessment,
lost learning opportunities, overcrowding and inferior classroom management
have been found to characterise poor classroom practices that create barriers to
quality education. Each of these factors is briefly examined below.
2.1.1. Poor pedagogic content knowledge
Content knowledge entails what teachers need to know about a subject in order
to teach effectively. In contrast, pedagogic content knowledge (PCK) integrates
knowledge of what should be taught with an understanding of how to teach
learners in the classroom. In literacy instruction, PCK involves teachers’
knowledge about the basic elements of reading, how they relate to one another,
how they develop, and what is required to teach them. Poor teaching practice can
arise from poor teacher content knowledge and poor PCK, negatively impacting
learner performance. For example, Pretorius (2014) examined Grade 4 learners’
(n=31) literacy skills in both isiZulu home language and English first additional
language in South Africa and found that teachers in Grade 4 classrooms lacked
knowledge of teaching early reading according to methodologies prescribed in
the CAPS document, e.g. the teaching of syllables in the African languages such
as ba-be-bi-bo-bu- were chanted in chorus from the chalkboard with little
connection between these syllables and their occurrence in words and sentences
of extended texts.
Proponents of educational change agree that changes in schools must first occur
in the classroom (Moyo, 2017). However, change does not come about simply by

3
telling teachers to change their classroom practices. Teachers can impede the
effectiveness of curriculum change and implementation if they lack content
knowledge and pedagogic skills, if they do not know how to teach according to
CAPS recommendations and if their perceptions of reading and how to teach it
are different from those proposed in the curriculum. These factors, in turn, can
delay the effective delivery of CAPS in the classroom.
2.1.2. Weak forms of assessment
Another factor that contributes to poor classroom practices is weak forms of
assessment. Assessment is integral for identifying learning problems, informing
teaching, and addressing specific learning needs. There are different types of
assessments, including baseline, formative and summative assessments, each
administered for its specific purpose. Teachers are guided by what is stipulated
in the CAPS policy documents, which prescribe the requirements for the
assessments that are supposed to be carried out. However, regardless of clear
guidelines in the assessment policy documents, implementing classroom
assessment remains a challenge. In a study on assessment practices in the Maune
circuit of Limpopo Province, from a sample of Grade 9 Natural Science teachers
from high performing schools, Kibirige and Teffo (2014) found that teachers’
understanding of the roles of assessments ranged from 0% to 60%, with many
items scored at 40%. This suggests a huge difference between actual and ideal
assessment practices. Moreover, the findings may also have far-reaching
implications in terms of compliance with stipulations in the curriculum.
2.1.3. Lost learning opportunities
Different perceptions exist in terms of the factors contributing to the loss of
engaged time in the classroom. Some feel that potential engaged time is wasted
on managing learner behaviour, routine paperwork, interruptions, delays, special
events, and other off-task and off-topic activities (Rogers & Mirra, 2014). Others
believe that engaged time is wasted due to informal school closures, teacher
absenteeism, delays, early departures, and poor use of allocated time (Abadzi,
2009). Poor utilisation of engagement time in the classroom emanates from poor
planning or no planning at all, lack of homework, lack of reading and writing
activities, and superficial marking of learners’ exercise books.
The South African CAPS specifies the amount of time allocated per activity in all
phases (Foundation Phase, Intermediate Phase Grades 4-6, Senior Phase Grades
7-9, and Further Education and Training Grades 10-12), so that teachers can plan
their classroom activities according to the time allocated. However, many teachers
do not take learners’ work home to mark, and necessary administration or
planning is often done in class during engagement time. Time wastage in South
African classrooms is evidenced by off-task activities. In a study exploring the
extent to which non-academic incidences impact on instructional time during the
teaching of English First Additional Language (EFAL) in the Western Cape
Province, Tiba (2012) revealed that inappropriate use of pedagogic strategies,
poor use of code-switching, and unsuitable teaching exemplars contributed to the
loss of instructional time in the EFAL classroom.

4
2.1.4. Inferior classroom management
Classroom management refers to the teacher’s efforts to establish and maintain a
classroom environment that is conducive for teaching and learning (Brophy,
1986). Teachers use various strategies (e.g. classroom rules and routines, prior
planning, efficient use of classroom time, self-regulated learning, etc.) to manage
their classrooms. The ability of the teacher to manage students through the
engagement of the abovementioned strategies is important for achieving positive
educational outcomes (Oliver & Reschly, 2007).
In terms of classroom rules and routines, teachers should model, explain, and
practice how learners behave during different reading activities (Funda Wande,
2019). For example, knowing what to do when transitioning from one activity to
another, how they should sit, where they should sit, and what they should do
when they finish their assigned work is important for ensuring that learners
remain calm and focused. This also helps learners develop self-regulation skills
(the ability to work independently with minimal supervision), which are very
useful when the teacher is occupied with other activities such as paired reading
or group guided reading. Research has also shown that classroom rules and
routines are important for maintaining effective classroom management (Alter &
Haydon, 2017).
2.1.5. Overcrowding
An overcrowded classroom has no ‘exact size,’ as it is determined by the number
of learners per teacher (i.e. learner-educator ratio) within a particular context. In
South Africa, the learner-educator ratio (LER) for primary schools, as stipulated
in the DBE policy, is 40: 1 (Motshekga, 2012). However, the actual number of
learners in South African classrooms may reach 50:1 or even higher (West &
Meier, 2020). Teaching reading and writing in overcrowded conditions is unlikely
to be effective, particularly in the lower grades. In a study investigating the impact
of overcrowded classrooms on FP teachers (n=10) in Tshwane West district, West
and Meier (2020) found that overcrowding in the FP classroom is associated with
a lack of discipline, ineffective assessment, and no individual learner support.
Researchers have identified possible strategies that can be used to deal with large
classes. For example, Taylor et al. (2017) believe that good classroom management
practices such as establishing routines, reorganising classrooms, and working in
small groups while other groups are instructed to engage in different literacy
activities enable teachers to provide better instruction in large classes of at least
38 to 45 learners. However, they noted that very large classes of 50 learners or
more hamper effective teaching. This is supported in a study that examined how
teachers in Kano State approach reading instruction in primary grade classes of
approximately 160 learners per class. The findings revealed that overcrowded
classes prevented teachers from understanding their learners’ reading
development (Adamu, Tsiga & Zuilkowski, 2020).
3. Research method
A qualitative design using semi-structured interviews was used to obtain data
regarding CAs’ and teachers’ early reading perspectives in the FP classrooms.

