Glomerular Function

Glomerular Function
The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. It consists of a renal corpuscle where fluid can be
filtered and a renal tubule where the filtered fluid flows through. Nephrons perform three basic
functions, Glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. Glomerular filtration
occurs as pressure (glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure) forces water and dissolved blood
components through the endothelial pores of the capillaries, basement membrane, and on through
the filtration slits of the adjoining visceral wall of the glomerular capsule. The resulting fluid is
called the filtrate. Most substances in blood plasma are filtered by the renal corpuscle. However,
blood cells and most proteins are not filtered. Filtration of blood depends on the force of glomerular
blood hydrostatic pressure. Filtration fraction is the percentage of ... Show more content on
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In a normal adult is about 125 ml/minute. Glomerular blood flow depends on renal auto regulation,
hormonal, and neural regulation. Tubular reabsorption is the movement of certain components of the
filtrate back into the blood. It retains substances needed by the body, including water, glucose,
amino acids, and ions, such as sodium potassium, calcium, chloride, bicarbonate, and phostphate.
Reabsorption of Na+ is especially important because more of them pass the glomerular filter than
any other substance except water. Sodium ions are reabsorbed in each portion of the renal tubule by
several transport systems. Active transport of Na+ promotes reabsorption of water by osmosis. The
loss of water from the filtrate creates a concentration gradient for some substances, such as K+, Cl–,
HC03–, and urea, that promotes their
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Homeostasis Essay
Homeostasis Homeostasis is defined as the maintenance of a constant internal environment. This is
very important for organisms because:
Â· Chemical reactions can take place at predictable rates.
Â· Mechanisms are more efficient as optimum conditions can be maintained for enzymes, etc.
Â· Organisms can acquire a degree of independence from the environment. They need not be
limited to one geological location where the conditions fit their needs, but can spread out. Their
activity is also not restricted to a certain time, season, etc.
Principles of Homeostasis:
All homeostasis mechanisms follow approximately the same steps. ... Show more content on
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Fat Metabolism:
* Lipids entering the liver may either be broken down or modified for transport to storage areas
elsewhere in the body.
* Excess cholesterol in the blood is excreted into the bile by the liver, which conversely can
synthesize cholesterol when that absorbed by the intestines is inadequate for the body's need.
Breakdown of Erythrocytes:
* The liver breaks down red blood cells at the end of their 120–day life span.
* The Kupffer cells lining the sinusoids carry out this breakdown, producing the bile pigment
bilirubin which is excreted in the bile.
* Iron from red blood cells is either stored in the liver or used in the formation of new blood cells by
the bone marrow.
Detoxification:

* The liver renders harmless or removes toxic materials absorbed by the intestines.
* Kupffer cells ingest foreign organisms or material, while toxic chemicals (e.g. alcohol, nicotine)
are made safe by chemical conversions within hepatocytes.
Deamination of Amino Acids:
Â· The liver breaks down any surplus amino acids because the body is unable to store them as such.
Â· The amino group (–NH2) is removed from the amino acid and converted to ammonia (NH3).
Â· The organic residue enters the Krebs cycle and

Explain The Main Organs In The Urinary System
The main organs in the urinary system for mammals are the kidneys, which filter blood and produce
urine. The other organs such as the ureters, urinary bladder and the urethra are simply accessory
structures that help in the transport and storage of urine.
The kidneys of mammals are round, bean–shaped organs. These kidneys are located at the posterior
end of the abdomen and outside of the peritoneum, which is the membrane that encloses the organs
of the abdominal cavity. The indentation found on the bean–shaped part of the kidney is called the
hilum, this is where the renal artery enters the kidney and where both the renal vein and ureter exit.
The kidney is also divided into 2 regions, which is the outer cortex and the inner medulla. In the
cortex, this is where blood is filtered ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is also where more water and electrolytes are absorbed. From here, the filtrate is passed through
the distal convoluted tubule, where excess potassium ions, hydrogen ions and toxins are passed from
the blood into the filtrate. The end product is dumped into a large collecting duct, which then leads
to the papillae of pyramids, through the calyxes, and into the renal pelvis to be excreted through the
ureters. From the ureters, urine is passed down to the urinary bladder. The outer surface of the
urinary bladder is covered with fibrous connective tissue. Inside the connective tissue is a muscular
layer called the detrusor muscle. This smooth muscle contracts to expel urine from the bladder. The
next tissue layer, the submucosa, is an elastic fibrous membrane that supports the mucosa, which
lines the inside of the bladder. The opening of the urethra is surrounded by a band of detrusor
muscle, forming an internal urethral sphincter. This sphincter is relaxed by involuntary muscle
control, and is innervated in a way that when the bladder is approximately half full, the animal will
recognize the urge to urinate. The last passageway for urine is through the

The Kidneys: Regulating The Body
The Kidneys are in charge of regulating the body's blood flow and keeping homeostasis maintaining
in the body. The kidneys are able to do this by circulation of blood and by the filtration of nephrons.
Nephrons actually produce urine as well as removing waste and excess substances that are not need
in the system. The Kidneys have millions of nephrons that all act as a filtration system for the blood.
The body has roughly 8 liters circulating the body however only 20% finds it ways to the kidneys.
Each of the nephrons contains both the renal corpuscles and Bowman's capsule. Inside the renal
tubules is proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted, and connect tubule to collecting duct.
The Proximal convoluted tubule walls are cuboidal ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This function allows the body to try to rid itself of any undesirable substances or end products that
have already been reabsorbed. The Tubular secretion process also controls the blood pH. Sodium
moves diffuse into the renal tubule, which will exchange for hydrogen ions. The hydrogen will
attach with bicarbonents because bicarbionents cannot be reabsorbed. This will transition into water
and carbon dioxide that can be reabsorbed back into the cell and create carbonic anhydrase. The
Carbonic anhydrase will then dissociate into bicarbionets hydrogen ions from the renal tubule. This
process affects the hydrogen ions will affect then affect the blood's

Land Eva Unit 4 Assignment Essay
The Complexity of the Kidney
Land, E.
Kaplan University
SC235: General Biology 1: Human Perspectives
Prof Lisa Nelson
The Complexity of the Kidney
Kidneys are complex organs that are very important when it comes to the many functions to help
maintain the health of the body. This includes the maturation of the red blood cells, regulation of
blood pressure as well as secretion of hormones. The Secondary functions of the filtration effect the
controlling of the acid base balance in the body, and maintaining bone health (livingstrong.com).
Kidney structure include the renal corpuscle that filters the blood, passing of urine, and different
tubules (comprised of a dowman's capsule and glomerulus). The renal corpuscle are made of ...
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In addition the nephron is divided into several segments. The Henie cell includes a special
transporter called sodium–potassium–2, chloride contransporter (nkcc) that allows the kidney to
produce urine (biology.com). The distal tubule cell help contain thiazide–sensitive sodium filtered
by the kidney on a daily basis, and the collecting duct that have two cells responsible for acid base
hemostasis. The alpha intercalated cell controls the excess of secretion and reabsorbing base (form
of bicarbonates) and the beta intercalated cell which includes the same function (biology.com).
Every day the kidney's filter on an average of about 120 to 150 quarts of blood that produces 1 to 2
quarts of urine that has extra fluid and waste. The importance of the kidney is to keep the blood
stable so the body can function properly. The fluids that are removed from the body help prevent
blood cells and large molecules (proteins) from passing. Once filtered it can pass through the tubule
that sends minerals back into the blood stream to remove waste (niddk.nih.gov). If the kidney
functions properly it regulates the retention of fluids in the body. It balances the chemicals like
potassium for the heart and muscle function. It can also maintain acid balance and proteins.
Hormones in the kidney stimulate activity in the body, renin erythropoietin, and a form of vitamin
D. Renin helps to control blood pressure. The kidney also releases the erythropoietin to help

