The Theory Of The Scientific Method

The Theory Of The Scientific Method
"If we understand how researchers separate fact from fiction perhaps we too can avoid some of the pit falls of faulty reasoning and unwarranted
conclusions in our everyday lives (Zimbardo, 2001)." I believe this is why scientists– including psychologists– think more logically rather than
emotionally. They need and/or want proof of a 'phenomenon ' and so they go looking for that proof. Until they find an answer concerning that
particular phenomenon, they will most likely not stop conducing experiments. This is how hypotheses are formed. Someone asks a question and then
figures out the best way to get the answer to that question. It is a remarkable process. The part of that process that I will be talking about is the
hypothesis. To put it simply, a hypothesis is an educated guess; better yet, it is a prediction. These predictions are drawn by logic and can be tested.
Formulating a hypothesis is the second step in the scientific method. "If more and more hypotheses related to a theory turn out to be true, the theory
gains in credibility (King, pg. 27)." After you have formed a hypotheses, you will need to test your predication. Depending on what the hypotheses is
concerning, you could test it in a case study, survey, or even a laboratory experiment. I hypothesized that more men, rather than women, would say that
having an affair was okay in certain circumstances. I told my participants that the only thing they were to consider an affair was sexual intercourse only.
For
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Scientific Theories Are Objectively Justified
Scientific theories are objectively justified (Couvalis, 1997) and scientists are seen as being able to gather and interpret evidence that can be
concluded as scientifically proven (Ladyman, 2002). In the majority of areas in modern society, including justice, health and safety, scientific evidence
is heavily relied upon (Ladyman, 2002). However, there are certain principles that are required for a theory to be scientific. For example, it must be
justified by observation permeated by theories (Couvalis, 1997). In other words, it must be theory–laden. Moreover, scientific theories contain
generalisations and one method for justifying statements with full confidence on the basis of other statements is deductive reasoning (Couvalis, 1997).
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This will be considered throughout this essay with regards to the topics of addiction, genocide and expressed emotion in family communication.
Rassool (2011) defines addiction as "any behaviour, activity, substance, object or thing that has taken control of an individual's life–style, that is
causing harm to the individual and family" (p4). The majority of us are exposed to a range of addictive behaviours that impact on individuals and
families across socio–economic and cultural areas, and it has been argued that we now live in an addictive society (Rassool, 2011). Addiction is useful
in enhancing our scientific understanding of human behaviour due to its classification via the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual 5th edition (DSM–5),
which is the standard classification of mental disorders. It is used for clinical, research and policy purposes and has a large influence on the diagnosis
and treatments of disorders across many countries (Hasin et al, 2013). Another way in which addiction can be measured is using the Dependence
Syndrome. According to Edwards and Ross (1976), elements of the syndrome include; increased tolerance to alcohol, avoidance of withdrawal
symptoms, compulsion to drink, and rapid relapse after abstinence. These measurements of addiction aid our scientific understanding of human
behaviour because they allow for a more reliable and valid diagnosis, consequently impacting treatment and thus, enhancing psychologists'

Essay about The Theory of Scientific Theories
The Theory of Scientific Theories
Sir Popper's piece, "Science: Conjectures and Refutations," reaffirms the scientific methods currently in use. No scientific theory is ratified without
serious consideration and careful observation. Science is the pursuit of what can be proven false and the resulting assumptions of what must be true.
The problem that plagues Sir Popper is the clear definition of science and pseudoscience. Though the empirical method is common to both, the level of
inferential data varies greatly. One can amass large amounts of data by observinghuman behavior, but data alone is not the stuff of scientific theory.
Theories must be assembled fusing factual data, and inducive reasoning. The point of induction seems to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
By setting out to validate an assumption, we determine the outcome of any challenge to that assumption. Kuhn reiterates this in his works on
Copernicus. Though Copernicus firmly believes that the earth is not the center of the universe, he is hesitant to disclose his theories. He knows that
any experimentation will be done with the assumption that man is the center, and therefore determine the outcome before experiments even begin.
The next conclusion Popper declares is that the more rigorous the testing of a theory, the stronger it will become. During the scientific revolution,
mathematicians like Kepler and astronomers like Brahe went to great lengths to improve the accuracy of experiments. Rather than formulate volumes
of calculations, Kepler struggled to improve upon the accuracy of Copernicus' work. The fruits of his labors were observations accurate within four
degrees, and led to the theory of eliptical orbits. Brahe, with the aid of new optical equipment such as the astrolabe, set a new standard for accurate
depiction of planetary bodies and their actions. The progression of these thoughts brings us to another of his conclusions. Testing has degrees of
accuracy which must be optimized to truly proclaim a theory. In summary, a scientific theory must be falsifiable, refutable, and testable.
In revision of his postulates, Popper alludes to a few interesting concepts on the nature of scientific thought. Many major scientific contributions have

Hypothesis Vs Scientific Theory
The difference between a hypothesis and a scientific theory is that a hypothesis is a proposed description while a scientific theory is a proven
description for something. The difference between a prediction and a hypothesis is that a prediction is a guess at what the results are going to be
referring to the proposed hypothesis, while a hypothesis is a proposed explanation where the experiment will be based off of. A testable hypothesis
would be useful in scientific experiments because it is testable, also a directional hypothesis would be good because it is based off of theories. A
non–directional hypothesis would not be a good for investigations because they are based off on theories that have little or no grounds. In the cell theory
, all ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This challenges the cell theory because other than the first cell ever, all cells are derived from past cells. The predicted outcome for spontaneous
generation is that in a flask with no cell in it and no access to open air, cells will not grow or be present. While in the cell theory cells starting out in
a flask will increase, when the flask that is empty will have no cell development. Pasteur uses a swan–necked flask to keep the environment clean and
closed off from any other cells. He broil the flask to kill organism originally in the flask. Giraffes have long necks to eat food on higher trees or they
have long necks for males to show dominance. Most giraffes eat at shoulder height. Giraffes with longer necks win more battles which means more
mates. Longer necks means more fights won. Right now the test are not conclusive enough to show that the long necks are for mating because you
cannot tell how many babies they are having. Lipids is a group of natural occurring molecule that includes fat, wax, etc. Some are a liquids because they
are saturated meaning their molecules contain double bonds, while solids are unsaturated, having hydrogen atoms in its