5
3.1. Research instrument
Semi-structured interviews were used to interview the CAs and teachers to gain
their perspectives on teaching reading in the FP. The interview schedule was
divided into two sections: Section A dealt with the biographic data of participants,
as shown in Table 1. Section B covered semi-structured interviews based on the
respondents’ perspectives on the challenges of teaching reading in the FP. The
reliability and validity of the research instrument were ensured by using an audio
recorder to record the interviews, and notes were taken to supplement the data
recorded.
3.2. Participants
The study was conducted in five schools (one Grade 1 teacher per school) which
were sampled conveniently and purposefully. Table 1 shows summary
information about the CAs and the teachers. CA1 and CA2 refer to the two
curriculum advisors, and T1 to T5 refer to the teachers. CA1 (male) was
responsible for Khujwana circuit in Mopani West and CA2 (female) for Man’ombe
circuit in Mopani East in the Limpopo Province. Both CAs had Foundation Phase
experience as teachers. They also had Bachelor in Education (BEd) honours
degrees, and their ages and years of experience showed they had long been
involved in the FP. The five teachers from five schools were all females, and they
all had FP teaching experience. Teachers also had the required qualifications to
teach in South African primary schools. Two had BEd honours degrees, two had
BEd degrees, and one had an education diploma. The youngest teacher was 26
years old, and the oldest was 50.
Table 1. Background of the CAs and Grade 1 teachers
Participant Gender Age Qualifications FP
experience
Years of
experience
as
CA/teacher
CA1 Male 60 BEd Honours Yes 10
CA2 Female 50 BEd Honours Yes 8
T1 Female 50 BEd Honours Yes 25
T2 Female 26 BEd Degree Yes 4
T3 Female 49 BEd Degree Yes 24
T4 Female 48 Primary Teachers
Diploma
Yes 10
T5 Female 50 BEd Honours Yes 23
3.3. Procedures for collecting data
Teachers were interviewed for approximately 30 minutes and two CAs in the
provincial education department (also referred to as subject advisors) were
interviewed for 35 minutes. Teachers were asked approximately 75 questions
related to their perceptions about the development of learners’ reading in the
Grade 1 classroom, while the CAs were asked 21 questions relating to their
outlook on supporting teachers in developing learners’ reading in the FP
classroom. Due to their busy schedules, CA2 was interviewed telephonically after
hours in the evening. Questions were posed to the CAs and teachers regarding
their perceptions of early reading in the FP classrooms. Interviews were audio-
recorded, and notes were taken for supplementary purposes.

6
3.4. Data analysis
The transcript segments from the recorded interviews were analysed using
thematic analysis, following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six stages; namely,
becoming familiar with the data, generating initial codes from the data and
printing out the transcripts, searching for themes, reviewing and reorganisation
of themes, and lastly, naming themes.
3.5. Ethical considerations
Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the University of South Africa
(ethical clearance number AL_MK025-2017) by the Department of Linguistics and
Modern Languages Research Ethics Review Committee members and the
Limpopo provincial education department. Consent was obtained from the
relevant stakeholders (the provincial education department, principals of schools,
teachers, and CAs). All participants had the opportunity to sign consent forms
before participating in the study and pseudonyms were used to protect the
identity of the participants.
3.6. Limitations of the study
This study was not without limitations. The sample was small, being based only
on two CAs and five Grade 1 teachers. A large number of participants can provide
detailed generalizable results. Another limitation is that teachers’ questions were
one-sided - they were not given opportunities to provide their views regarding
the support they received from the CAs in developing the learners’ reading in the
FP classroom. Further studies could explore teachers’ perceptions regarding the
curriculum support from the CAs as departmental officials.
4. Findings
In order to answer the research questions (How do the CAs view challenges of
teaching early reading and their support of teachers in the FP classroom? and
How do Grade 1 teachers perceive their teaching of early reading in the FP
classrooms?), the following three themes derived from the CAs’ and teachers’
perceptions of teaching reading in the FP classroom are presented: pedagogical
issues relating to difficulties in teaching early reading, structural issues relating to
difficulties in teaching early reading, and support from CAs in the form of
mentoring teachers.
4.1. Pedagogical issues relating to difficulties in teaching early reading
Both CAs raised issues they perceived to contribute to the ineffective development
of early reading in the FP. These include challenges regarding the nature of change
and adapting to reading instructional approaches required by CAPS.
Additionally, the CAs and teachers provided differing views regarding the
engaged time for reading instruction.
4.1.1. The nature of change
Since the implementation of CAPS in 2012, provincial education departments
have held workshops and several interventions, in the form of designing
professional development materials, to help teachers adapt their classroom
practices according to CAPS. However, according to CA2, some teachers have not
reached the expected level in teaching according to CAPS. CA1 added that

7
improvement is not that fast. Although teachers are still experiencing challenges
adapting to the new curriculum changes, CAs seem to be trying their best to
support them in various ways using the workshop model. CA1 explained that we
invite teachers in each and every workshop so that they can learn from the workshops that
it is important for them to do the same in their classrooms. If teachers are given
opportunities to attend workshops for their professional development and still
find it difficult to adapt to changes, this could suggest that the workshop training
might not be effective for curriculum implementation. Even though teachers are
expected to align their teaching with what is prescribed by the curriculum, CA1
pointed out that teachers are not forced to follow exactly what the template dictates,
indicating room for flexibility and creativity. The task of adapting curriculum
materials to the learning environment depends on, inter alia, how knowledgeable
teachers are about the curriculum content and its instructional strategies. The CAs
acknowledged that teacher change remains a challenge, despite factors they felt
had been put in place to facilitate change.
4.1.2. Adapting to reading instructional approaches required by CAPS
Despite CAPS explicitly clarifying how things should be done in terms of teaching
reading, the CAs felt that teachers still do not know how to teach reading. For
example, CA1 said, teachers don’t understand how to teach learners – for some, it is still
challenging to break away from the ‘traditional way’ (teacher-centred approach) of doing
things in the classroom. CA1 also confirmed that teachers have difficulty in
adjusting to reading instructional approaches required by CAPS. In particular, he
was concerned about their difficulty in focusing on what was important and
recognising that the approach to teaching reading in African languages differs in
some ways from English, and CA2 added:
When I go to schools, teachers would complain that many learners struggle
to identify and sound letters. But the bottom line of the challenge for
teachers is teaching learners to master the sounds. For example, you will
find that teachers have pasted letter cards on the wall. I usually tell them
that if I could hear children naming letters instead of sounding them, they
will have to explain themselves because those learners need to know sounds
so that even if the learner has to write the letter, he/she must know how to
sound that letter.
CA2 was concerned about teachers teaching letter names (common in English)
instead of focusing on letter sounds in African languages, given that these
languages have larger sets of letter sounds that are transparent and that mastery
of this knowledge base is key to reading. This dilemma causes teachers to stick to
their ‘traditional’ ways of teaching reading, which compromises learner
achievement in the classroom. Local research has also indicated that teachers do
not understand how early reading should be taught in the FP. For example,
Segooa (2020) has shown in her study that teachers’ practice of teaching reading
is not consistent with what is stipulated in the curriculum.
4.1.3. Engaged time
For teachers to effectively use engaged time, CAPS requires them to be well
organised and good at planning. However, both CAs raised concerns about time
management in the FP classroom when they explained:

8
We expect them to divide their learners into different groups so that they
can be able to at least see two groups per day for 15 minutes – but some
will tell you that 15 minutes is not enough (CA1) and there is time
allocated for each component; sometimes, they complain that the time
allocated is too little - so when I demonstrate, I show them that no-no-
no…this time is sufficient (CA2).
CA1 pointed out that teachers spend too much time singing with the learners. Singing
with learners in the classroom during early learning can be considered part of a
hidden curriculum, including assumptions and expectations about learning that
are not officially communicated within the learning environment (Alsubaie, 2015).
It is an undocumented curriculum used to communicate acceptable or
unacceptable behaviours implicitly.
On the other hand, singing is common in early grade classrooms and integral to
African culture. It is also typically used in routines when teachers change from
one activity to another, change the rhythm of teaching, or motivate feelings of
solidarity. It can also fill up the time or create an impression of communal
learning. However, the problem arises when teachers spend a lot of time on such
activities to the point where they overspend the time allocated for the official
curriculum. Spending time singing with learners will not necessarily develop
their ability to decode words, while developing alphabetic knowledge will.
According to both CAs, time seems to be an issue for the teachers. Carnoy et al.
(2012) also found that Grade 6 teachers in the North West Province had only
taught 40% of the scheduled lessons for the year. Most of the engaged time had
been lost on activities not included in the official curriculum. In this respect,
research confirms robust relationships between engagement time and student
achievement (Lei, Cui & Zhou, 2018), suggesting that if the allocated time for
different reading activities is lost, it is likely to compromise learners’ reading
development and academic achievement. Regarding the official time allocated for
teaching reading in the Grade 1 classroom, T1, T2, T4 and T5 expressed
dissatisfaction, explaining:
The department says we should spend 15 minutes, but for me, I think it’s
not enough as children differ, some can quickly catch up, but others take
time to get the message (T1), I am supposed to spend 15 minutes per group,
but because there are learners who take time to learn, I sometimes overlap
with extra minutes (T2). They say we should do shared reading in 15
minutes, but because my class is overcrowded, 15 minutes is not enough –
it takes a lot of time to include the learners (T4), and T5 added I normally
spend 15 minutes, but it is not enough, sometimes as a class manager, I
just decide to add some extra time depending on what I am doing with the
learners.
Although teachers lamented the lack of time needed to cater for the diverse
learning needs in their classrooms during reading lessons, it may sound like a
handy excuse. This also suggests that some of the things teachers do in their
classrooms might contribute to consuming engagement time with learners,
forcing them to teach beyond the stipulated time.

9
CAs and teachers perceive the allocated time for teaching various reading
activities in the FP classroom differently. The CAs believed that sufficient time
was allocated for teaching reading; however, teachers felt it was not enough to do
all they were supposed to do with learners.
4.2. Structural issues relating to difficulties in teaching early reading
4.2.1. Overcrowding
The LER for South African public primary schools is 40:1 (Motshekga, 2012). The
DBE has many sound educational policies, but problems persist because of classes
with more than 50 learners. This also confirms the findings which have shown
that class sizes in many South African public schools reflect unevenness in
implementing policy. The CAs also acknowledged the challenges of
overcrowding when saying, I will say classes may be overcrowded with learners (CA2)
and Ma’am, overcrowding is a problem to teachers because they can’t handle teaching,
“ke ra gore” [I am saying] there is nothing you can do to avoid it – it is beyond your
control (CA1). According to CA1, despite overcrowding, teaching is still expected.
Similarly, CA2 is aware that overcrowding is a problem, especially for teachers
who do not have strategies to deal with large classes. Both CAs felt that teachers
must find ways to deal with overcrowding because it seems to be escalating and
teachers cannot control how many learners are enrolled in their classrooms.
Marais (2016) agrees that overcrowding in South African public schools is an
ongoing problem but also recommends that this can be mitigated to some extent
through training teachers in skills geared to dealing with overcrowded
classrooms. T4 expressed her frustration in managing an overcrowded classroom.
She indicated that the class is crowded. I have to arrange desks the way you see them.
Having 62 learners in one class in Grade 1 is a challenge. An overcrowded class like this
will take you years to conduct each activity in the classroom. T4’s response suggests
that she has not been trained to deal with overcrowded classrooms. She further
said:
I conduct shared reading, learners remain seated on their desks because
there is no space to invite them to sit in front of the class. But I make sure
that I read louder so that even children at the back can hear, but they can’t
see the words – those who can see are those who are sitting on the front
desk.
T4 does not seem to understand the purpose of shared reading, which is meant to
show learners how texts work. It is important for all learners, even those sitting at
the back, to see the text during shared reading. Although teachers and CAs agree
on the fact that overcrowding is a challenge in terms of teaching and learning
effectively, there seem to be overlaps in the sense that the CAs do not seem
convinced that overcrowding can prevent teaching and learning as there are
various strategies that can be used to control learners. However, teachers felt they
couldn’t teach effectively in overcrowded classrooms, possibly because they
lacked strategies for dealing with large classes.

10
4.3. Support for teachers in the implementation of CAPS
4.3.1. Early Grade Reading Assessment
Both CAs indicated the importance of conducting baseline assessment when they
explained:
I actually advise them to record the performance of the learner so that they
can be able to follow up on whether there is progress or not because they
don’t do it once, they can assess first – they can determine the second term
or even third term (CA1) and Teachers should have a checklist where they
record the results of baseline assessment so that when I request it, I can be
able to see that they have tested the learners (CA2).
CAs emphasised record-keeping for baseline assessment outcomes. CA1
commented:
EGRA is the tool that I usually advise teachers to use so that they can be
able to test learners’ oral reading skills and thereafter use the questions of
the text from EGRA to ask learners questions based on the text that they
have read.
The DBE promotes the use of early grade reading assessment (EGRA) because it
helps teachers identify children who are not at grade level in early reading skills
(e.g. children with poor phonological and phonemic awareness in Grades R and
1, poor letter-sounds knowledge in Grade 1, or poor oral reading fluency and oral
reading comprehension in Grades 2 and 3), it helps teachers assign children to
ability groups more accurately, and it provides a base for monitoring progress.
However, as will be noted later, most teachers interviewed did not seem to use
EGRA to test what their children knew and instead seemed to rely on intuitive or
informal assessments. For instance, T2 indicated that she assessed learners
throughout the lesson by observing them, while T4 indicated that she assessed
learners individually when they lined up to submit their handwritten work.
Teachers seemed aware of the need to conduct a baseline assessment in their
Grade 1 classroom. For example, T1 explained that I tested them during the first
weeks of reopening; it was orientation, so I used that opportunity to get to know the
learners. Regarding keeping records of baseline assessment, T1 said: Yes, I recorded
somewhere, but most of my files were damaged because of the rain. Her evasive answer,
in which she claims to have lost the records, suggests that she might not have done
the assessment. T2 said, I only assess learners during lessons by asking them questions
to check how far they know, but I did not conduct the formal baseline assessment. Asking
learners questions can help a teacher gauge their comprehension of text but does
not provide an accurate or systematic assessment of decoding skills. T3 explained
that I don’t usually record because after testing the learner, I have an idea of where the
learner should fit- whether under the group of those that are slow or smart, suggesting
that T3 seemed to have informally assessed her learners’ knowledge at baseline.
After assessing learners, teachers are expected to record the outcomes so that they
can use the results for monitoring purposes, but T3 seemed to have lost the
opportunity to use baseline data to inform her teaching; she seems to have done
this rather superficially, for compliance, without understanding the potential
usefulness of what teachers are expected to do with assessment data.