Physioex Renal Essay
EXERCISE 9: RENAL SYSTEM PHYSIOLOGYHere is 9 got 95% Still need help on final 132 |
ACTIVITY 1: The Effect of Arteriole Radius on Glomerular Filtration Answers
1. According to your lab manual, in humans the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) ranges from _____
to _____ ml/minute. 80
140
2. When the radii of both the afferent arteriole and efferent arteriole were set at 0.45mm, the GFR
was approximately ______ ml/minute.
a. 40
b. 60
c. 80
d. 120 C.
3. True or False: Drinking a lot of caffeine (coffee or cola) leads to an increased urine volume. This
might result from a decrease in the radius of the efferent arteriole. True
4. What are two primary functions of the kidney? Excretion–filters ... Show more content on
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The increase of blood pressure can increase blood volume and the increase of urine volume will help
to stabilize blood volume.
17. When the one–way valve between the collecting duct and the urinary bladder was closed, what
happened to the filtrate pressure in Bowman's capsule (was not directly measured) and the GFR?
The filtrate pressure and GFR increased.
18. How did increasing the systemic blood pressure alter the results when the valve was closed?
Increase in blood pressure can be increase in blood volume. An increase in urine volume can
stabilize blood volume. Increase of pressure caused GFR to increase.
ACTIVITY 3: Renal Response to Altered Blood Pressure
19. True or False: The renal system (the kidneys) is very important in regulating plasma osmolarity,
plasma volume, and the body's electrolyte balance. True
20. In this simulation, when the radius of the afferent arteriole was 0.60mm, the radius of the
efferent arteriole was 0.45mm, and the beaker pressure was 70mmHg, the GFR was approximately
_______ mm/min. 114.72
21. When the radius of the afferent arteriole was 0.60mm, the radius of the efferent arteriole was
0.35mm, and the beaker pressure was 70mmHg, the urine volume changed to approximately ______
ml.
a. 50
b. 80

c. 200
d. 240 D
22. List the several "mechanisms" you have explored that change the GFR. How does each of them
specifically

The Complex And Major Organ Of Our Body Perform Essay
Kidney
It is a complex and major organ of our body perform several important functions like formation of
urine, water and salt metabolism, acid–base balance, regulation of blood calcium level and secretion
of hormones (Padmalochana et al.2015). The kidney is composed of many tortuous, closely packed
uriniferous tubules, bounded by a delicate connective tissue in which run blood vessels, lymphatics
and nerves. Each tubule consists of two embryologically distinct parts, the nephron, which produces
urine, and the collecting duct, which completes the concentration of urine and through which urine
passes out into the calyces of the kidney, the renal pelvis, the ureter and urinary bladder. A renal, or
uriniferous, tubule consists of a glomerular capsule that leads into a proximal convoluted tubule,
connected to the capsule by a short neck and continuing into a sinuous or coiled convoluted part .
This straightens as it approaches the medulla, and becomes the descending thick limb of the loop of
Henle, and then the ascending limb by an abrupt U–turn. The limbs of the loop of Henle are
narrower and thin–walled within the deeper medullary tissue, where they become the descending
and ascending thin segments. The ascending thick limb continues into the distal tubule. The tubule
wall shows a focal thickening, the macula densa, where it comes close to the vascular pole of its
parent glomerulus at the start of the convoluted part of the distal tubule. The nephron finally
straightens once

Essay on Mammalian Kidney Investigation
Mammalian Kidney Investigation
Background Information:
The kidneys are dark red bean –shaped organs that are a very important pair of organs that perform
many functions. The kidneys have a convex side and a concave side. They are each about the size of
a fist. The kidneys are located near the middle back of a human, just below the rib cage, one on each
side of the spine. One kidney is located below the spleen on the left side of the body, whereas the
other kidney is located just below the liver. The kidneys receive blood from the paired renal arteries
and the blood is drained into the paired renal veins. In a human body, the kidneys process about 200
quarts of blood to sift out about 2 quarts of waste products and extra water everyday. ... Show more
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Variables:
Part A
Independent Variable The position in which the kidney is longitudinally cut with the scapel.
Dependent Variable The structure of the sheep's kidney observed.
Part B
Independent Variable The prepared slide and the region of that slide of the kidney used.
Dependent Variable The structure that can be observed from the microscope.
Part A
Controlled Variable Method to control the variable
The type of kidney used in this experiment. The kidney examine in this experiment is a kidney of a
sheep. Part B
Controlled Variable Method to control the variable
The type of microscope used in this experiment. Only one binocular microscope will be used in this
part of the experiment.
Part A Part B
Uncontrolled Variable Uncontrolled Variable
The health condition of the kidney The condition of the prepared kidney slides.
Results:
Qualitative data– Analysis of the kidney
The size of the sheep's kidney was around the size of a fist and the ureter was still attached to the
concave side of the kidney. Diagram 1 is the exterior of the kidney. The outside of the kidney was
dark red in colour. The renal artery carries the blood into the kidney and the renal vein carries the

blood away from the kidney.
It was evident that at all layers of the kidney, the colours are different. The renal cortex of the
kidney, which is labeled in diagram 2(the interior of the kidney), was almost a brownish shade of
red whereas the next

How The Kidneys Serve The Primary Functions Of Plasma Volume
The kidneys serve the primary functions of regulating plasma volume, electrolyte balance,
producing hormones, acid and base balance, removing waste, and retaining water to produce urine.
These wastes come from the breakdown products of metabolically active muscle, and from food
consumed. Your body utilizes what it needs, and the waste is sent into the urine. The body will
regulate water volume within the body by helping the body retain water when plasma osmolarity
decreases, as well as excrete water when plasma osmolarity is high. Water and other materials are
reabsorbed or excreted as it passes through the tubules of the nephron in the kidney to help maintain
the composition of the blood. The Kidney consists of two layers, the outer ... Show more content on
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The Loop of Henle is the area of greater ion concentration due to higher amounts of ion absorption
(primarily on the ascending limb). Because the ascending limp of the loop of Henle is in the renal
medulla, it makes the renal medulla much more concentrated than the renal cortex. This then moves
into the distal convoluted tubule, which is responsible for more absorption, just not as extensive as
the proximal tubule. Following the distal tubule are the collecting ducts, which gives the kidney its
striped appearance. We also reabsorb urea and water in the collecting ducts. Urea is usually what is
mainly excreted in urine. The peritubular capillaries and vasa recta that branch across the nephron
itself will filter materials back into the efferent arterioles to be reabsorbed back into the blood
stream.
The three main responsibilities of the kidney include, filtration (movement of ¬¬¬¬¬–things out of
glomerulus to Bowman's space), absorption (movement of things from tubular lumen into the blood
via the peritubular capillaries), and secretion (movement of things into the tubular lumen from areas
other than the glomerulus).
The nephron, the functional unit of the kidney, is the site where filtering, absorption, and secretion
actually occur. There are around 1 million nephrons in each kidney. This filtration is carried out in
what is called the renal corpuscle (the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule). The filtration of fluid is
ideal at the