Is The Theory Of Basis Data Scientific?
1.Is the theory's basis data scientific? The trait/biological approach is a little scientific. The data used to establish the traits does not include a large
and diverse sample. The theorists who did collect data collected it from individuals whose personalities supported their theories. Raymond Cattell
collected three types of data: L–data (behavior in everyday situations), Q–data (self–reported questionnaires), and OT–data (objective tests). With the
data, Cattell ran a factor analysis and if the data correlated, they would be clustered together to create a factor. The majority of the data he collected is
subjective. The five–factor model was developed by opening up the dictionary and picking adjectives. The participants were asked to... Show more
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The biological approach tried to supply the explanation. One explanation is temperament. Hippocrates and Galen proposed there were four humors and
temperaments responded to them making up four personalities. Franz Joseph Gall theorized that temperaments existed physically in our heads and he
claimed he could identify people's temperaments by the bumps on their brains. Ernst Kretchmer and William Sheldon believed temperaments were
based on three body types: pyknic (heavier, rounder); athletic (fit); and asthenic (thinner). Emil Kraepelin, who was born the same year as Freud
approached pathology as links in families. If we had given more recognition to Kraepelin rather than Freud, we would be further in the field. Thomas
and Chess identified three different temperaments from parents reporting about their children: easy/well–adjusted, difficult/undercontrolled, and
slow–to–warm/inhibited. Strong relationships with how people were identified as children and how they were measured as adults were found. Kegan
through more objective observations identified there were only two temperament styles: inhibited (more reactive) and uninhibited (welcome to new
people/things). The second explanation is genetics. Research done on twin studies found that identical twins that were raised apart were more
statistically similar to each other. A meta–analysis was done that concluded that forty percent of variance in personality can be attributed to genetics.
The third explanation of

The Theories Of A Scientific Research
It comes in no surprise that only those theories which make accurate predictions as well as fitting the empirical data count as being adequate and
deemed 'good' science. In relation to the confusion associated with the unobservable mechanisms, anti–realist offer the view that just because the
concepts of observable and unobservable are vague, it does not automatically mean they are not useful or false (Okasha 2002). The dependence of
observation in proposing theory makes it hard and sometimes even impossible to come up conclusively falsify theories all the time. Not to
mention that observable and unobservable mechanisms are not that difference after all (Okasha 2002). Correspondingly, as long as they are able
to clarify and explain phenomena, all we need to do is to choose the best available. Once we have a theory in hand, as a result, we should have
certain ability to predict the future, which is one of the key motivations for performing scientific research. Model is one of the most popular methods
adopted by researchers to predict the future. The models of animal flocking behaviour, San Fransisco Bay model, and climate model are just few of
the models which are regularly used to represent and explain the world in a simplified and mathematical way (Smith 2008; Weisberg 2013). Due to its
countless applicable properties, the use of models is not limited to science only. After all, there are numerous advantages including the reduction in
costs, the ability to examine effect of

Scientific Management Theory Paper
In organizational world, the management and organizational theory plays an important part in the operations of business, companies and
administrations. An organization consists of two or more persons in a systematic effort to produce goods or services. Thus, an organization needs a
management to achieve the organizational goals through some managerial process which is an ongoing activity. Therefore, in every organization has a
manager that plays important roles as systematic planner. According to Cleslinska (2007), managers need a knowledge base andmanagement skill to act
out roles and plan, organize, lead and control. Generally, a lot of managers run their organizations using theScientific Management Theory. In this
paper, I will discuss ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to Hasebur Rahman (2012) stated that Taylor shows the value of matching the job to the worker. The management's duty is to study the
employees carefully and not just leave it to the poor. He also emphasized the selection proceeds years after years and need to study workers'
strengths and weaknesses and provides training to improve workers' performance. The employees must be able to do a better class of work and pay
higher wages than before (Shafritz & Ott, 1991). Taylor's principle is to ensure the most efficient way would be use workers in order to make the
standard work process. At this point, the production process is divided into numerous divisions where this makes managers easily to control and
co–ordinate the workers' performance and to improve the efficiency of the organization. Thus, the efficiency will increase when the work is divided
into different parts according to different functional departments and each individual should be assigned to work according to their ability and interest
rather than giving the whole process of the production to one person (Monden,

The Theory Of Science And Scientific Revolutions
Thomas Kuhn was an American philosopher, born in 1922, whom wrote about the distinction between normal science and revolutionary science.
He was seen as a destroyer of logical empiricism throughout his career. This was because his work seemed to show how interesting it was to
connect philosophical questions about science, with questions about the history of science. Throughout this essay, I will connect questions of
philosophy and the history of science together by explaining Kuhn's account of the structure of normal science and scientific revolutions. Firstly,
normal science and revolutionary science are pieces of a paradigm. A paradigm, in turn, is a whole way of doing science. It is a package of claims
about the world, habits of scientific thought and action, and methods for gathering and analyzing data (76). A paradigm is a belief that the
community supports in terms of which scientific view is correct. For example, "the sun rises in the east each morning" is a paradigm that
numerous past and present generations believe. The role of a paradigm is to organize scientific work, as it categorizes the work of individuals into
efficient collective enterprises. There are two forms of paradigms, the first being the broad sense, while the second is the narrow sense. The broad
sense paradigm is the one explained above; where a paradigm is a package of ideas and methods, and when combined, create a view of the world, and
a way of science (77). A key part of a broad sense paradigm

Classical Scientific Management Theory And Human Relations...
This paper will be expressing a few of the different theoretical perspectives. This paper will be discussing the Scientific Management, Cultural
Perspective, Political–Economic Theory, and Human Relations Theory. It will also be discussing each of the key concepts that are associated within
each theoretical perspective. I will state some of the strengths and some of the weaknesses of each theory that was mentioned above. Lastly, my
opinion for each of these theories would be provided to give you a look on how they are run in the society. I hope to give the reader and inside look
on how these organizations are being run.
Classical Scientific Management Theory Organizations have a variety of people, but each person handles work differently.... Show more content on
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Conflict could resolve in losing employees due to how they are being treated within their work environment. Management would be without employees
and there would be a loss of productivity.
Some of the strengths would be that the workers were experienced and know how to do their job/tasks correctly. This is a strength because you have
trustworthy professionals who know what they are doing with that certain task. A weakness would be how the employees were silenced and
overworked (Kirst–Ashman, 2014). This is a weakness because I know how being silenced can be. At my old job, we didn't have much of a say and
work became irritating to the point that I left. Not being heard on ideas does have consequences. And in the scientific management theory, there is no
communication with management.
Cultural Theory This cultural perspective is a theory that is being used all the time and will not change. The cultural perspective on organizations
believes that each of the organizations establish a distinctive mixture of values, standards, presumptions, and practices about how things should be done
that eventually becomes a habit (Kirst–Ashman, 2014). The cultural theory is to go on with their tradition in what they are used to do. If it ain't broke,
don't fix it (Kirst–Ashman, 2014). Because of how much they are used to their way working, it becomes a norm, a routine, and will not take new ideas
into thought. With this kind of mind, it helps employees to focus on a certain way,