11
Nevertheless, T3 indicated that she relied on a general impression to know her
children’s reading capabilities. This is a generalised approach that reveals lack of
awareness of the importance of analytic detail in tracking learners’ reading
progress. Furthermore, teachers are unlikely to remember ongoing and changing
details about learners, especially when classes are large. T4 said: I know most of
them by now, that’s why when I give them handwriting activities, they line up one-by-
one, here next to my table, then I check their work and if they did not do it correctly I show
them the right way. It is interesting to note that T4 uses handwriting outcomes to
assess her children’s levels of learning. However, one can’t assess phonics
knowledge or fluency by checking written work. The method of checking work
that T4 describes is also one that wastes valuable learning-teaching time since
learners wait in line for their books to be checked instead of the teacher taking
their books home for marking and using classroom time more productively.
Both CAs and teachers share similar sentiments regarding conducting learners’
baseline assessment; the CAs felt that teachers must record their learners’ baseline
assessment outcomes, but teachers do not seem to value this type of assessment,
since none of the teachers interviewed seemed to have actually conducted their
learners’ baseline assessment.
4.3.2. Classroom management
In respect of advising teachers to encourage learners to work independently while
the teacher is busy with other literacy activities, the CAs said:
We normally encourage teachers to train learners to self-regulate so that it
could be easier for them to focus on certain groups of learners while other
learners know what is expected of them (CA1) and one of the other ways
that I normally advise teachers who have big classes is that I tell them to
teach children in their classes what we call self-regulation skills (CA2).
Given that a large number of learners in one classroom can impede classroom
management and discipline, both CAs indicated that they advised teachers to use
self-regulated learning strategies to minimise disruptions. Research has also
shown that self-regulation is one of the strategies used for maintaining effective
classroom management (Alter & Haydon, 2017). The reasons T4 gave for not
doing group guided reading (GGR) properly suggested poor classroom
management and routines. Regarding managing learners during GGR activities,
T4 said:
Seeing groups several times even if I want is a problem because they are
many – sometimes, I miss helping other learners who really need my
attention because I will be rushing to attend to other groups.
T4 claimed that she found it difficult to work with two groups in one day, as per
CAPS recommendations. Her reason for not giving full attention to her small
group was that other learners are too noisy, but she might be failing to give other
learners appropriate work to do independently during GGR. T5 said:
They make a noise, but I make sure that I concentrate on a group that I am
busy working with. Learners do make noise even if I have given them other
tasks to keep them busy.

12
T5 seemed unable to control her learners during GGR activities, suggesting that
they were not well trained to work independently when the teacher is occupied
with other literacy activities. CAs and teachers are not in agreement regarding
classroom management. According to the CAs, teachers can easily manage their
classes if they have trained their learners to work independently. However,
teachers do not seem to have trained learners to work independently during GGR.
5. Discussion
This article focused on CAs’ and teachers’ perceptions of the challenges of
teaching reading in the FP classroom. Based on the findings drawn from the
qualitative approach, the CAs’ and teachers’ perceptions of early reading were
presented. The concern about the slow pace of change to develop children’s early
reading skills in the FP classroom is valid and requires subsequent interventions.
This article has uncovered differing perceptions on the challenges of teaching
reading in the FP classroom. On one hand, CAs perceived that teachers change
slowly, teach reading unsystematically in the FP classroom, and show superficial
compliance without actually abiding by guidelines; in short, they (teachers) seem
to resist change. These findings corroborate the findings by Segooa (2020), who
established that FP teachers’ practice of teaching reading is inconsistent with the
recommendations in the CAPS curriculum policy.
On the other hand, teachers claim that CAPS does not give them enough time to
teach appropriately or attend to struggling learners. This view is negated by the
CAs, who counter that teachers have the tendency of spending a lot of time on
activities which are not included in the official curriculum. These findings are
similar to those reported by Tiba (2012). According to teachers, the challenges of
teaching reading in the FP classroom are further exacerbated by overcrowding.
West and Meier (2020) also confirmed that teaching reading in overcrowded
conditions poses challenges which, according to Adamu et al. ((2020), may likely
prevent teachers from understanding individual learners’ reading development.
However, the CAs refute the teachers’ claim regarding the impact of
overcrowding because there are different strategies teachers could use to
effectively control and manage learners. Baseline assessment in the FP classroom
is vital in informing classroom instruction. However, findings in this study
revealed that the teachers interviewed do not seem to value the approach of
establishing the learners’ reading levels through conducting baseline assessments.
This corroborates previous findings, which showed a lack of teachers’
understanding of the roles of assessments (Kibirige & Teffo, 2014), suggesting that
assessments in many classrooms are not undertaken as prescribed in the
curriculum.
6. Conclusion
The findings in this study revealed that teachers experience challenges in teaching
reading simply because they are not adequately able to deal with large classes.
Although the CAs challenge the teachers’ views on the basis of engaging with
relevant strategies, it is recommended that teachers should be trained in skills
specifically to deal with overcrowded classrooms. Regardless of managing large
classes, findings also revealed that teachers cannot effectively conduct GGR
activities because they are interrupted by learners who are not in the focus group.

13
According to these findings, it is recommended that teachers should explicitly
train learners at the beginning of the year to work unsupervised during GGR
lessons. The findings also revealed that the CAs and teachers were not in
agreement regarding the engaged time with learners. Teachers seemed
dissatisfied with the time allocated for teaching different reading activities;
however, the CAs felt that the time allocated was sufficient, claiming that teachers
waste it on activities not included in the official curriculum. For this reason, it is
suggested that teachers strictly control their engagement in songs with learners to
save valuable teaching and learning time.
Overall, it is further recommended that in addition to the professional
development of teachers through the usual approach of in-service training,
provincial education departments and CAs should consider adopting the
coaching model. This approach will provide teachers with opportunities to
develop practical strategies to deal successfully with their classroom challenges.
It can also help teachers to fulfil their role as agents of change for effective reading
instruction. Hence, this research article contributes to the body of knowledge in
creating an awareness that new curriculum requirements are tools used for
aligning teachers with change.
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©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
Vol. 21, No. 11, pp. 15-32, November 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.11.2
Received Jun 14, 2022; Revised Sep 26, 2022; Accepted Oct 23, 2022
A Case Study on the Impact of Digital
Relationships on Unaccompanied Minors during
the COVID-19 Lockdown
Francesca Coin
Ca’ Foscari University, Venice, Italy
Monica Banzato*
Ca’ Foscari University, Venice, Italy
Abstract. The exploratory study investigates how unaccompanied minors
(UAMs) in Italy dealt with social isolation at the time of the outbreak of
the COVID-19 pandemic. Have they suffered from the effects of the
lockdown? How did their relationships change? What feelings
characterised their experience? What factors helped them? Did ICT help
them, or did it increase their social and economic marginalisation? Very
little research has investigated the issues of UAMs, socialisation,
technologies, and pandemics together. The data were collected through a
purpose-built questionnaire that obtained an excellent Cronbach Alpha
index (0.91) for internal consistency, which was administered to the
migrant students of a school in North-East Italy. The answers indicated
that they perceived the change in their social relations; but they coped
with it, thanks to their internal resources, such as resilience and self-
efficacy, and external ones, including digital devices and social support
from family and teachers. Their friendship networks are regrettably
fragile, and the youths do not rely much on them. On the other hand, the
results show the crucial role of adults for the UAMs’ well-being:
everyone, from the developers of policies to teachers, should take this
aspect into account. Providing teenagers with appropriate
communication technologies, ensuring the support of caregivers and
teachers, and organising activities that strengthen peer networks are the
actions of paramount importance, to ensure their welfare.
Keywords: Unaccompanied minors (UAMs); COVID-19; Impact ICT;
digital relationship; C.P.I.A.
1. Introduction
The social restrictions and the stress that we all experienced during the COVID-
19 pandemic have put a strain on everyone's well-being (Cianfarani & Pampanini,
*
Corresponding author: Monica Banzato, banzato@unive.it