Glomerular Filtration : The Major Function Of The Glomerulus
Glomerular filtration
The major function of the glomerulus is to produce an ultrafiltrate from the blood using the
glomerular capillary wall(GCW) as a filter by a process differs from the transcapillary exchange
process as in other organs in two ways. First, the GCW almost completely excludes plasma proteins
of the size of albumin (radius 36Å) or larger from the filtrate. Second, the glomeruli exhibit an
extraordinary high permeability–surface area productto water and small solutes and also a very high
capillary filtration capacity (Anderson et al. 2000)⁠
.
Fluid movement across the glomerulus is, similar to the conditions in other capillaries, governed by
the Starling forces, i.e. the effective hydrostatic pressure gradient minus the effective oncotic
pressure gradient. The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) can thus be described by:
GFR = LpS × ( ∆ P − ∆Π )
Where, Lp represent the hydraulic conductivity of the GCW, and S is the surface area available for
filtration. ∆ P denotes the hydrostatic pressure in the glomerular capillaries minus the hydrostatic
pressure in the Bowman's space, and ∆Π the effective oncotic pressure in the glomerular capillaries
minus that in the Bowman's space. If LpS is 4 ml/min/mmHg/100g of kidney weight in humans, and
∆ P ≈ (52–15) mmHg, while ∆Π ≈ (28–0) mmHg, then, the GFR in man equals 4 x 3 x [(52–15) –
(28–0)] ≈ 120 ml/min. GFR can be measured clinically using molecules that are freely filtered
across the glomerulus and that are not bound to

Two Kidneys And How They Work
Most people have two kidneys, both of which are located on the right and left sides in the upper
abdominal, near the back (National Kidney Disease Education Program (NKDEP), 2012). The
kidneys play a major role of homeostasis within the body. A brief overview of the kidney include:
the cortex which is the outer most layer and the medulla which is the inner most layer of the kidney.
Inside of the medulla are renal pyramids, which consist of a network of millions of nephrons, sub–
units that filter blood and form urine (Stanfield, 2013, p.506–507). The nephrons consist of two
parts: the glomerulus, which is a cluster of blood vessels that help to filter waste products and fluid
from the blood; once the blood is filtered through the glomerulus it then travels to the renal tubules
where the filtered material is filtered even more and then turned into urine (Canadian Cancer
Society, 2015). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
sodium, phosphate, potassium, calcium, etc.. More specifically the hormones made in the kidneys
help to control the production of red blood cells, regulate blood pressure, and keep bones strong and
healthy (The Kidneys and How They Work, 2014). Every day, the kidneys filter through about 120–
150quarts of blood each day in order to produce 1–2quarts of urine (National Institute of Health,

Human Cells And The Human Body
Kidneys are one of the most essential organs in a human body which are crucial for blood filtration,
toxins, and waste removal and maintaining and regulating the body's pH. The researchers created
kidney structures from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS) called organoids which have the function
and structural organization of a human fetal kidney in the first trimester. This study used the results
of a previous study where human embryonic stem cells were differentiated towards a renal lineage.
As a result, the progenitors for both collecting ducts and nephrons were generated from iPS. In that
study, the researchers found out that although both nephrons and collecting ducts originate from the
intermediate mesoderm layer, they develop at a different specific time and area from the mesoderm
layer. The intermediate mesoderm layer is a germ layer arising from the mesoderm, and it is
important in the development of kidneys, reproductive system, and lower urinary tract of the
embryo. Thus, the scientists exploited this temporospatial origin difference, and they identified the
regulating mechanism behind what caused the induction of collecting duct versus other kidney
progenitors like the nephrons for instance. As a result of this finding, kidney organoids were formed
which were segmented into distal and proximal tubules, loops of Henle, glomeruli, and podocytes
which establish a vascularization network. This study is important in near future because it can be
used as a model for

Environmental Pollutants, Drug And Ionizing Radiation...
Exposure to environmental pollutants, drug and ionizing radiation causes inflammation and
oxidative stress. Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) is one of the chlorinated hydrocarbons with wide
spread use in various industries so it is considered as an environmental toxin because of its leakage
into air, water and soil. Hepatic and renal tubular necrosis is the typical manifestation of CCl4–
intoxication however; the pathogenesis of CCl4–induced renal damage remains largely elusive [1].
CCl4 acts through activation of phase I cytochrome P450 system especially cytochrome P450 2E1
(CYP2E1) with formation of reactive metabolites as trichloromethyl radicals (CCl3) and peroxy
trichloromethyl radicals (OOCCl3). Free radicals cause oxidative damage of membrane lipids and
proteins with subsequent impairment of kidney function [2].
Renal diseases occur as result of exposure to broad range of diverse injurious agents. Transforming
growth factor–beta (TGF–β) is a cytokine controls the key cellular response to injurious agents and
is the key mediator of tissue repair, inflammation, immune response and fibrosis [3].TGF–β1 acts
through different signaling pathways, among them Smad pathway is the most important one. Smad
proteins act as primary mediators of inflammatory and fibrotic response [4].Carnosine (β–alanyl–L–
histidine) is a dipeptide with anti–ischemic, anti–oxidant, membrane stabilizing, heavy metal
chelating activities, and reduces matrix proteins synthesis such as fibronectin,

Lupus Nephritis Research Paper
Lupus Nephritis
Lupus nephritis causes inflammation of the nephrons, which is caused by systemic lupus
erythematosus (SLE or lupus). The kidney's main function is to remove waste from blood and to
balance the amount of fluids in your body. When inflammation of nephrons occur it makes it harder
to filter the blood and can cause significant swelling. It is an autoimmune disease that causes the
immune system to mistake harmful substances from healthy ones which results in the immune
system attacking the healthy tissues and cells. It is still unknown on how the disease comes about
except for these two assumptions; genetic predisposition and research found on Renal DNase1
enzyme activity. Genetic predisposition refers to environmental factors ... Show more content on
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There is hyaline thrombus formation in capillaries causing restriction of blood flow making it
difficult to filter blood to urine. The creatinine levels are commonly normal or elevated at this class.
This is the most advanced class of lupus nephritis that results in tremendous protein loss and
swelling (Johnson, 2012). There is not cure for lupus nephritis, but can be suppressed with proper
dosage of medication. These kinds of treatments are usually meant to keep the situation from
worsening and lessen the severity. Common treatments involve anti–inflammation drugs such as
corticosteroids to suppress the inflammation and immunosuppressive medication like prednisone or
cyclophosphamide that can reduce damage to kidneys (Johnson, 2012). Some patients may require a
dialysis to control kidney failure and to manage certain symptoms from worsening. A kidney
transplant may be required depending on how severe the disease may be. The pro of having a kidney
transplant is that the patient will have full restoration of kidney function, but the con is that patients
with active lupus nephritis may be able to transfer it to the new kidney. Even if it does get
transferred to the new kidney it is rarely to see signs of end–classes of the disease. From time to
time there may be flare–ups that occur that results in certain symptoms to show. Today, there is still
no way to prevent