Taylorism Theory Of Scientific Management
Many theorists have influenced and demonstrated certain ideas and concepts that influence the social and psychological factors in an organisational
management. Taylorism theory of scientific management developed techniques for improving the efficiency of the work process. The scientific
management approach revolves around the idea of arranging for work to accomplish proficiency, institutionalization, specialization, and improvement.
With Taylor's scientific approach decisions are based on science or exact measurements. Taylor's theory decreased its role dramatically in the event of
being questioned whether scientific management was efficient. The human relation school of management thought developed due to the flaws in the
assumptions of the Taylorism theory. Taylorism was inclined towards efficiency, process and principle, however critiques felt human behavior was
neglected. Organisations should take initiative in helping employees adjust to organisational life by nurturing cooperative systems between labour and
management. Finally, this essay will reveal the evolution from Taylor's scientific principles of management to Elton Mayo's Human Relation School of
Thought as employee well–being and motivation has been given more recognition over the course of time.
Fredrick Taylor made an observation of men at work which led him to develop what is known as Taylorism management theory. He theorized that
workers were inefficient because they tend to ration their workload less than

The Scientific Theory Of Science
Science is based on fact through the processes of falsification. It is a utility function in society and is widely consistent with the evidence of history and
practice of rational thinking. Progress in science since the fourteenth century has been revolutionary and valuable in the methods used for rationality
and reasoning. Scientific methods that are used to establish rationality is due to the simple, general and rigorous explanations of the phenomena,
(Diamond, 1998). This essay will explore the reasons to the extent of the role of science in reason, displaying perspectives from respected philosophers,
politicians and scientists throughout time. Politician rather than scientist, Francis Bacon (1561–1627) was the man who made a... Show more content on
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His methods were also able to revolutionise reasoning as he was against the use of knowledge that had been inherited from the past. Following
Bacon's methods, scientists and philosophers have adopted his methods and utilised the knowledge to better the results in order to establish the truth.
Bacon's work should be seen as a part of a widespread cultural revolution accelerated by the rise of the printing press in the 15 th century (source).
Bacon believed that scientific knowledge increases and grows. Bacon's methods of testing hypotheses was highly valuable in the movement of science
as a rational enterprise. Furthermore, scientist Rene Descartes (1596–1650) changed the world from within the realm of practicality to reasoning
through the applications of thinking rather than acting upon or doing, "I think therefore, I am." This gave reasoning in society a far more prominent
role. Descartes is believed to have been the first philosopher to use reason in the development of the natural sciences. He used maths and physics as
his basis for reasoning in the sciences. Primarily, Descartes had three visions in which he was certain a divine spirit had led him to reveal a new
philosophy. Descartes believed that all truths were linking together and in order to find the fundamental truth, continuing with logic and reasoning
would broaden the use of the sciences

The Validity Of A Scientific Theory
The world is a complicated place that works in mysterious ways, but people, with their inquisitive minds, refuse to let even the most confounding
puzzles go unsolved. Science provides explanations for aspect of the world with no tangible evidence. But more often than not, science gets it wrong.
One way to test the validity of a scientific theory is the use of the Hypothetico–Deductive Method. The results of such a method provide evidence of
confirmation or disconfirmation, though these results cannot always be trusted. The world is complicated, thus it requires an equally complicated
instrument of discovery. With such complexity, philosophical problems in reasoning are bound to arise, but there is always a solution to such issues.
The Hypothetico–Deductive Method, called H–D from here on out, is a way of reasoning about theoretical (dis)conformation where a person deduces
an observational prediction from a hypothesis. Said hypothesis is then tested to determine whether or not the theory is confirmed. The basic H–D
model states Hпѓ O, if the hypothesis is true, then the prediction will be observed. This basic model consists of basic confirming and basic
disconfirming instances of experiments, which state, respectively, O/H, the prediction is true and observed, therefore the hypothesis is confirmed, and
~O/~H, the prediction is not true and not observed, therefore the hypothesis is disconfirmed. For the swan theory, an experiment would be set up in
which the experimenter

Outline Scientific Theory
Between all of the factors that outline the scientific studies such the theories, hypothesis and even law but what differences and similarities do they
share? A scientific theory is usually said to be a well tested concept that explains an endless supply of observations. For example we obviously know
that the Earth revolves around the sun and has been tested through observation and experiment which clearly cant come up with another explanation to
contradict this theory. On the other end of the spectrum we have scientific hypothesis which is commonly seen as a possible explanation for a set of
observations or answer to a scientific question must be testable. A great example that can be used is if you were to test smokers and observing which

The Scientific Management And The Human Relations Theories
This essay will be evaluating both the Scientific management and the Human relations theories in today's management of organisations. Scientific
management theory was founded and published by Frederick Winslow Taylor in 1909 where he proposed that productivity can be increased by
augmenting and simplifying workloads which then improves 'economic efficiency' (Economist, 2009). On the other hand, Human relations theories
focuses on personal factors and suggests that motivation and leadership are the features that help encourage workers to work productively (Dininni,
2017).
For Scientific Management Theory, one of Taylor's four principles was the rule of thumb where managers should think and usescientific method to
increase production by ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As opposed to Taylor's scientific theory, human relations theory value the workers which leads to increased motivation and productivity (Bianca, 2017).
An example of this would be a private sector, Google. Instead of adopting Taylor's style where there are strict rules, Google allows freedom for the
workers by letting them work when they want and allowing customisation of their own surroundings (Garguilo, 2011). This gives them their personal
freedom which in turn increases motivation to work. Therefore, this suggests that even though Taylor diminished social factors, human relations theory
gives evidence that social factors such as freedom does affect productivity in today's management.
Taylor suggested a piecework pay system where workers are payed according to their productivity. Therefore, a worker with high productivity gets
higher wages than those with less productivity. This results in the motivation of the employees to work at an efficient rate which will mean greater
productivity and higher pay (Lawler, 2000). In addition, the customers are benefitted as enhanced productivity will lead to advanced service or
additional products created. This system can be applied into a public sector such as libraries where the standards of

What Is Intelligent Design A Scientific Theory?
A brief introduction
Intelligent Design: Intelligent design seeks evidence of design in nature. According to the theory of intelligent design certain features of the universe
and living beings are best explained by an intelligent cause, not by an undirected process such as natural selection.
Intelligent design vs creationism
Intelligent design theory is not the same as creationism. This theory is an effort to empirically detect whether the features of everything around us are
genuine design (the product of an intelligent cause) or due to natural selection. Creationism is different; it typically starts with a religious text and tries
to see how the findings of science can fit to it. The Intelligent design theory doesn't claim that the intelligent cause detected through science is
supernatural; done by God. It is agnostic regarding the source of design
Intelligent design ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It argues that many structures in plants and animals bear the unmistakable signature of design by intelligence. They could not have possibly just
evolved from a simpler structure. On the other hand, Darwin's theory of evolution tells us that humans evolved from non–human life as the result of a
natural process, which was gradual and random, happening over billions of years,. It tells us that all life on Earth has its origins to a single common
ancestor.
Is Intelligent design a scientific theory?
Whether ID is science or pseudoscience is also a question. Even though it is regarded as Intelligent Design "theory", Intelligent Design proponents
generally fail to meet the norms for good scientific behavior in their work on Intelligent Design. It is not testable because it doesn't specify what the
Designer is or how the Designer operates, it cannot generate expected output and hence we cannot figure out whether the basic premises of Intelligent
Design are correct or incorrect, thus it is not falsifiable.
Concept of Intelligent design from scientists' point of