16
2021). However, as is often the case, the most fragile and defenceless groups of
people suffered the greatest damage. Among them are children, adolescents
(Soest et al., 2020) and foreigners (Pieh et al., 2022). A special case is represented
by unaccompanied minors, who faced the pandemic in a foreign country far from
their families.
The definition by the Italian Council of Ministers in 1999 states that a UAM is a:
"Minor who is not a citizen of Italy or of other States of the European
Union and who, having not applied for asylum, is for any reason in the
territory of the State without assistance and representation by their
parents or other adults that are legally responsible for them under the laws
in force in the Italian legal system."
These are young people, usually between 14 and 17 years old, who leave their
country, their relatives and their friends when attempting to build a better future
for themselves and their families (Giordano & Blanchard, 2009).
Their personal history and condition expose them to the risks of psychological
and social distress; therefore, they need to be adequately supported in the
construction of their life projects.
"At the centre of the self-definition process, in fact, there is the adolescent
who, with the help of the adult, begins to plan a life path, not only aimed
at developing skills and social integration, but also at finding a new
existential dimension of his own" (Mancaniello, 2020, p. 24).
The separation from family, friends and the land of origin all contribute to the
difficulties of integration in a new country: they do not speak the language; and
they know little about the culture. These conditions make unaccompanied minors
an easy prey to closure, introversion, and loneliness. In addition,
"They have no right of choice from the very beginning of their painful
journey; and for a long time, they will continue to have no word, not only
because they do not yet know the language of the country that welcomes
them, but because they are deprived of an educational and care context"
(Castiglioni et al., 2020, p. 2).
Their young age and language difficulties cause a lack of speech and choice that
can undermine their self-efficacy and resilience. Satisfactory social relationships
are, especially in adolescence, at the basis of the construction of their idea of
themselves, of social and cultural identity, and of personal and professional self-
realisation and self-efficacy. The resulting difficulties in establishing meaningful
new relationships could severely weaken their resilience, and consequently the
future, of these young people and their ability to integrate effectively into their
new context. Their isolation, due to the pandemic, has increased these risks
considerably.
2. The literature review
Having ascertained the importance of maintaining active relationships, many
scholars how wondered how the period of social distancing imposed by the
prevention regulations for COVID-19 have affected the well-being of adolescents.
Some authors focused on their physical health (Nogueira-de-Almeida et al., 2020);

17
while others have focused on the psychological aspects (Hussong et al., 2021) and,
specifically, on social issues (Andrews et al., 2020; Bernasco et al., 2021).
A few researchers focused their studies on the immigrant adolescents during the
lockdown (Pieh et al., 2022; Wagaman et al., 2022; You et al., 2020); but very few
have paid attention to UAMs (Corona Maioli et al., 2021; Siegel, 2022). Some of
those studies were conducted in North America (Foppiano Palacios et al., 2022);
and a few were conducted in Europe (Gautier & Quesnel-Vallé, 2020), but only
one was conducted in Italy (Isernia et al., 2021).
Many studies were conducted on the use of digital devices for communication
during the pandemic; while some focused on the adults in the school context
(Karakose et al., 2022; Karakose et al., 2021); and yet others concentrated on
adolescent customs (Kolyvas & Nikiforos, 2021; Montag & Elhai, 2020), especially
in Italy (Limone & Toto, 2021; Salzano et al., 2021); but the numbers drastically
decrease when we search for work on immigrant adolescents (Endale et al., 2020).
Only one outcome concerns UAMs; and it records a study conducted in the USA
(Afzal, 2021).
Regarding psychological constructs, such as self-efficacy and resilience in UAMs,
the research works of Olmedo-Moreno and Exposito Lopez (2021) and Olmedo-
Moreno et al. (2020) are famous for investigating academic self-efficacy, but
almost nothing is found about UAMs’ social self-efficacy.
Much more has been written about the resilience of UAMs (Carlson et al., 2016;
Mitra & Hodes, 2019), but nothing specifically refers to the COVID-19 period.
3. The study
Since there is a gap in the literature investigating how UAMs coped with the
pandemic – with a focus on the use of ICT – we designed a simple exploratory
study, to collect the opinions of some foreign teenagers in Italy. They were
students attending courses in a C.P.I.A. (Centro Professionale di Istruzione per gli
Adulti; the provincial centre for adult education is a public-school providing
courses and activities for adults and young adults aged 16 and over) in north-east
Italy, where we were conducting the third edition of the workshop "Guarda... mi
racconto" (“Look…I tell you about myself”). The project has the aim of supporting
and strengthening the ability to express emotions in UAMs of various
nationalities. It is based on photo-language and photo-voice techniques directed
towards developing students’ communication skills and the sharing of personal
experiences.
The workshop usually ends with a final exhibition of the students’ products, in
which external guests also participate. During the lockdown period, the activities
were carried out from a distance, through online video lectures.
The activities are usually accompanied by a final questionnaire, which helps us to
go into different aspects of their identity: personal, cultural, relational, and
communicative. That year, our research attention focused on how these young
people communicate, to understand how social isolation had affected their
relationships. We were interested in understanding whether technologies

18
represented an opportunity for them to maintain contact with friends, school, and
family; or rather whether it was a source of discomfort due to the possible
inadequacy of their devices and the economic difficulties involved with their
UAM status.
3.1 The research questions
The research questions that guided the work were:
• Have they suffered from the effects of the lockdown?
• How did their relationships change?
• What feelings characterised their experiences?
• What factors helped them?
• Did ICT help them, or did it increase their social and economic
marginalisation?
3.2 The methods
At the end of the digital educational activities, after having reached a fair degree
of confidence with the students and having received their consent from the
teachers and headmaster, we administered the questionnaire.
The decision to use the questionnaire was because not all the participants had a
good level of fluency in Italian. This could have made them uncomfortable during
an interview conducted orally. The written mode, which was administered online,
allowed them more time to answer. If anyone required it, explanations of the
questions could be given. Participation, although encouraged by the
schoolteachers, was entirely optional and at any time they could in cease the need
to comply.
After a careful study of the literature concerning factors influencing pro-sociality
in adolescents (a summary is presented in section 4), it was decided that Caprara's
questionnaire (Caprara et al., 2005a) was the most suitable for the purpose.
However, it was not designed for a context like ours, neither was it calibrated for
foreign adolescents. It was therefore necessary to adapt it (see section 5), selecting
only some of the categories presented, simplifying the form of some questions,
and adding others concerning the pandemic, the use of ICT and relationships with
the reference adults.
4. Relations, resilience, and social self-efficacy in UAMs
Adolescence represents a period of crisis for all youths, as it involves an inevitable
loss of personal equilibrium (from biological, psychological, and social points of
view) that requires young people to start a long, and not at all linear, process of
separation from their parents. This process leads them to make choices that
significantly shape their adult identity and the whole course of their lives
(Caprara et al., 2005b). If this is true for any teenager, it would be more
complicated for UAMs, who find themselves facing much more radical changes
and choices, often in solitude, without the support of friends and family.
Immigration involves not only the loss of all those concrete and daily references,
but also the acquisition of new and different ones, so that young immigrants