Glomerulonephritis Research Paper
Glomerulonephritis is a glomerular kidney disease in which the kidneys' filters become inflamed
and scarred. There are different types of glomerulonephritis which include kidney disease of
diabetes, IgA nephropathy, and lupus nephritis.Membranous nephropathy. GN is an
immunologically mediated disease in which deposits of IgG and complement complexes collect in
the basement membrane. The glomerular basement membrane becomes thickened and does not
function normally, allowing large amounts of protein to be lost in the urine. In time, the kidneys
slowly lose their ability to remove wastes and excess fluid from the blood to make urine.
The disease is characterized by inflammation of the structures inside the kidney which help filter
wastes and fluids out of the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Diagnostic imaging techniques can be used to create images of blood vessels, tissues, and organs, to
determine whether the shape or size of the kidney is abnormal. Ultrasounds can be used to view
internal organs as they function, and to assess blood flow through various vessels. Biopsies can also
be performed for examination under a microscope to determine if cancer or other abnormal cells are
present or suspected all as part of the diagnosis process. Membranous glomerulonephritis is a kidney
disease that cannot be cured but can be managed. The goal of treatment is to reduce symptoms and
slow the progression of the disease. Treatment for glomerulonephritis is determined by your doctor
based on age, overall health, and medical history, extent of disease, and prognosis. Treatment
options may include ACE (Angiotensin–converting enzymes) inhibitors and diet changes with
limited protein intake. Dialysis can be used to remove waste from kidneys when function as
diminished. Kidney transplants can be an option in severe

Wachowiak Observation Report
On Tuesday, January 30th, Matt Wachowiak from Yale University gave a seminar on functional
imaging of the olfactory bulb in mice. He uses a fluorescent calcium–sensitive dye to label the
receptor neurons in the nose; the dye is then transported to the terminals of those neurons in the
olfactory bulb. All of the receptor neurons that express receptors for a certain type of odor molecule
send their axons to the same localized structure within the olfactory bulb, called a glomerulus. By
removing the skin and bone above the olfactory bulb, he can use a sensitive camera to record real–
time changes in fluorescence in particular glomeruli that correspond to activation of different
receptor neuron types in response to different odors. Dr. Wachowiak began these studies in turtles, ...
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Although an individual glomerulus may be activated by several odors, the relative levels of
activation of several glomeruli differ between odorants. As the concentration of the odorant
increases, more glomeruli are recruited to respond; however, the relative pattern of activation is
usually maintained for each odorant. Dr. Wachowiak also showed that there is a topographical map
in the olfactory bulb such that odorants belonging to a certain class of molecules tend to activate
glomeruli in the same area of the bulb, and this map is consistent across animals. Thus, it is possible
to study the response to many odor molecules in a large number of animals and collapse the data
across subjects to obtain more statistical power. In conclusion, this is an interesting technique that
can be used to understand the detailed mechanisms of first–order olfactory perception in live
animals. Dr. Wachowiak hopes to continue this research by conducting psychophysical experiments
to determine how well the mice discriminate between odors, using genetically encoded probes of
neural activity to selectively image certain populations of glomeruli, and studying further steps of
processing within the

How Do You Explain The Steps Involved In The Urinary System
To explain how diabetes affects the different systems, we need to know how the act normally. The
urinary system normal function is to maintain the acid–base balance, conserve fluids, regulate the
amount of salts and water in the blood and eliminate liquid waste, known as urea. The urinary
system works together with the lungs, skin and intestines to maintain the balance of chemicals and
water in the body. The typical adult urinates approximately twenty–seven to sixty–eight fluid once a
day of urine. The urinary system includes 2 kidneys (the primary organs in the urinary system),
ureters, a bladder and urethra. The kidney is where the filtration occurs, it balances salts and waters.
The kidney's is where nephrons also known as filtering units. ... Show more content on
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Secretion is when ions pass from the capillaries into the renal tubule, this becomes urine. The urine
passes through the ureters, and drain into the bladder. The bladder is where urine is collected and
stored until an urge to release it. When emptying the bladder sphincter open and urine flows, which
travels down the urethra that passes outside the body. Glucose should not be filtered out of the body
by the kidneys; therefore, if glucose is found in the urine it is a symptom that the cells aren't
utilizing the glucose affectively. The high amount of glucose in the urine provide an increase
production of bacterial and fungal growth. Urinary tract infections and yeast infections are two of
the most common bacterial and fungal infections that can be cause by type II diabetes. The increase
urinary tract infections can also be due to having a dysfunctional bladder that contract poorly. The
poor contraction allows for urine to remain in static pools for long periods of time. This provides
luxurious ponds for bacteria to grow in. Bladder problems are another problem for diabetic. An
overactive bladder is common this is caused by damaged nerves that send signals to the bladder at
the wrong time, this causes the muscles to contract without

Mr. P, A 27 Year Old African American Man
Case Study
Mr. P, a 27–year–old African American man, was brought to the emergency department (ED) by his
wife. The patient reported polyuria for the past three days, few episodes of vomiting prior to arrival
and polydipsia. On assessment, the patient appears flushed, and his lips and mucous membranes are
dry and cracked. His skin turgor is very poor. He has deep, rapid respirations and there is an acetone
smell to his breath. He is alert and oriented X 2 and is having trouble focusing on the questions.
The wife reported Mr. P was diagnosed with type 1 diabetes mellitus 6 months ago. Additionally, he
had the flu for one week with increased vomiting and anorexia and stopped taking insulin three days
ago because he was unable to eat.
Mr. P's vital signs and diagnostic studies are as follows: Blood glucose level 700mg/dL, Blood
Pressure 90/60mm Hg, Heart Rate 128 beats/min, Respiratory Rate 34 breaths/min, Temperature
100.8 F, Serum pH 7.26, Serum HCO3 10 mEq/L, BUN 40 and Creatinine 3.5.
Pathophysiology
DKA is presented with three major physiological disturbances which are hyperosmolality due to
hyperglycemia, metabolic acidosis because of the buildup of ketoacids, and hypovalemia from
osmotic diuresis. Diabetic ketoacidosis is caused by a profound deficiency of insulin, its most likely
occur in people with type 1 diabetes, inadequate insulin dosage, poor self management, undiagnosed
type 1 diabetes, illnesses and infections. In type 1

Exploring The Kangaroo Excretory System
The excretory system is the system of an organism that made up of several organs to discharge
wastes from body (New Health Advisor, n.d.) and regulate the composition and concentration of
internal body fluids (Shmoop University, n.d.). Kangaroo has a similar excretory system with most
of the mammals and adapt to minimize water loss as they remove waste products especially their
habitat is dry environment. Skin, lungs and kidney are the primary excretory system organs while
liver, gallbladder, urinary bladder, ureter and urethra are accessary excretory system organs (New
Health Advisor, n.d.).
The skin keeps the water in and prevents evaporation (Muller, n.d.). The sweat glands carry out the
excretory function by producing sweat that comprises of salt, oils, water, and other unnecessary
substances to remove from body (New Health Advisor, n.d.). ... Show more content on
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The liver is the main metabolic site that is crucial for detoxification. Biochemical processes can
produce toxic byproducts as metabolic wastes and these wastes must be removed (Farabee, 2001).
For example, byproduct of protein metabolism is ammonia that has to be converted into a less toxic
compound which is urea for excretion (Muller, n.d.). Then, urea is filtered and excreted by the
kidneys as urine. Gallbladder is the storage of bile produced by liver to breakdown fats, ethanol and
other acidic wastes (New Health Advisor,