The Theory Of The Scientific Revolution
In the Scientific Revolution, "there occurred a shift in humans ' thinking from the medieval emphasis on God 's eternal unchanging world, which
governed people, the universe, and nature, to an approach that defined knowledge and understanding as derived from the immutable laws of nature
independent of received truth." Scientists changed the way people think about the world. The gears of the revolution began to turn when Copernicus
questioned the geocentric theory, developing his theory of heliocentrism. Many scientists use the method of beginning with a question, experimenting,
then falsifying the previous theory. This method of thinking became what is now known as the scientific method. Scientists impacted all fields of science
from cosmology to biology. The fields of mathematics,chemistry, and medicine were drastically improved because of the scientists in their fields who
discovered new concepts to propell the movement. In all three fields, there was a thirst for understanding and organization that was answered by the
revolutionary new concepts. For chemistry, it was the development of the scientific method, for mathematics, it was the organization of the universe,
and for medicine, it was the movement towards clinical practices.
Due to prominent mathematicians of the time period, the field of mathematics was expanded because of the reason that it provided in a socially
chaotic time period. In the French language, raison is the word in french for reason and also the

The Theory Of Scientific Management Essay
Frederik Winslow Taylor, one of the most famous pioneers of management gave the theory of Scientific management or what is now referred to as
Taylorism. Scientific management or Taylorism refers to "a form of job design which stresses short, repetitive work cycles; detailed, prescribed task
sequences; a separation of task conception from task execution; and motivation based on economic rewards." (Huczynski & Buchanan, 2013). The
applicability of Scientific management to this day is a controversial topic as there is still debate whether scientific management is beneficial to apply to
organizations for smooth functioning or not. This paper discusses his theory of scientific management. While it highlights the strengths and
weaknesses of this theory, it mainly expands on the criticisms of this theory and the reasons as to why the theory is not highly relevant now. This paper
does this by using theorists like Abraham Maslow, Elton Mayo & Douglas Mcgregor and by stating modern day examples of companies with different
principles of management as compared to Taylorism.
Under Taylorism, there were clear divisions of task, that is every employee was given a particular piece of work to do with simple and clear
instructions. Simple and clear instructions meant that each employee was explained the work to be done, the process to do it and the time period
allotted for its completion. Taylor replaced the traditional "rule of thumb" with a method of a more scientific base. (Priestley,

Scientific Theories Are Not Random Guesses
Growing up, I have been taught to believe that the universe was first created by God and that all of mankind shared that same ancestors, Adam and
Eve. However, if one's belief is that of science, then they probably believe in Darwin's theory of evolution which states all organisms originated from
microscopic organisms who have changed and been modified over time. However, whatever your theory may be, it is only plausible if it accurately
describes an observation and makes definite predictions about the results of future observations.
As the National Academy of Sciences explains, a scientific theory is "a comprehensive explanation of some aspect of nature that is supported by a vast
body of evidence" (Scientific). Scientific theories ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They thought if we are nothing more than an animal, how can we be God 's special creation? Most American Protestants considered the Bible to be
the literal truth. The Bible borrows from science observations, and religion is what gives us the reason to pursue science. Universe was made from a
god that was already here. Creationist disagree with the theory of evolution because, similar to the theory of gravity, they are just theories. Newton
believed the same law controlling falling apples must also control the movement of the planets. However, when he was asked what gravity is, he
was unable to answer the question. So creationist questioned whether or not gravity was really God. They figured if it is an unknown force that no
one has seen before, it had to the power of God. They came to this conclusion because like gravity, we have never seen God, it could only make sense
to them that God is gravity.
There is a confusion between science and faith. The misconception is that the creation of Darwin's theory led the scientific and theological communities
need to take up positions opposing each other. But history reveals that one of the earliest supporters of evolutionary theory in the American scientific
community was a devout Christian botanist named Asa Gray. Gray argued that "divine guidance might somehow channel the course of natural
selection" (Zimmer). He believed that faith is their belief,

The Theory Of Science And Scientific Revolutions
Thomas Kuhn was an American philosopher, born in 1922, whom wrote about the distinction between normal science and revolutionary science. He
was interpreted as a destroyer of logical empiricism throughout his career, and this is because his work seemed to show how interesting it was to
connect philosophical questions about science with questions about the history of science. Throughout this essay, I will connect these questions
together by explaining Kuhn's account of the structure of normal science and scientific revolutions. Firstly, normal science and revolutionary science
are pieces of a paradigm. A paradigm, in turn, is a whole way of doing science. It is a package of claims about the world, habits of scientific thought
and action,... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This could be a successful experiment, or the formulation of a set of laws. These specific achievements are what Kuhn says causes a paradigm in the
narrow sense. This means that paradigms in the broad sense, include within them, paradigms in the narrow sense. When a paradigm is used, it is often
associated with normal science and revolutionary science. In short, normal science is well organized. These scientists tend to approach determined
important problems specifically, and assess possible situations. Similarly, they agree on what the world is like in the broad sense. Revolutionary
science, on the other hand, occurs when a paradigm breaks down and is replaced with another one (77). Karl Popper, born in 1902, presents objections
against Kuhn's normal and revolutionary science arguments, and following I will explain these objections, Kuhn's replies, and reveal the most
important of them all. Popper thought that science was characterized by permanent openness, however Kuhn disagreed. He thinks that it is false for
science to exhibit a permanent openness to the testing of fundamental ideas and that science would be worse off should this occur (78). Popper makes
another claim about scientific change, stating that science proceeds through a single process; that of conjecture and refutation. Although there can be
revolutions, they are considered to be larger conjecture and more dramatic refutations. Kuhn rebuttals and states that this cannot be