19
experience loneliness with different characteristics than do native adolescents
(Madsen et al., 2021).
An extensive psychological literature has dealt with dysphoric forms of loneliness
and shyness, different phenomena, but both marked by feelings of dissatisfaction
with oneself and with others. Symptoms of reluctance and distrust, concern, and
mistrust, are both correlated and accompanied by a sequence of missed
opportunities; and these are fundamental factors for a correct integration in a new
country and the possibility of satisfying one's desire for self-realization.
Loneliness is a subjective experience of discomfort deriving from the perception
of not having social relationships that come up to one's expectations. Among its
consequences are the tendency to attribute failures to oneself and successes to
external causes, a lower tendency to affiliation, sociability, intimacy, and
openness, and to sharing one's feelings and hopes with others, low self-esteem,
and insufficient social skills. Among the antecedents to this condition, family, and
peer experiences, were highlighted, and situations of estrangement and
separation (Madsen et al. 2021).
It has been demonstrated that in adolescence, convictions of effectiveness are
related to the degree to which the individual is considered capable of achieving
good school, or work performance (professional self-efficacy), of establishing and
maintaining satisfactory social relations (social self-efficacy) and handling peer
pressure against transgressive behaviour (regulatory self-efficacy). These are
distinct, but moderately correlated beliefs. All these beliefs, to varying degrees,
determine well-being, good adaptation, and prosocial behaviour.
According to the model of Caprara et al. (2005b), the process begins with a belief
in being able to adequately express one’s emotions, which has positive effects on
one’s perceived ability to establish and maintain gratifying and constructive
interpersonal relationships. This factor is related to the ability to implement
appropriate behaviours, which leads to a greater probability of success and
satisfaction.
Figure 1: Conceptual model of relationships between personal efficacy beliefs and
behaviour (Caprara et al., 2005b)
Many UAMs, although they suffered traumas or micro-traumas due to their
experiences, seem to develop personal characteristics that allow them to improve
their emotional and behavioural skills and abilities that support positive chains of
perceived effectiveness. Tensions leads to resilience: it is as if they can overcome
difficult challenges; and this makes them stronger in the face of new challenges.
The themes of strength (understood as the ability to practise self-determination
and to face adversity) and of responsibility appear as the first elements in the

20
research of the authors; they are acknowledged by a representation of UAMs as
being resilient subjects.
5. The tool: the questionnaire
Based on the information above, we designed a questionnaire that could
investigate, through questions expressed in simple form, the main constructs
indicated in the literature, as being sensitive for these teenagers. The
questionnaire was administered in online format; and it is mainly composed of
closed questions expressed in positive form, to facilitate the compilation of the
data from those who have not yet mastered the Italian language. Some questions
require a short answer, others a multiple choice, and others indicate the degree of
agreement on a 6-point Likert scale.
This consists of 30 questions divided into four parts:
1. Personal details: gender, age, country of origin, mother tongue, date of arrival
in Italy, attendance at a CPIA school, state of residence (family, community, etc.).
2. Technologies: tools used to communicate with friends, partners, family
members, teachers and any related difficulties encountered.
3. Sociability: this section is the heart of the questionnaire; and it contains several
questions related to the questionnaires of Caprara (Caprara, Gerbino et al., 2005;
Caprara et al., 2005). We considered the following categories: prosocial behaviour,
communicative openness, empathy, resilience, self-efficacy (emotional, social,
and communicative), loneliness, as well as perceived support.
4. Changes: the nature of the changes introduced by the lockdown due to COVID-
19 in daily life and the modes of communication with others.
The sociability scale was also tested for internal consistency, resulting in an
excellent Cronbach Alpha index of 0.91.
5.1 The data analysis
The first two categories of questions – Personal details and Technologies – were
examined only by means of descriptive statistics in the form of percentages, as
these indicate only the frequencies of use. For the other two categories – Sociability
and Changes – in addition to the descriptive statistics, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov
test was applied, to verify the normality of small samples. With a positive
outcome (Sig. 0.093), the data of some groups of participants (males and females,
adults and minors, living in families and in communities, residing in Italy for
years or months) were compared by means of t-tests of independent samples.
6. The participants
Twenty-three young people participated in the research project. They attended
the course for the middle-school diploma at the CPIA. Among them, there were
five females and 18 males. 17 were between 15 and 18 years old (six people aged
16 and eight people aged 17), while six were already of adult age, between 19 and
25 years old. The majority came from the Balkan countries: eight from Albania,
and four from Kosovo. Three were from Nigeria, two from Moldova and two from
Pakistan. The other four came from Gambia, Guinea, Macedonia, and the
Philippines. Most of them had already been in Italy for a few months at the time
of compilation for between five and eight months (average 6.2 months). Others

21
had been resident in the country for several years, from one to seven, with an
average of three years. They had all been attending school for about seven months,
although some had arrived when the school year had already started.
Fifteen of them lived in residential communities, one was in temporary foster care
with a local family, six lived with family members; and one had recently formed
a new household with her partner. Twelve of them have Albanian as their mother-
tongue, four speak English and two speak Romanian-Moldovan. The others speak
in dialects typical of their area: Mandinka, Pular, Urdu, Punjabi and Turkish. The
level of skill in Italian is variable: generally, with good comprehension; medium-
good oral pronunciation with sufficient suitable for informal conversations;
written production is mostly possible with the help of dictionaries and translators.
In agreement with their teachers, the questionnaire was offered to the two whole
classes present in the school; participation was on a voluntary basis; therefore, we
can call it a convenient sample. We decided to include in the data analysis also the
six people over the age of 18, to better understand what happens after they have
reached a certain degree of independence at their majority.
7. The results
7.1 The changes
The change caused by the preventive social isolation for COVID-19 was perceived,
albeit with a different impact, by practically all the youths (15 out of 21), with an
average score of 3.85 (the horizontal line in Fig. 2).
Figure 2: The average scores of changes in contact and socialisation
This concerned the decreased frequency in communication with friends (3.52) and
in the willingness to tell them about their experiences (3.43), probably due to the
decrease in novelty during the lockdown. On the other hand, contacts with family
(4.43), partners (4.25) and teachers (4.38) increased. The increased family contacts
were probably related to anxiety over the risks to health, while contacts with
professors increased, thanks to the activation of distance learning and the
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Contacts
with friends
Willingness
to tell them
Contacts
with family
Contacts
with partner
Contacts
with
teachers
Time for
hobbies
Loneliness
Changes in socialization