Living with Kidney Disease
Living With Kidney Dialysis
There are two kidneys, each about the size of a fist, located on either side of the spine at the lowest
level of the rib cage in the human body. Each kidney contains up to a million functioning units
called nephrons (CJASN). A nephron consists of a filtering unit of tiny blood vessels called a
glomerulus attached to a tubule, is a general anatomical term referring to any portion of the tubule of
the nephron or of the collection duct system of the kidney (American Society of Nephrology). More
specifically referring to that part of the nephron distal to the renal corpuscle and glomerulus and
consisting of the proximal convoluted tubule. The loop of the nephron and the distal convoluted
tubule; these tubules are lined with a simple, usually cuboidal, epithelium and they use a variety of
passive and active transport mechanisms to modify the composition of the plasma filtrate derived
from the renal corpuscle and glomerulus converting it into urine. When blood enters the glomerulus,
it is filtered and the remaining fluid then passes along the tubule. In the tubule, chemicals and water
are either added to or removed from this filtered fluid according to the body's needs, the final
product being the urine we excrete (American Society of Nephrology). Kidney disease can be
triggered by many factors: diabetes, high blood pressure, congenital abnormalities as well as
genetics (National Kidney Foundation). Different ethnicities also have a higher rate of

The Temperature Monitoring On The Thermostat Temperature
Key questions– unit 4 #42 a) Home: the temperature monitor in the thermostat registers the
temperature in the room. If the temperature id too the low the monitor sends a signal to the furnace
to be turned on. Once the furnace has heated the house to the desired temperature the thermostat
sends a signal to the furnace to turn off. Body: the regulation tof blood pressure. When your blood
pressure increases, it is detected by the recepters in your blood vessels that sence the resistance of
blood flow against the walls if the vessel. The receptors send a message to your brain, which sends a
message to your heart and blood vessels. Your heart rate decreases and your blood vessels expand in
diameter, which together decreases your blood ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
#44 Decrease in progesterone stimulates the uterus to contract. Contractions release oxytocin,
causing even stronger contractions. More oxytocin is released until baby is born. Once baby is born
the brain sends signals for contractions to stop. The positive feedback system serves to increase
contractions to ensure that baby is delivered as quickly as possible. #45 1) Filtration: blood enters
the afferent arteriole and flows into the glomerulus where filterable blood components such as water
and nitrogenous waste will move toward the inside of the glomerulus, and nonfilterable components
such as cells will exit through the efferent arteriole. The filterable components accumulate in the
glomerulus to form the glomerular filtrate. 2) Reabsorption: Molecules and ions will be absorbed
back in the circulatory system. What remains in the glomerulus after this process is known as the
tubular fluid and this is what will pass through to the collecting duct to form urine. 3) Secretion:
Substances such as hydrogen ions, creatinine, and drugs will be removed from the blood through the
peritubular capillary network into the distal convoluted tubule, or collecting duct. The end product
of all these processes is urine; a collection of substances that has not yet

Nacle Physiology
In the human body, there are two kidneys located behind the peritoneum, on either side of the spine
at the lowest level of the ribcage [1]. Each kidney is made up of millions of nephrons, which drain
into a series of collecting ducts in the ureter and bladder. Each nephron consists of a glomerulus,
which is made up of a system of tiny blood vessels used to filter blood plasma. Each glomerulus is
attached to an unbranched tubule [1]. In the tubule, chemicals and water are either added or removed
according to the body's needs. The products that are not needed are removed via urine. This urine
production is regulated in a variety of ways including the use of hormones and sympathetic nerve
stimulation. These hormones, such as arginine vasopressin ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Known as desmopressin, the drug can be taken regularly to treat pituitary and gestational DI [8]. As
in nephrogenic and dipsogenic DI, the patient's still produce vasopressin however has become
resistant to it, so desmopressin cannot be used for treatment. In conclusion, urine production is
controlled and regulated by two hormones; arginine vasopressin and aldosterone. Both of these act
to keep the level of urine production balanced with fluid intake, however, problems can arise with
these hormones which disrupt the balance leading to dehydration, polydipsia and nocturia. There are
however, options in order to treat the sufferers of all types of diabetes

Arteriole Vs Glomerula
The glomerulus is a network of capillaries. It is formed by the afferent arteriole. The glomerular
capsule in the enclosed sac that holds the glomerulus and filters the blood of this. The difference
between the efferent arteriole and the afferent arteriole is that the efferent arteriole carries blood
away from the glomerulus, while the afferent arteriole has a backup of blood flow in the glomerulus.
This is due to the afferent arteriole being smaller in diameter, which creates a resistance to blood
flow. The backup of blood then causes an increased pressure level in the glomerular cavity. There
are quite a few differences with proximal and distal tubules, such as: diameter, microvilli, shape,
connection areas, and jobs. The proximal has

Essay about The Urinary System
The Urinary System is a group of organs in the body concerned with filtering out excess fluid and
other substances from the bloodstream. The substances are filtered out from the body in the form of
urine. Urine is a liquid produced by the kidneys, collected in the bladder and excreted through the
urethra. Urine is used to extract excess minerals or vitamins as well as blood corpuscles from the
body. The Urinary organs include the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The Urinary system
works with the other systems of the body to help maintain homeostasis. The kidneys are the main
organs of homeostasis because they maintain the acid base balance and the water salt balance of the
blood.
One of the major functions of the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Internal urethral sphincter is involuntary. The ureters enter the bladder diagonally from its
dorsolateral floor in an area called the trigone. The trigone is a triangular shaped area on the
postero–inferior wall of the bladder. The urethra exits at the lowest point of the triangle of the
trigone. The urine in the bladder also helps regulate body temperature. If the bladder becomes
completely void of fluid, it causes the patient to chill.
The urethra is a muscular tube that connects the bladder with the outside of the body. The function
of the urethra is to remove urine from the body. It measures about 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) in a woman
but up to 8 inches (20 cm) in a man. In the human female, the urethra is about 1–2 inches long and
opens in the vulva between the clitoris and the vaginal opening. In the human male, the urethra is
about 8 inches long and opens at the end of the head of the penis. Men have a longer urethra than
women. This means that women tend to be more susceptible to infections of the bladder (cystitis)
and the urinary tract.
The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. It contains a glomerular (Bowman's) capsule, a
cup–shaped structure that surrounds a glomerulus (group of capillaries). Together, the glomerular
capsule and glomerulus form a unit called the renal corpuscle. Attached to the Bowman's capsule is
a long, twisting renal tubule that has four parts: the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle,
the

Neuron Synthesis
The papers Integrating the molecular and cellular basis of odor coding in the Drosophila antenna
and The receptors and coding logic for bitter taste try to understand how sensory neurons interacting
with chemicals produce the sensation of smell or taste in the brain. With chemosensation, a chemical
molecule binds to a receptor neuron, where transduction occurs. An action potential can be
generated which can travel along interneurons until it reaches the brain, which can process the
information and perceive a specific smell or taste. While all the steps from reception to perception
are important, both papers focus on receptor neurons and their role in chemosensation. Integrating
the molecular and cellular basis of odor coding in the Drosophila antenna looks at mapping the
olfactory system using Drosophila as a model organism. Or genes encode olfactory receptor neurons
(ORNs) which map to a neuron class. The neuron projects to a specific glomerulus, and the signal
eventually gets to the brain. This paper demonstrates three methods of mapping a receptor to a
neuron and odor and uses them to show that Or22a receptor maps to the ab3A neuron and that Or47a
receptor maps to the ab5B neuron. Dobritsa et al. also found ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Beyond that, however, these papers are not explicit in describing the importance and application of
chemosensation research, especially the paper using Drosophila. In most cases, animal models are
used to understand processes within humans, but
Dobritsa et al. acknowledge two important differences between human and Drosophila olfactory
systems – that axonal pathfinding of ORNs to glomeruli occur at different life cycle stages and that
the number of ORNs in glomeruli differ by more than an order of magnitude. Question arise about
how much of the insight gained from these papers can be extended to humans as well as other
sensory