The Theory Of Scientific Management Essay
According to Miller (2010) Scientific management (Taylorism) was devised by Frederick Taylor to improve economic efficiency especially labor
productivity by analyzing and establishing workflows. It was one of the earliest attempts to apply science to the engineering of processes and to
management. Taylor's scientific management was based on four principles. The first is replacing the "rule of thumb" work methods with methods
based on a scientific study. The second is selecting, training and developing the most suitable person for the job. The third principle is managers
should give out detailed instructions on how to do the job scientifically and supervise workers. The last principle is dividing the tasks between
managers and workers. This paper will discuss if these scientific management principles are outdated in the study of organizations. I will present the
principles and explain their relevance in current organizations.
The "rule of thumb" is a procedure that developed from experience and common sense. It totally ignores scientific knowledge. Taylor argued that for
an organization to become more efficient managers had to develop a "science of work" that is cultivating methods based on a scientific study of those
tasks. Morgan (2006) asserts that this was done to determine the most efficient way of doing work. The scientific method would therefore simplify
worker's tasks in detail and specify the amount of work needed to do the task and the necessary time to finish that

No Miracles Argument: A Successful Scientific Theory
The No Miracles Argument states that it would be miraculous for scientific theories to predict incredibly precise and surprising predictions if the
theories were not true. Thus, the theories must be true, or at least very nearly so. In other words, the No Miracles Argument says that the astounding
empirical success of some scientific theories would be nearly impossible if they were not true, or at least approximately true. Scientific realism 'is the
only philosophy of science that does not make the success of science a miracle' (Psillos 2006).
General relativity is an example of a currently successful scientific theory. General relativity has been confirmed in all experiments, and by all
observations to date. General relativity is the current ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The selectionist explanation assigns the success of current scientific theories to the fact that "unsuccessful theories have been eliminated in a
process of selection comparable to the selection process operative in the biological world" (Wray, 2007). Realists would argue that considering the
success of our current theories, it would be a miracle if our theories did not well reflect the construction of the world. This line of reasoning is known
as the No Miracles Argument. Thus, realists offer a choice in the form of an exhaustive dichotomy: the success of science is either a miracle, or our
current theories accurately represent the structure of the world (Wray 2007). The selectionist explanation is modeled after Darwin's theory of natural
selection explanation for the remarkable fit seen between animals and the environments they inhabit. Natural selection ensures that organisms lacking
such a quality of fit are destroyed over a sufficient time period. Thus, when the biological world is examined, the only organisms found (on average)
are those which currently fit their respective environments. Parallel reasoning of this principle when examining the world of science says that we
should not be surprised to find only successful theories because all unfit theories have been eliminated, or are on their way towards elimination (Wray
2007). It would not make sense for unfit theories to survive due to the nature of the scientific world because a rational scientist would reject a theory
that does not enable them to make accurate predictions (Wray 2007). The strength of the selectionist explanation lies in its ability to explain why
previously accepted theories come to be expelled. Thus, the selectionist explanation can account for the failures of science. A realist cannot argue that a
theory that once accurately

Realists Vs. Scientific Theory
.Convergent realists often argue for their position by pointing to the increasing success of science. This requires that there be a reasonable inference
from a scientific theory 's success to its approximate truth. The argument that realists are trying to make is that the best explanation of a scientific theory
's success is that it is true. Larry Laudan refutes the realists ' argument from the success of science. To do this, he characterize his opposition as
"Convergent Epistemological Realism." Convergent realism is a theory about the nature and history of science.
Laudan identifies five central claims for convergent epistemological realism.
R1) Scientific theories (at least in the 'mature' sciences) are typically approximately true ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The empirical success of science (in the sense of giving detailed explanations and accurate predictions) accordingly provides striking empirical
confirmation for realism.
According to Laudan, convergent epistemological realism involves two abductive arguments by realists.
Argument 1: Inference to the best explanation from R1, R2, and R5.
P1: If scientific theories are approximately true, they will typically be empirically successful;
P2: If the central terms in scientific theories genuinely refer, those theories will generally be empirically successful.
P3: Scientific theories are empirically successful.
C: (Probably) Theories are approximately true and their terms genuinely refer.
Argument 2: Inference to the best explanation from R3 and R5.
P1: If the earlier theories in a 'mature ' science are approximately true and if the central terms of those theories genuinely refer, then later more
successful theories in the same science will preserve the earlier theories as limiting cases;
P2: Scientists seek to preserve earlier theories as limiting cases and generally succeed.
C: (Probably) Earlier theories in a 'mature ' science are approximately true and genuinely referential.

For his refutation of argument 1, Laudan (addressing Putnam) states that the realist seemingly requires claims S1–S4.
–S1) The theories in the advanced or mature sciences are successful;

The Development Of A Scientific Theory
Assignment 1 P1The development of a scientific theory
Date Event
1809First theory of evolution available
Jean–Baptiste Lamarck is a French naturalist, soldier, biologist and academic. He gave out his theory of evolution. His theory was that evolution
occurred through the inheritance of developed characteristics, or the use/disuse theory.
1831A new world
Charles Darwin was very young and still a student, joins the journey of the HMS Beagle as a naturalist.
1844The First Essay
Charles Darwin was working for many years, writes an essay on the theory of evolution. Unluckily, this was never published.
1858Rivalry for Evolution
Alfred Russel Wallace issues a paper. The paper had some of the same assumptions as Darwin, includingnatural selection. Darwin 's friends present
both Wallace 's and Darwin 's theories at the Linnean Society.
1859The Origin of Species
Darwin was suffering from sickness both in himself and his family, completes his book "The Origin of Species" and issues it. It becomes very popular.
1865Heredity experimentation
Mendel 's works with pea plants is given out, setting the background for the basis of natural selection.
1892Importance of DNA in heredity
August Weismann gives out answers detailing how important DNA is to heredity. Along with the germ cell theory. The theory that legacy only takes
place by means of germ cells. For example: egg and sperm. Those other cells do not pass on their genes.

1903Chromosomes and heredity
Walter

Human Relations Theory vs Scientific Method Theory
Scientific Method Theory
By Fedrick Taylor
And
Human Relations Theory
(Hawthorne Studies)
By Elton Mayo
Student Name:
Subject:Human Relations
Date:14th October, 2010
The Scientific Management Theory (Taylorism)
In 1911, Frederick Winslow Taylor published his work, The Principles of Scientific Management, in which he described how the application of the
scientific method to the management of workers greatly could improve productivity.
Scientific management methods called for optimizing the way that tasks were performed and simplifying the jobs enough so that workers could be
trained to perform their specialized sequence of motions in the one "best" way.
Before the scientific management theory, work tasks ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
No attention for soft factors. * Mechanistic. Treating people as machines. * Separation of planning function and doing. * Loss of skill level and
autonomy at worker level. Not very useful in current knowledge worker environments (except as an antithesis).
The Human Relations Theory (The Hawthorne Effect)