22
suspension of some work activities. The youths had the opportunity to devote
more time to their hobbies (3.81) and felt only slightly more alone (3.10).
Gender was the only factor reporting significant differences, in fact females felt
the changed circumstances more strongly (4.2 vs 3.7; t-test F=5.92, Sig. p<.05);
there was no relation related to age, living environment or period of residence in
Italy.
The changes regarding face-to-face contact mainly concerned the school (80%),
where distance learning provided by video lessons was the most significant
innovation, acting as a novelty to four students and an irritation to four others,
who felt the lack of face-to-face meetings. Secondly, friendships were deeply
affected (56%) and the greatest suffering came from the impossibility of meeting.
There were no changes in their manner of communicating with their families.
7.2 Socialising
The 15 questions in this category were divided into five scales, and then analysed
individually. The range of scores for the answers varies from one to six points;
and the overall average obtained was 3.45. The questionnaire was created ad hoc
for the exploratory survey; and the answers to these kinds of questions were
found to be strongly influenced by the past experiences and current living
conditions of the students. For these reasons, it is not possible to compare the data
with any control groups (e.g., minors who are not UAMs). The average scores of
the categories are therefore compared with the general average obtained by the
group itself (the horizontal line in Fig 3).
Figure 3: Average scores of the 5 Socialising scales
Regarding self-efficacy, the average score was 3.34, slightly lower than the global
average of 3.45, obtained by the five categories. Emotional self-efficacy 3.43 and
social self-efficacy 3.41 were closer to the average, while communicated self-
efficacy 3.18 was lower.
0.
1.25
2.5
3.75
5.
Social Self-
efficacy
Comunicative
Self-efficacy
Friend's
Support
Educator's
Support
Loneliness Past
Resilience
Future
Resilience
Socializing

23
Communication openness is one of the lowest scores at 2.72. The students
displayed greater closure towards their friends (at 2.62 and slightly less towards
their family members, which obtained a score of 2.82}.
Social support was found to be very present, as it scored above the average of 3.62,
and it came mainly from the educators, who take care of the youths at a score of
3.77, followed by the family at 3.57, and finally by friends at 3.52.
The loneliness index, in fact, obtained one of the highest scores of 4.55 (since it
was a negative question, high scores indicate a low loneliness level); they also
indicate that isolation does not seem to be a problem from which these teenagers
suffer.
Generally, their resilience seemed to be good at 3.30. It seems to come mainly from
the force transmitted by past events 3.72, rather than from confidence in the future
at 3.10 or confidence in the present at 3.09.
Prosocial behaviour has above average scores, 3.65, in detail: the willingness to
help others is high at 3.86, slightly less was the willingness to share personal facts
at 3.73 and a little lower than empathy at 3.36.
Regarding integration in Italy, most of the students said they did not encounter
any problems; since they immediately met people who spoke their own language
(48%). A good percentage (35%) did not have the same luck; and they attributed
the complications faced to language difficulties. Social factors did not seem to be
relevant in the lives of these young people; and they represented sources of
difficulties for only two of them, and an advantage for two others (8.5%).
The difference in scores in these scales is significant for gender (t-test F=5.93,
p>.05) as females seem to function better from a social point of view (average 4.2)
than do the males (3.7). Age did not seem to affect their social well-being, as it
does not present any statistically significant variations (average 3.9 for minors and
3.5 for adults). Living in a family or in a community does not seem to be significant
either (averages 3.8 and 3.9), nor does the time spent in Italy (a few months 4.0, at
least one year 3.6).
The lowest score was given by a 17-year-old Kosovar student who, despite living
in his family, felt that he could not count on his parents (2) and did not want to
confide in them. He has very low levels of resilience (1) and only slightly higher
levels of self-efficacy (2). He relies only on the help and confidence of friends (3),
which helps him not to feel particularly lonely (4).
A 22-year-old student from Guinea, living in the community, achieved the highest
score. He considered himself to be a sociable, empathetic, and open-minded
person, (6) who could rely on his family (5), but also on his friends and educators
(4), as well as on his communication skills (4.5) and resilience (6 for adaptability
and 4 for resilience) despite his past experiences (3).

24
7.3 Technologies
All the participants owned and regularly used a smartphone (100%). Three stated
that they have their own computers: two have lap-tops and one has a desk-top
computer.
Table 1: Digital Ways of Maintaining UAMs' Relationships, in Percentage
To speak
with…/
I use…
My Italian
friends
My
country’s
friends
My
boy/girl
friend
My family My teachers
Speech 47.8 % 4.3% 21.7% 21.7% 26.1%
SMS 34.8% 34.8% 30.4% 34.8% 30.4%
Chat 47.8% 30.4% 34.8% 34.8% 4.3%
Phone 47.8% 46.5% 43.8% 65.2% 34.8%
Voice msg 17.4% 21.7% 21.7% 13% 0%
Video call 8.7% 30.4% 17.4% 30.4% 34.8%
E-mail 8.7% 0% 8.7% 0% 47.8%
The most common ways (reported in Tab. 1) to contact Italian friends are face-to-
face meetings, telephone calls and chat rooms (48%). For friends staying in the
country of origin, the order is phone calls (56%), SMS (35%), then chat (30%) and
video calls (30%); while for partners the order is phone calls (43%), chat (35%) and
SMS (30%), namely the same used to contact family members, except for video
calls, which are more frequent with parents (30%). With teachers, they use more
formal channels, such as email (48%), followed by phone calls (35%), and in the
lately by video calls (30%).
The main difficulties in staying wired were due to insufficient wireless connection
(48%) and insufficient money (26%), followed by the inability to find help in case
of problems (22%) or the inability to use the device (17%), as well as the
inconvenience of using shared devices (17%). Complaints about old or broken
devices were uncommon (13% and 8%).
8. Discussion
The group of UAMs we met corresponds to the profile described in the literature:
most of them were 15 to 18 years old, had arrived in Italy a few months ago,
without family; and therefore, they hosted in residential communities. Many of
them came from Balkan countries with a clear life project, involving family
reunification; while others came from distant countries, such as Africa and
Pakistan, and had experienced traumatic and complex experiences
.
The students' answers permitted us to reply to the research questions: most of the
adolescents had felt the changes that were implemented for the preventive social
isolation for COVID-19 caused in their social habits; and only two of them said
they had not been affected. These changes influenced both the quantitative
sphere, i.e., the frequency of contacts with other people, and the qualitative
sphere, in the manner and satisfaction perceived by these contacts. Contact with
family members had increased, due to concerns about their health and the
increased time available. Contact with teachers had also increased, thanks to
distance learning and the augmented use of digital technologies for school. By

25
contrast, contact with peers seemed to have decreased, a possible sign of fragile
and unreliable relationships.
However, the students stated that they did not feel much loneliness; but rather,
they experienced the support of those close to them and confidence in the future,
despite concerns for the health of distant relatives. Investigating the different
responses, we can recognise several protective factors for their well-being and
pro-sociality.
First, Technologies played a great role in maintaining relations with family and
school, from which they had benefited in terms of frequency and the level of
interest. All the students reported that they had a device, usually a smartphone,
that allowed them to stay in contact with their reference persons and that helped
them to live through the lockdown period with greater peace of mind, although
situations of economic disadvantage such as old or poorly functioning devices,
sharing or inadequate money came to the fore.
The second protective factor was resilience: they were young people, able to
interpret their life experiences by transforming them into resilience resources; and
they did not give up, did not feel alone, and showed high rates of prosocial
behaviour. The positive approach to social life depends exclusively on internal
personal predispositions and gender (the only variable that showed significant
differences).
The third factor was self-efficacy, particularly high in emotional and social
aspects. This factor is closely linked to resilience, and both form the basis for a
positive attitude towards the future and the difficulties to be faced.
However, the students’ strength does not come only from inner factors, such as
perceived self-efficacy. It comes rather from the perception of external support,
especially from the family, which remains even at a distance a nodal point of
contact with their origins, unlike how it is described in the literature. Educators
and teachers met in Italy also, they represent an important point of support and
security, while friendly relationships appear weak, not very reassuring, and
subject to changes from external conditions. These young people declared that
they were part of a vast and satisfying friendly network in their home country,
and that in Italy they found it difficult to count on their friends (Italians or
compatriots) as a solid base of support for their new life.
The difficulties are mainly due to speaking a foreign language and are only
partially overcome if they meet compatriots who were already integrated into the
local community. This fact is also confirmed by the low level of communicative
self-efficacy. The inability to use the new language fluently prevents new
encounters from deepening; and it also weakens previous ones.
The fragility of friendship networks resulted in a drop in the frequency of contacts
and in suffering, due to the lack of personal meetings. Relationships proved to be,
as hypothesised, a decisive aspect in the life of all teenagers and even more for
UAMs. They are fragile adolescents, often with traumatic experiences, who face