Osmolar Contrast Media
In order to boost image resolution and enhance pathology perception, imaging proficiency
customarily enrol contrast media. Usually contrast agents recently in use contain iodine, and are
further specified as high osmolar contrast media (HOCM), low osmolar contrast media (LOCM),
and isotonic contrast media (IOCM), cling to their osmolality relative to plasma. LOCM or IOCM
commonly used in majority study. All HOCM agents are ionic, with an osmolality predominantly
five to eight times that of plasma. The glomerulus with no tubular reabsorption or excretion instantly
sieve the injected contrast media. For patient with normal renal consequence, contrast material
within the plasma has a half–life of 1 to 2 hours and almost all will be evacuate within 24 hours. All
iodinated contrast agents are dialyzable. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The glomerulus filtered these agents but they servile water reabsorption thus have elevated
concentration within the tubular system. The glomerulus with no tubular reabsorption or excretion
does not filtered IOCM agent. These agents are predominantly not used for renal imaging, being
practically entirely used for cardiac catheterization. Besides, organic radiographic iodinated contrast
media (ICM) have been amid the most repeatedly authorize drugs in the history of modern remedy
since their establishment in the 1950s. Without these agents, the phenomenon of adjacent–day
radiologic imaging would be impaired. ICM predominantly have a proficient safety evidence.
Unpropitious consequence from the intravascular regulation of ICM are predominantly mild and
self–limited and reactions that transpire from the extravascular use of ICM are sparse. Nonetheless,
severe or life–threatening responses can transpire with either course of

Acute Syndrome : Acute Nephritic Syndrome
Acute Nephritic Syndrome
Introduction
Acute nephritic syndrome is a group of symptoms that occurs with a few disorders that cause
glomerulonephritis or swelling and inflammation of the glomeruli in the kidney as shown in Figure
1. Inflammation of the kidneys and glomerulus affects the function of the glomerulus – part of the
kidney that filters blood, resulting in blood and protein to appear in urine – excess fluid also builds
up in the body. Swelling of the body occurs when blood loses albumin, which is a vital component
to the blood as it keeps fluid in blood vessels. Blood loss from damaged kidney structures
progresses to allow blood in the urine. Acute nephritis is potentially life threatening as it could lead
to acute kidney failure. (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000495.htm)
It is distinguished from nephrotic syndrome, and some conditions can cause either syndrome and
both have similar appearances upon biopsy, but neither term represents a definitive diagnosis.
(http://www.fastbleep.com/medical–notes/gi–and–renal/12/20/135) Figure 1. Glomerular
inflammation (http://www.fastbleep.com/medical–notes/gi–and–renal/12/20/135)
Pathology
Nephritic syndrome usually damages the glomerulus by immune–mediated injury. The causes for
inflammation is either from an antibody targeting components of the glomerulus, or from immune
complexes generated in the body are trapped by glomerular filtration. These immune complexes
eventually lead to the activation of the

Mitostop Body
Mitostop is said to be effective in slowing the growth of malignant brain tumours. Although this
experimental drug is effective in slowing down the growth process of the tumour, Mitostop causes
Arteriovenous Anastomoses (AVA's) that over time can affect the normal functioning of the body
and its organs. The drug Mitostop increases the occurrence of AVA's within the body by 1000 times.
Blood moves throughout the body within a closed system, any interruption to the normal blood flow
within the body will cause an effect to the liver and kidney organs. This essay discusses the likely
effects of Mitostop on the specific functioning of the Kidneys and Liver. KIDNEY'S The kidneys
are essential organs in the body that are involved in the regulation ... Show more content on
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The liver is important in maintaining normal glucose levels. When glucose levels are low the liver
breaks down glycogen to glucose and releases it into the bloodstream (Jenkins & Tortora, 2013).
The liver also acts as a storage component for glycogen and triglycerides. If this function were
impaired due to a lack of blood flow through the liver cells due to the formation of AVA's
homeostasis would not be maintained within our bodies creating an imbalance. The delivery of
glucose to the blood steam would not be successful creating many problems within our bodies. I
believe cells will die as glucose is an energy source for a lot of cells within our body and organs will
be damaged (Marieb & Hoehn,

Title: Diuretics, Adverse Effects, Contraindications And
Title: Diuretics, adverse effects, contraindications and precautions.
Jose R Tapanes
International Institute for Health Care Professionals
ABSTRACT
Diuretics act primarily by blocking reabsorption of sodium at four major sites in the nephron. The
diuretic known as water pills have specific indications to maintain and control the blood pressure
combined with beta–blocker, anti arrhythmic helping the cardiac and renal function in patient with
chronic hypertension, heart disease and kidney disease. Also there serious complication associated
with overdose and interaction of diuretic with others drugs in–patient with impaired kidney function
also increase the risk of side effect and nephron damage. In this study we talk about the ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(picture 1).
The diuretics have specific function depending where they act in the glomerular apparatus.
Depending of their mechanism of action and pharmacokinetics the diuretics can cause side effects
directly in the kidney, vascular system or systemic complications
Diuretic drugs increase urine output by the kidney ( diuresis). This is accomplished by altering how
the kidney handles sodium. If the kidney excretes more sodium, then water excretion will also
increase. Most diuretics produce diuresis by inhibiting or blocking the reabsorption of sodium at
different segments of the renal tubular system. Sometimes a combination of two diuretics is given
because this can be significantly more effective than either compound alone. There are different
types of diuretics
Loop diuretics: Polythiazide, Bumetanide,furosemide, Torsemide. The main side effects of loop
diuretic include hypokalemia, metabolic alkalosis, hypomagnesmia, hyperuricemia, dehydratacion,
and hypovolemia, tinnitus, vertigo, ototoxicity, deafness and shock.
Contraindication. Allergy to Sulfurs medication, hypotension, renal insuficiency
Thiazide diuretics: Chlorothiazide, chlortalidone, hydrochlorothiazide, hydroflurmethazyne,
indamapide, methylchlotiazyde, metolazone, polythiazide. The most important side effect of
thiazide is hypokalemia, also include metabolic alkalosis,hyponatremia, hypovolemia,
hyperglicemia in diabetics, increasing of LDL, azotemia and

Physioex 8.0 Exercise 9 Completed Essay examples
Glomerular Filtration
Activity 1: Effect of Arteriole Diameter on Glomerular Filtration
1. Compare this data with your baseline data. How did increasing the afferent arteriole radius affect
glomerular filtration rate?
>>Increasing the afferent arteriole radius pushed the glomerular pressure, the glomerular
filtration rate, and the volume of urine to be higher than the baseline data. Increasing the afferent
arteriole radius increased the glomerular filtration rate. 2. Under these conditions, does the fluid
flow through the nephron?
>>No! No urine was collected which indicates no fluid flows through the nephron.
3. What is the glomerular filtration rate?
>>The glomerular filtration rate is 0 which ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
>>Both decreased.
2. How could you adjust the afferent or efferent radius to compensate for the effect of the reduced
pressure on glomerular filtration rate and urine volume? Use the simulation to determine your
answer.
>>Increase the afferent radius or decrease the efferent radius.
3. What changes are seen in nephron function when the valve is closed?
>> There was no glomerular filtration rate and no urine production.
4. Why were these changes seen?>> When the valves are closed simulating blocked collecting
ducts, the built up pressure caused by the increased solute volume opposes the forces driving up the
filtration tasks of the kidney. The nephrons could burst if the filtering task is continued so the kidney
is just trying to save 'itself.
5. Is the kidney functional when the glomerular filtration rate is zero? Explain your answer.
>>No. When glomerular filtration rate is zero, it means nothing is filtered. The kidney is
dormant and not carrying out any upfront task to stay functional.
6. What is the major "ingredient" that needs to be removed from the blood?
>>Urea along with different metabolic salts.