The Hawthorne Studies (or experiments) were conducted from 1927 to 1932 at the Western ElectricHawthorne Works in Chicago, where Harvard
Business School professor Elton Mayo examined productivity and work conditions.
Elton Mayo started these experiments by examining the physical and environmental influences of the workplace (e.g. brightness of lights, humidity)
and later, moved into the psychological aspects (e.g. breaks, group pressure, working hours, managerial leadership) and their impact on employee
motivation as it applies to productivity.
The Hawthorne Effect can be summarized as "Employees are more productive because the employees know they are being studied." Elton Mayo's
experiments showed an increase in worker productivity was produced by the psychological stimulus of being singled out, involved, and made to feel
important.
Specifically, Mayo wanted to find out what effect fatigue and monotony had on job productivity and how to control them through such variables as rest
breaks, work hours, temperature and humidity. In the process, he stumbled upon a principle of human motivation that would help to revolutionize the
theory and

The Theories Of Scientific Naturalism
In society today there are two worldviews that tend to be complete opposites, the ideas of scientific naturalism against Christianity. These worldviews
are incredibly opposite, but there may be areas that the two opposing sides could meet on. Both views have valid ideas to contribute to the argument.
We strengthen our beliefs through ideological conflict with others. Both view–points are strengthened when compared to each other rather than
presented separately with no alternative view to oppose it. Before we start one question needs to be answered, what is scientific naturalism and what
are our parameters for Christianity. Scientific naturalism relies heavily on scientific observation. The view claims that everything in the universe can...
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Pentecostal (e.g.keener), Orthodox (e.g.Hart,Swinburne), and Anglican (e.g.Mcgrath) Christian worldview may disagree in certain areas but they have
no difficulty coming together on key points and in fact, have much more in common than they have in opposition. A Christian worldview recognizes a
higher power that created the universe and is present in it with the capability to manipulate events as he pleases. This worldview also allows
communication with this being. There is an immortal soul in all of use and a supernatural non–physical place where it can reside with God after death.
The scriptures are seen as inspired by the creator God and are records of his influence throughout history and thus are eye witness accounts of his ability
to interact within his creation. Christianity has much to work with in presenting the argument against Scientific Naturalism. A Christian worldview can
embrace science and use it to its advantage. Christianity gains the upper hand because it can use the ideas of Scientific Naturalism but is not limited to
strict scientific method. There can be a deeper explanation for events that seem so impossible in a closed universe. Its downfall is that it cannot remain
strictly objective and empirical. It also cannot prove that an unexplainable event took place due to manipulation from their creator. It could just as
easily be hypothesized that the Hindu god Shiva or the

The Theory Of Scientific Management
3. Scientific Management
It is necessary to understand where the organization of work is headed. Through specialization, subordinate can upgrade their abilities or professions
and there was a concerted effort to identify key aspects of work and organization which could be used to achieve efficiency through immutable
principles. Taylor thinksmanagement should merge with science to enhance the effectiveness.
3.1 Taylorism by Fred W. Taylor (1856
–1915)
Taylor's scientific management theory suggests the idea of 'one right way' to manage an organization, which is the best way for worker to achieve
their own duties by providing them proper tools and training. The old saying goes, 'Practice Makes Perfect', the concept suggests organization to
industrialized, standardized mass production, so uncomplicated work do not need skilled workers, they can learn faster, perform better and speed up
when they get more familiar with their work. Such pattern of work can achieve the economies of scale, provide affordable for average customers. He
broke down the whole work into individual motion and analyze the each part of work to have a clear division of task and responsibilities, then timed
and selected the right worker to do particular part of work, following a machinelike routine in order to enhance the productivity.
3.2 Fordism by Henry Ford (1863–1947)
Ford's scientific management theory is a system about production, consumption and based on Taylorist principles, it introduced a new

The Theory Of Scientific Revolutions
In my essay I plan to argue that Thomas Kuhn was incorrect when he presented his theory that no paradigm is better than any other paradigm and how
he believed that people who occupy different paradigms are in different universes, in his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. I believe that
there is no valid deductive or inductive support for incommensurability, there are examples against it throughout the history of science that do not
exhibit the discontinuity and replacement of paradigms, as Kuhn's incommensurability thesis predicts, but rather continuity and supplementation. If this
is correct, then there are no compelling epistemic reasons to believe that Kuhn's incommensurability thesis is true or probable. The argument that the
point of the same kind terms changes or ceases from one theoretical context to another, it does not fundamentally mean that these two abstract
frameworks are taxonomically or methodologically incommensurable. Kuhn's theory takes a relativist stance and uses it to make all theories and
paradigms equal with none being better than the other. This poses a major problem because the hope of scientific research is best said as "For a
realist conception of scientific progress also wishes to assert that, by and large, later science improves on earlier science, in particular by approaching
closer to the truth." This means that all realist scientist hope that by advancing our scientific knowledge we will eventually come closer to the truth
about

Thunder and Early Scientific Theory Essay
Thunder and Early Scientific Theory
It lends its name to one of the most common weather phenomenon on Earth –– the thunderstorm –– and its associated elements: the thunderhead,
thunder cloud, thunder bolt, thundershower and thunder clap. Early humans believed thunder came from the deities –– the voice and expression of
their god(s). The roster of thunder gods includes: Thor of the Scandinavians, Donar of the Germans, Zeus of the Greeks, Jupiter of the Romans,
Taranis of the Celts, Perkunis of the Slavs, Indra of the Indians and Shango of the Nigerian Yoruba. Each is know to throw thunderbolts or bundles of
lightning at the earth while their voices reverberates across the heavens.
Many early ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They both believed that air smashing against the clouds caused thunder and, as the air struggled its way through the clouds, it kindled a flame which
was lightning.
Anaxogoras (ca 499–427 BC), however, believed that thunder resulted when fire flashing through clouds (lightning) was quenched by the water in the
cloud. Democritus (ca 460–370 BC), on the other hand, suggested that thunder and lightning were due to the unequal mixing of particles within clouds
which caused violent motions, the resulting sound of which was thunder.
Aristotle (384–322 BC), in his series of essays entitled Meteorologica (written around 334 BC), wrote that thunder occurs when
"the dry exhalation that gets trapped when the air is in the process of colliding is forcibly ejected as the clouds condense and in its course strikes the
surrounding clouds, and the noise caused by the impact is what we call thunder...similarly the windy exhalations in the clouds produces thunder when it
strikes a dense cloud formation. Different kinds of sound are produced because of the lack of uniformity in the clouds and because hollows occur where
their density is not continuous."
He also wrote that, in general,
"the ejected winds burns with a fine and gentle fire and it is then what we call lightning, which occurs when the falling wind appears to