26
the challenges of peer inclusion with additional disadvantages: language, limited
local knowledge and an initial emotional/communicative closure.
9. Conclusion
The young people who participated in the research displayed a demographic and
psychological profile very similar to that described in the literature. They have a
strong character, beyond the fragility associated with being UAMs, which protects
them from further hardships during their period of adjustment. Their experiences,
especially those of distance from loved ones, made them more sensitive in
prosocial behaviour; but at the same time, it made them more fragile, subject to
closure, introversion and the risk of social discomfort. Women especially seemed
to be more sensitive to context variations.
In the context of the pandemic, external protective factors tend to take on a new
importance. Technological devices, essential for maintaining contact with others
and the school through distance learning, become a much more relevant point-of-
reference than previously.
Much of the strength of these youths comes from the support they feel from the
families and the caregivers who welcome them. We can understand the
importance of providing them with suitable media devices for maintaining
contact and continuous availability to the adults of reference.
Ours was only a small exploratory study, conducted with just a few youths from
one class. From comparisons with the literature, it seems that their starting
conditions, their strengths, and weaknesses, were like those of many other
teenagers in their situation. We cannot, however, guarantee that the results can be
generalised to a wider population, as context changes.
The level of integration and the helpfulness of the host setting make a big
difference. The students in this school rediscovered in their teachers a new point-
of-reference, but elsewhere it might happen differently. Further studies could
provide more precise indications on this matter. Certainly, the adults in contact
with these youths are crucial for their well-being and this is something everybody
should consider, from policymakers to teachers.
Authors’ Contributions
All the authors contributed to the design, development, analysis and writing of
this research work. For reasons of national evaluation of the Italian university
research, the authors must declare in which each one has written in, although the
work is all the result of a continuous and intense collaboration. Sections 2, 4, 7, 8
and 9 are by Francesca Coin. Sections 1, 3, 5 and 6 are by Monica Banzato.
Acknowledgments
Our deep thanks go to our students and teachers and for the precious work done
together. Thanks to the constant support of the ITALS laboratory, Prof. Graziano
Serragiotto. Our special thanks go to Matthew Hoffman and to the reviewers.

27
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Appendix 1
Questionario: "Guarda... mi racconto"
Gentili studenti,
come accennato durante la scorsa lezione, richiediamo la vostra cortese collaborazione
per la messa a punto del questionario proposto nell'ambito del progetto "Guarda... mi
racconto" realizzato con gli studenti del C.P.I.A. di Venezia.
Dopo una breve parte di informazioni anagrafiche, verranno presentate le domande
del questionario, poste in forma di affermazioni, a cui è richiesto di dichiarare il proprio
grado di accordo su una scala da 1 a 4.
Poiché si tratta di opinioni personali non ci sono risposte corrette o errate.
Vi chiediamo, pertanto, di compilarlo in ogni sua parte con sincerità.
Grazie.
PRIVACY E TRATTAMENTO DEI DATI:
Il questionario è anonimo e i dati verranno trattati esclusivamente per finalità didattiche
e di ricerca, nel pieno rispetto della privacy, come previsto dal D.lgs 163/2017, Ex art. 13
D.L. 196/2003 ed ex art. 13 Regolamento Europeo 2016/679.
Qualche informazione su di te…
• Sei maschio o femmina?
• Quanti anni hai?
• Da dove vieni?
• Da quanto tempo sei in Italia?
• Qual è la tua prima lingua?
• Da quanto tempo frequenti il CPIA?
• Con chi vivi ora?
I tuoi strumenti per comunicare
• Quali dispositivi utilizzi per tenerti in contatto online con famiglia,
amici e scuola?
o Smartphone
o Tablet
o Computer portatile
o Computer fisso
o Altro:
• Per parlare con queste persone di solito cosa usi?
Li
incontro
di
persona
telefonata Messaggi
(SMS,
MMS)
Chat
(WhatsApp)
Messaggi
vocali
Video
chiamate
E-
mail
Gli amici
in Italia □ □ □ □ □ □ □
Gli amici
del mio
Paese
□ □ □ □ □ □ □
Il/la
mio/a
ragazzo/a
□ □ □ □ □ □ □

31
I miei
familiari □ □ □ □ □ □ □
I miei
professori □ □ □ □ □ □ □
• Se hai avuto difficoltà a mantenerti connesso è stato perché...
o Il dispositivo era vecchio
o Il dispositivo era rotto
o Dovevo condividere il dispositivo con qualcuno (ad es., un amico o un
familiare)
o Non ho un dispositivo e dovevo chiederne uno in prestito a qualcuno
o La connessione alla rete non era buona
o Erano finiti i soldi
o Non c'era spazio in casa
o Non ero capace di usare il dispositivo
o Non c'era nessuno a cui chiedere aiuto
o Altro
• La modalità che meglio esprime le tue emozioni è:
o Parlare
o Scrivere
o Disegnare
o Dipingere
o Fotografare
o Cucinare
o Scolpire
o Ballare
o Cantare
o Altro:
Sei una persona socievole?
Indica da 1 a 6 quanto sei d’accordo con le seguenti affermazioni
• Penso di essere una persona socievole
• Quando mi succede qualcosa lo racconto subito a un familiare
• Faccio volentieri compagnia agli amici che si sentono soli
• Mi adatto facilmente ai cambiamenti
• Condivido con gli amici le cose che mi piacciono
• Sono bravo a trovare le parole giuste per raccontare i fatti
• A volte mi sento un po’ solo
• Mi emoziono quando un amico mi racconta qualcosa di personale
• Quando le cose sembrano senza speranza, non mi arrendo
• Quando mi succede qualcosa lo racconto subito ad un amico
• Ho amici pronti ad aiutarmi
• Sono bravo a trovare le parole giuste per raccontare le emozioni
• Ho una famiglia su cui posso contare
• Il passato mi dà fiducia per le nuove sfide
• So a chi chiedere aiuto quando ho bisogno
Quando sei arrivato in Italia è stato facile farti degli amici?
• No, perché non parlavo bene la lingua
• No, perché non conoscevo nessuno

IJLTER.ORG Vol 21 No 11 November 2022

IJLTER.ORG Vol 21 No 11 November 2022

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IJLTER.ORG Vol 21 No 11 November 2022