7. Studies on aging have demonstrated that some nephrons may fail as we get older. Will this be a
problem regarding urine formation?
>>Aging causes inevitable physical and physiological degenerations and the

How Does Chronic Kidney Disease Affect the Level of...
HOW DOES DISEASE AFFECT THE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION? * THE KIDNEY
There are two kidneys, each about the size of a fist, located on either side of the spine at the lowest
level of the rib cage. Each kidney contains up to a million functioning units called nephrons. A
nephron consists of a filtering unit of tiny blood vessels called a glomerulus attached to a tubule.
When blood enters the glomerulus, it is filtered and the remaining fluid then passes along the tubule.
In the tubule, chemicals and water are either added to or removed from this filtered fluid according
to the body's needs, the final product being the urine we excrete. The kidneys perform their life–
sustaining job of filtering and returning to the bloodstream about 200 ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Heart and blood vessel disease (cardiovascular disease) 4. Weak bones and an increased risk of bone
fractures 5. Anemia 6. Decreased sex drive or impotence 7. Damage to your central nervous system,
which can cause difficulty concentrating, personality changes or seizures 8. Decreased immune
response, which makes you more vulnerable to infection 9. Pericarditis, an inflammation of the sac–
like membrane that envelops your heart (pericardium) 10. Pregnancy complications that carry risks
for the mother and the developing fetus 11. Irreversible damage to your kidneys (end–stage kidney
disease), eventually requiring either dialysis or a kidney transplant for survival
* How does CKD affects the Organ (specifically the Kidney/Urinary System as general)? Kidney
Failure patients always experience a series of urine changes like frequent urination at night,
decreased urine output, bubbly urine, blood urine and urgent urine and so on. All these symptoms
are related with urinary system. Well, how does kidney failure affect the urinary system on earth?
Actually, urinary system is not an isolated organ and is composed of kidney, ureter, bladder and
urethra. Kidney plays the role of filtering blood, during which blood and wastes are separated.
Filtered blood flow out of kidney through renal vein and wastes flow

Endocrine Extraordinary Sample
Sample A0
The urine sample provided was clear and yellow with no frothing indicating that there was little or
no protein in the urine. The sample contained no cells or crystals but did contain a small number of
hyaline casts. The lack of cells indicates the filtration membrane is at least partially intact, the casts
are not necessarily associated with pathology and are more likely due to exercise or dehydration
although can be due to renal failure (Serafini–Cessi, Malagolini and Cavallone 2003). Dehydration
and exercise decrease the urine output due to vasoconstriction of the renal arteries, stimulating the
release of Tamm–Horsfall protein to help protect against calcium crystallisation and UTIs (Serafini–
Cessi, Malagolini and Cavallone 2003). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
We were told the patient had oliguria which is low urine output, the patient passed 100ml in 24
hours which is well below the normal 750ml. This indicates some serious damage somewhere in the
genitourinary system but this does necessarily indicate a kidney prognosis and could be due to other
organ pathologies which cause low urine output such as prostatitis or a UTI (Klahr and Miller 1998).
Microscopic analysis of the urine revealed high numbers of red blood cells both burst and intact and
red blood cell casts but no crystals. This is evidence for damage to the kidneys as bleeding further
down the urinary tract e.g. the bladder would be less likely to result in burst cells in the urine plus
the formation of red blood cell casts is an indicator of glomerular damage such as inflammation
(Sigala, Biava and Hulter 1978). The dipstick confirmed the presence of protein at 30mg/dL and
also showed there were 250 ERY/uL with normal glucose levels. While the protein level is not that
high, the number of red blood cells is huge, this is a clear indicator of glomerular damage as the
filtration membrane is clearly not functional, as there are blood cells in the urine, the fenestrated
endothelium is likely damaged. The GFR of 20 ml/min/1.73m2 is extremely low, indicating severely
decreased function (Medsci 301 Course Guide 2015), providing further evidence for damage to the
glomerulus as this is where filtration occurs. When observing the photomicrographs, the glomeruli
are hard to see amongst large amounts of hyaline material, there is clearly an exudate in capsular
space and there are large numbers of inflammatory cells. All these factors point to inflammation as
the cause of the damage as this would cause the deposition of the hyaline material, lead to the
exudate as vascular permeability is increased and also lead to the infiltration of immune cells into
the reactive tissue.

The Vertebrate Kidney
1.1 Introduction
The vertebrate kidney is an important organ that serves vital roles in waste excretion,
osmoregulation, metabolites reabsorption, maintenance of acid–base balance and even hormone
secretion. Nephron is the basic functional unit of a kidney which consists of a blood filter (the
glomerulus) and renal tubules that joins to a collecting duct. Nephron filters blood plasma and the
filtrate is further modified and refined in the tubules via selective solute reabsorption and secretion.
The consequential "unwanted" waste is drained into collecting ducts and excreted (Reilly 2000;
Jacobsen, 1981).
Through the course of mammalian development, a series of three kidney structures arises
sequentially from the intermediate mesoderm (IM). These include the pronephros, the mesonephros
and the metanephros. The pronephros is the first embryonic kidney. Degeneration of the pronephros
is accompanied by the formation of a second kidney, the mesonephros. The mesonephros functions
transiently until the development of the metanephros, after which it will rapidly degenerate leaving
the metanephros to serve as the adult kidney in higher vertebrates including birds, reptiles, and
mammals. Lower vertebrates like fish never form a metanephros and instead utilize the
mesonephros during adult life. Despite this difference, each kidney form is comprised of nephrons
that exhibit a similar composition (Wingert & Davidson, 2008; Dressler, 2006).
Extensive study in mammalian model has

Answers Lab13 UrinarySystem Essay
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NAME ____________________________________
EXERCISE
LAB TIME/DATE _______________________
Anatomy of the
Urinary System
Gross Anatomy of the Human Urinary System
1. Complete the following statements.
The kidney is referred to as an excretory organ because it excretes 1 wastes. It is also a major
homeostatic organ because it maintains the electrolyte, 2 , and 3 balance of the blood.
Urine is continuously formed by the 4 and is routed down the 5 by the mechanism of 6 to a storage
organ called the 7 . Eventually, the urine is conducted to the body 8 by the urethra. In the male, the
urethra is 9 centimeters long and transports both urine and 10 . The
female ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
blood supply that directly receives substances from the tubular cells
glomerular capsule (o)
6.