Scientific Theory Vs Common Sense
What causes humans to act the way they do? How do we grow and change throughout our lives? These types of questions and many others are exactly
what scientific theories try to answer. A Scientific Theory is a proposed answer to a scientific question that is backed by experiments, research, and
other data. Scientific theories try to explain what has happened in the past and make predictions about what will occur in the future. "A scientific theory
is a systematic explanation that unifies various observed phenomena and facts." ( Watson, 2002, p.11).
The main difference between a scientific theory and common sense is that a scientific theory takes an objective view of a situation or question. It uses
facts and well–developed ideas to support its conclusion. When we analyze a situation with common sense, we are relying only on our own beliefs
and experiences. For example, imagine you see a child being disobedient and throwing a tantrum in the middle of a supermarket. Common sense might
equate this to the child being overtired or poorly disciplined. A scientific theorist would take a deeper look at the situation and using different theories
might decide that the behavior resulted instead because the child is at a stage where he hasn't learned to communicate his wants and wishes properly. ...
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Some theories of Human Development look at cognitive growth, while others discuss social growth. The age range that is studied can vary as well.
Some theorists may choose to focus on young children and others on teenagers or young adulthood. The main thing that unifies these theories is that
they examine how humans grow and change and the things that influence how we

Scientific Management, Or Taylorism, Is A Theory Of...
Scientific Management, or Taylorism, is a theory of management by F. W. Taylor that analysed how the highest economic efficiency, especially
labour productivity, can be achieved, hence the greatest prosperity for both employers and employees. The four principles that he brought forward
are the replacement of the 'rule of thumb' work method with a scientific way to study work, matching and training the most suitable person to do
each particular job scientifically instead of leaving the workers to choose their own work and teach themselves, the provision of detailed instructions
and standard operating procedures by the managers to workers to ensure "all of the work being done in accordance with the principles of the science"
and the division of work between workers and managers, which managers are responsible for planning and supervising while workers are to complete
the tasks they are assigned to.
In F. W. Taylor's scientificmanagement theory, he tried to convey the idea of specialisation. This means "dividing and co–ordinating the various tasks
necessary to produce a finished product" by "simplifying jobs and having each worker perform fewer, more routine tasks", aiming to increase
efficiency in the workplace. By doing so, workers would have to make fewer motions to complete a task and also, repeatedly doing the same task,
which would make workers more and more used to and skilled at that task. As a result, they can do it more efficiently and quicker.
Specialisation has

A Scientific Theory Of Consciousness
Whether a scientific theory of consciousness could be provided requires the theory to account for properties of sensations. Place thinks some
philosophers struggle to accept a scientific theory by falling for the phenomenological fallacy. Some have posited descriptions of experience lye within
the mental cinema (pg. 49). Place characterized the fallacy of thinking that when we perceive something green we are perceiving something green in the
mind as 'the phenomenological fallacy'. He writes, if we assume, for example, that when a subject reports a green after–image he is asserting the
occurrence inside himself of an object which is literally green, it is clear that we have on our hands an entity for which there is no place in the world
of physics. He proposes the descriptions of green after–images are descriptions of a sort of normal response in contexts involving green light.
In "Sensations are Brain Processes", J.J.C Smart argues that "in so far as a sensation statement is a report of something, that something is in fact a brain
process" (Smart 1959 145). The 'Sensation–Brain Process Identity Theory' states: For any type of sensation state 'S', there is a type of brain state 'B'
such that: 'S = B'. In defense of this thesis Smart clears up Place's identity distinction with his sense of strict identity. S and B are strictly identical
when 'S' and 'B' are two names for a single object.
The 'Sensation State Brain Process Identity Theory' asserts for each phenomenal state

Scientific Management And Human Relations Theory
Scientific management is a management theory developed by Frederick W Taylor. Its main purpose is to improve an organization's efficiency in
production through analyzing workflow systematically using quantitative analysis to improve task completion efficiency. Reducing waste, increasing
methods of production and create a just distribution of goods are goals of the scientific management theory. On the other hand, human relations theory
attributed by Elton Mayo counteracts with scientific management theory that ignored human issues of behavior. In human relations theory, a worker is
treated as an individual and what motivates and cultivates them in their achievement is analyzed. Both scientific management and human relation
theory aims to improve efficiency in the workplace and it still applies to the workforce in the modern days despite the opposing ideas of both theories.
The scientific management theory have an assumption that workers are lazy, not smart in analyzing tasks, only prefers simplified work and only
works for money (Miller & Form, 1964). According to Taylor (2004), workers are unable figure out the most efficient way in doing work. Therefore,
they are thought as replaceable working parts like a machine in the production line and can be trained to specialize in a certain procedure in the
production. They are assumed to adopt the Protestant work ethic, working for long hours and not taking any breaks. Whenever a worker or a 'part' failed
to perform its tasks, they

Alan Chalmers 's Theory Of Scientific Knowledge
Falsification in Science – the "Hypothetico–deductive" method
"Scientific knowledge is proven knowledge. Scientific theories are derived in some rigorous way from the facts of experience acquired by
observation and experiment. Science is based on what we can see and hear and touch, etc. Personal opinion or preferences and speculative imaginings
have no place in science. Science is objective. Scientific knowledge is reliable knowledge because it is objectively proven knowledge."
– Alan Chalmers, What Is This Thing Called Science?, 1982, p.1.
Chalmers represents the traditional inductivist view with his statement on science. An inductivist makes observations, then creates a general statement
that aims to explain the encountered phenomenon. However, Karl Popper, another scientific philosopher, has completely rejected thisscientific method
and has argued against the sole use of induction when conducting scientific research. Unsatisfied with Chalmers' method, and the traditional inductive
method in general, he instead made his own 'version' of the scientific method, dubbed 'the hypothetico–deductive method'. These two scientific methods
contrast each other, and to demonstrate their difference Chalmers' statement will be evaluated using the typical view of one who subscribes to Popper's
'hypothetico–deductive' method of falsification. I will then evaluate the two methods, commenting on their individual limitations and merits.
To contrast the two methods, Popper's

Classical Scientific Management Theory And Human Relations...
Introduction
This paper will be expressing a few of the different theoretical perspectives. This paper will be discussing the Scientific Management, Cultural
Perspective, Political–Economic Theory, and Human Relations Theory. It will also be discussing each of the key concepts that are associated within
each theoretical perspective. I will state some of the strengths and some of the weaknesses of each theory that was mentioned above. Lastly, my
opinion for each of these theories would be provided to give you a look on how they are run in the society. I hope to give the reader and inside look
on how these organizations are being run.
Classical Scientific Management Theory Organizations have a variety of people, but each person handles work ... Show more content on
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Conflict could resolve in losing employees due to how they are being treated within their work environment. Management would be without employees
and there would be loss of productivity.
Some of the strengths would be that the workers were experienced and know how to do their job/tasks correctly. This is a strength because you have
trustworthy professionals who know what they are doing with that certain task. A weakness would be how the employees were silenced and
overworked (Kirst–Ashman, 2014). This is a weakness because I know how being silenced can be. At my old job, we didn't have much of a say and
work became irritating to the point that I left. Not being heard on ideas does have consequences. And in the scientific management theory there is no
communication with management.
Cultural Theory This cultural perspective is a theory that is being used all the time and will not change. Cultures are seen as structured by two forms of
constrain on individual behavior (Thompson, Ellis, and Wildavsky, 1991). The cultural perspective on organizations believes that each of the
organizations establish a distinctive mixture of values, standards, presumptions, and practices about how things should be done that eventually
becomes a habit (Kirst–Ashman, 2014). The cultural theory is to go on with their tradition on what they are used to do. If it ain't broke, don't fix it
(Kirst–Ashman, 2014). Because of how much they are used to their way working, it becomes