its inner (visceral) membrane forms part of the filtration membrane
9. Explain why the glomerulus is such a high–pressure capillary bed. It is both fed and drained by
arterioles (which are highpressure vessels compared to venules), and the afferent arteriole has a
larger diameter than the efferent arteriole.
How does its high–pressure condition aid its function of filtrate formation? The higher the capillary
pressure, the more filtrate will be formed.
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10. What structural modification of certain tubule cells enhances their ability to reabsorb substances
from the filtrate?
Their possession of dense microvilli (especially the PCT cells).
11. Explain the mechanism of tubular secretion, and explain its importance in the urine formation
process. Tubular secretion is the process of moving substances from the tubule cells or from the
peritubular capillary blood into the tubule filtrate. It is important for adjusting pH and eliminating
substances not already in the filtrate.
12. Compare and contrast the composition of blood plasma and glomerular filtrate. Glomerular
filtrate ϭ blood plasma without most of the blood proteins.
13. Trace a drop of blood from the time it enters the kidney via the renal artery until it leaves the
kidney

Histological Study : Light Microscope Examination
Histological study Light microscope examination Specimens from the left kidney from each animal
were fixed in 10% saline formalin and processed to prepare 5–μm–thick paraffin sections for
Haematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) stain (Bancroft and Gamble, 2008). Immunohistochemical study
Immunohistochemical staining for localization of nuclear factor–erythroid–2–related factor 2 (Nrf2)
was carried out by means of the avidin biotin complex (ABC) method (Dako ARK™, Peroxidase,
Code No. K3954, Dako, Glostrup, Denmark) following the manufacturer 's instructions. Paraffin
sections (4μm) were de–waxed, hydrated and microwaved in citrate buffer, pH 6, for antigen
retrieval. Endogenous peroxidase was eliminated by incubation in 10% H2O2 in phosphate–
buffered saline (PBS), pH 7.4. Nonspecific binding was blocked in a normal mouse serum at room
temperature. Then, the sections were incubated with the specific primary antibody overnight (4 °C):
anti Nrf2 antibody (rabbit polyclonal antibody; No. GTX103322; dilution 1:100–1:1000; Gene Tex,
Irvine, CA, USA). The sections were incubated with biotinylated secondary antibodies followed by
labeled horseradish peroxidase. 3, 3'–diaminobenzidine (DAB) was used as chromogen that resulted
in a brown–colored precipitate at the antigen site. Sections were counterstained with haematoxylin.
Negative control sections were incubated with PBS instead of the primary antibody. Stained slides
were analyzed by light microscopy (Ramos–Vara et al., 2008).

Proximal Convoluted Tubule Structure
Describe the structure and location of the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal
convoluted tubule, collecting duct, and papillary duct. The proximal convoluted tubule measures
approximately 14 mm long and 60 μm in diameter. Simple cuboidal epithelium makes up its wall.
The cells rest on a basement membrane, which forms the outer surface of the tubule. The loops of
Henle are continuations of the proximal convoluted tubules. Each loop has two limbs: the
descending limb and the ascending limb. The first part of the descending limb is similar in structure
to the proximal convoluted tubules. The loops of Henle that extend into the medulla become very
thin near the end of the loop. The lumen in the thin part narrows, and an abrupt transition

The Common Abnormality of Proteinuria in the Liver
I. Introduction
The kidney is one of the most important organs in the human body. It supports and carries many
bodily functions, primarily in excretion of wastes and filtration of the needed nutrients and products
to maintain homeostasis in the body. However, if these two functions fail to do its part in the system,
it will disrupt the its own cycle and will result to some diseases and abnormalities. One of the most
common of these abnormalities is the presence of too much protein in the urine, or commonly
known as Proteinuria.
The kidney is an important organ of the body because it serves as a filter for the wastes in the
bodies. Ideally, urine contains very little amounts of protein. It cannot surpass the perm selectivity of
the glomerulus because proteins are considered as macromolecules; they are too big to be filtered.
The normal amount of protein that should be present in urine is 150mg/day or less, but in some
cases, it exceeds the normal range, which results to a "foamy" urine. This is what happens in
Proteinuria.
II. History/ Overview
Dating back to the time of Hippocrates, whom first inspected and described the presence of bubbles
in the urine, paved way to the discovery of Proteinuria. Various methods sprung out during latter
centuries. One physician who started the study is Frederick Dekkers, sho came up ith idea that that it
as milk that causes the abnormality. But his idea was changed as soon as other physicians prove
their side. One of the most prominent

A Study On Diabetes Mellitus
Part A 1. Type 2 diabetes mellitus (previously described as non–insulin dependent diabetes) is a
condition due to hyperglycemia that accompanies a relative rather than an absolute insulin
deficiency. It appears as a consequence of the alteration (genetically inherited or acquired) of insulin
secretion, sometimes associated with peripheral insulin resistance.
Impaired ability to absorb certain macronutrients such as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins can lead
to a large spectrum of chronic complications that involve more or less all tissues of the human body.
Globally, an estimated 422 million adults are living with diabetes mellitus, according to the latest
2016 data from the World Health Organization. "Diabetes Mellitus affects an estimated 29.1 million
people in the United States and is the 7th leading cause of death.
T2DM includes a heterogeneous group of diseases that associate in different degrees two major
metabolic defects: beta cell insulin secretion defect and insulin resistance of the peripheral tissues.
Obesity and insulin resistance are characteristic for the majority (80–90%) of T2DM cases (Obese
T2DM). The sine qua non condition for the progression from the preclinical phases (prediabetes) to
the overt hyperglycemia stages is represented by the presence of the insulin secretion beta cell
defect. A lack of compensation for insulin resistance will lead to evolution towards T2DM. The first
sign of

Ig1
1. This is false, there needs to be a large dosage of foreign antigen. 2. Two organs that may be
considered innocent bystanders are the lungs and the kidneys. The lungs can be presented as
innocent bystanders with the case of Farmer's Lung, also called hypersensitivity pneumonitis. This
occurs when there is persistent exposure to a bacteria found in moldy hay that is inhaled. As a result
IgG antibodies are developed. When the hay dries and results in aerosolizing spores with enough
antigen is inhaled, antigen–antibody complexes can be produced in the lungs through diffusion in
the alveoli and capillaries. An example of a disease when kidneys are the innocent bystanders is
when IgA nephropathy develops. This is characterized by the ... Show more content on
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The type III mechanism involves the activation of complement. The process in which this happens,
is when the antibody–antigen complex gets stuck activation of complement occurs with C5a and
C3a attracting neutrophils that cause histamine to be released from mast cells. Type IV mechanisms
activation is a delayed type hypersensitivity and involves macrophage responses as opposed to
complement activation. This occurs through the process of elicitation in which dendritic cells release
interferon–gamma which call in the M1 macrophages that cause the damage. 5. It is important to
impair or remove the T cells from the transplant donor tissue because if this doesn't happen graft vs
host disease could occur. When both the recipient and tissue from the donor transplant are not
histocompatible one or the other could reject each other. The T cells in the donor will most likely
recognize the HLA antigens within the recipient to be foreign. When this occurs the graft will
usually reject the host. This can occur through two forms, either chronic GvHD or acute GvHD.
Chronic GvHD can happen when the HLA's match however it takes a few months to years for
GvHD to develop and often times results in an autoimmunity issue due to an abundance of cytokines
being released. Acute GvHD generally occurs with bone marrow transplants a couple to several
weeks after the initial transplant and the host becomes immunosuppressed as a result.

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