Theories Of Scientific Management Theory And Human...
Executive Summary
The National Institute of Personnel Management (NIPM) of India defined human resource management as "that part of management which is
concerned with people at work and with their relationship within an enterprise. Its aim is to bring together and develop into an effective organization
of the men and women who make up an enterprise and having regard for the well–being of the individuals and of working groups, to enable them to
make their best contribution to its success." Human resource management always seeks the best theory to fulfill their intent in managing the human
resource. Some of the famous theories are scientific management theory and behavioral management theory.
Scientific management theory is the starting point where people start to think scientifically. They do not only depend on common habitual without
considering it is efficient or not anymore. They start to think effectively in enhancing productivity. Scientific management theory proposed some way
in order to get the most ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
But it will be a great combination if both of them are put into the society. It is because both of them are completing each other. We cannot deny the fact
that organization needs the most effective and efficient way to accomplish the most profitable goal. But in another side, we should consider too that it
is not only about the number and quantitative things. We need something that we called qualitative thing which can support the quantitative thing. We
cannot ignore that the satisfaction of employee can affect the productivity. That is why, scientific management theory and behavioral management
should be mixing in order to get the primary point of Human Resource Management itself, namely effectiveness, development of human resources, the
organizational's goals, and satisfaction of employee in giving best contribute to organization's

The Impact Of Scientific Theory On The Development Of The...
Question One: Theory Part One Research is important in our society since it contributes to the development of the world we live in through the
application of theory. Research allows us to investigate, experiment, develop, support and explore previous facts and work of new and existing
theories. The research and the investigation of topics should be significant, relevant, and of interest to those working and studying in the field. A
systematic approach using a research method that provides accurate, reliable, and selective critical use of data is necessary for conducting a good
research. A good research supports or challenges existing theory. In the world of theory, theory in common language differs from scientific theory, and
psychological theory. Theory in common language is use to mean a guess, idea or speculation that someone has about something that is not tested.
Scientific theory is an explanation for a phenomenon based on previous observations that have been built on a set of facts and principles that will allow
us to predict future behaviors and events . Psychology theory describes a behavior and make predictions about future behaviors, emotions, and thoughts
of individuals. Nevertheless, knowing the terms and the differences about theories and concepts would allow researchers to have a better understanding
on how to use and apply the terms in theory. The researcher must have a clear picture of how to develop a study that includes the adequate information

What Are The Scientific Management Theories
Brief Analysis of the four theoretical contributions which are central to the understanding of today's Organizations:
1.Scientific Management – F.W Taylor:
Frederick W. Taylor was recognized as the father of the "scientific management" theory. Taylor's Scientific Management Theory is not just a collection
of purely technical principles and practices, but also the cooperation and harmonization of fundamental relationships between people and machines and
techniques; between people in the production process, especially between the manager and the employee. Thanks to this theory applied in the
industrial enterprises, the labor productivity has increased dramatically; The final result is high profitability, both employers and workers are high
income. His scientific approach requires detailed observation and measurement of routine work, in order to find the best working way. Taylor's
approach is categorized as the bottom up approach. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Nevertheless, Frederick Taylor laid the foundations for mass production techniques, which had influenced in industrial practices as well as the general
theoretical ideas of organization, not only for industrial sector, but also in the service sector.
Frederick W. Taylor's scientificmanagement principles include: Dividing responsibility for work from workers to managers. The manager is the
planner and the job designer, the worker is the person who performs the task; Use scientific methods to determine the most effective way of doing
things, dividing the work for the worker appropriately, specifying how to accomplish the task; Choose the best person to perform the work as planned;
Train employees effectively; Monitor workers to ensure appropriate workflows and from there to achieve corresponding results.
2.Administrative Theory – H.

The Theory Of Consciousness And The Scientific Processes
Processes and ideas are constantly changing, even evolving. This occurs across the entire spectrum of most all environments with dynamics natures;
within society, within religion, and within science. More specifically, both the study and observation of consciousness and the scientific processes
allocated towards those ends have changed profoundly over time. It can also be observed that the evolution of the study of consciousness parallels the
development of the scientific method, to the extent that an evaluation of the former can indicate the developmental position of the latter. This is clearly
evidenced throughout Miller 's essay on the former topic, and the essay itself can be interpreted as a chronology of the latter topic when approaching it
from this viewpoint. The chief elements that serve towards this end–indicating the development of theories on consciousness and the scientific
processes behind them–are societal and religious pressures, two elements that are exceedingly prevalent in Miller 's work.
Religion and society had large influences on the rate of development and, consequentially, the quality of early theories of consciousness, in effect
improving the former while markedly diminishing the latter. Within the essay, there were many examples of societal pressures driving the likes of
Mesmer, Baron Dupotet, Elliotson and their historic counterparts into hurried and less than rational–and less than scientific–studies and conclusions.
For instance, at the opening

The Theory Of Scientific Management
The purpose of this essay is to research, analyse and assess the theory of scientific management, which was revolutionised by Frederick Winslow
Taylor in 1887 (A.Huczynski, 2010) and to critically evaluate the benefits and pitfalls of his theory. This theory Taylor developed is known as
Taylorism and has been used commonly in various structures of organisation. Comparisons shall be drawn to other theories and advancements of this
theory, such as Fordism and Toyotism, which was extremely popular in Japan (Cheng, 2009). Using these variations of Taylorism, we can therefore
further and deepen the evaluation of his original theory. This essay aims to show that the disadvantages outweigh the advantages due to changes in
culture and worker's mentality.
Taylor's theory was built upon his key beliefs from observations he made in the workplace; that workers could increase efficiency by "reducing
deliberate underworking by employees" (A.Huczynski, 2010) and that by standardising roles he could increase production and efficiency, through
delegating certain small roles across a labour force. He believed that if each individual worker could perform one small task extremely well that both
efficiency and most importantly, to the shareholders of the firm, the people who have most of the power, profits would increase.
Someone who was seemingly inspired by Taylorism was the founder of Ford Motor Company, Henry Ford. He took the standardisation theory
(A.Huczynski, 2010) to new levels and

The Theory Of The Scientific Method

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