1. BUILDING STRUCTURES (BLD61003)
CHEN LIAN LIAN (AGNES) 0333357
CHONG MIN (CADENCE) 0333339
LEE JIA YEE (REBECCA) 0333311
NG JING YUAN 0331472
NANG AYE MYAT MON 0328627
SIM LI MEI 0328623
PROJECT 1: STRUCTURAL DESIGN POST MORTEM
TUTOR: MR. MOHD. ADIB RAMLI
KAMPUNG PULAI VISITOR INTERPRETIVE CENTRE
2. FOREWORD
This report focuses mainly on identifying the issue of
structural components of the existing building of the Visitor
Interpretive Center and how can these issues can be tackled
and addressed through several improvisations on the
structural design and a thorough study and analysis of the
existing structural design applied in the previous semester
three project.
In a group of 6, we are required to discuss and apply the
solutions based on our knowledge and information
extracted from various sources which would give us an idea
on how can we go about in improving the existing design
with a new proposal scheme that fully utilizes a series of
appropriate structural systems available.
Apart from that, we are also required to discuss on the
existing structural design whilst taking into consideration of
several aspects namely; safety, feasibility, economy,
optimization, integration, stability, strength or rigidity of the
structural system.
Besides, we would need to identify the structural systems
and forces as well as applying structural theories in
designing structural elements and appraise the technical
standards as well as structural design codes and loading
codes to be applied to building design.
We would like to thank our groupmates for contributing
much of their time, knowledge and effort in the process of
making this report a success. From the beginning till the
end of the project, we have certainly gained a greater
insights on the importance of designing appropriate,
reliable and safe structural components of a building.
Lastly, this project wouldn’t have been possible without the
assistance and guidance from our tutor, Mr. Mohd Adib
Ramli; with that, we would to extend our thanks and
gratitude for all the feedback that suggestions that has
helped us immensely.
3. EXISTING DESIGN REVIEW
EXISTING ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWINGS
DESIGN APPRAISAL & PROPOSED SOLUTION
FOUNDATION
3.1.1 INTRODUCTION
FACTORS DETERMINING THE TYPES OF FOUNDATION
SHALLOW AND DEEP FOUNDATION
COMPARISON BETWEEN 3 TYPES OF FOUNDATION
COMPARISON BETWEEN 2 TYPES OF PILE FOUNDATION
STABILITY & FEASIBILITY
SKELETAL FRAMING STRUCTURE
FEASIBILITY
STABILITY
ECONOMY
SAFETY
FLOOR
STABILITY
OPTIMIZATION
FEASIBILITY
ECONOMY
ROOF
3.4.1 STABILITY
3.4.2 INTEGRATION
3.4.3 OPTIMIZATION
TABLE OF CONTENT
1.O
2.0
3.0
3.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.1.4
3.1.5
3.1.6
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.3.4
3.4
1
3
8
19
30
38
5. 1.0 EXISTING DESIGN REVIEW
This Visitor Interpretive Center is a gesture to preserve and
sustain the genius loci of Kampung Pulai village which can
be translated as “KNOT”.
KNOT has multiple and sophisticated meanings. As one can
be experienced from the way of life of the Pulai villagers,
they hold on to their roots as always. They appreciate and
cherish their cultural beliefs and customs.
This is a rather rare scenario in the modern times. The
villagers also strongly-bonded with each other as they
always enjoy helping each other in times of events and in
their daily lives.
1
Main Objectives:
Creating opportunities for outsiders to merge with the Pulai
people, forging a ‘knot’ between communities and visitors.
Capturing the fabulous natural gifts, the sounds of water,
the smell of rain, the shower of sun let to instil a sense of
place to visitors.
A place to celebrate and learn the meaningful values of the
Pulai people.
6. 1.0 EXISTING DESIGN REVIEW
Footprint to River Beginnings
The past has become a place to
rejuvenate and relax while
acknowledging its importance.
2
Above the Surface
Approaching the VIC via a newly-proposed
bridge, one is in direct immersed relationship
with the enveloping hospitality and liveliness of
the Pulai daily culture.
Journey
Moving around the central void,
experiencing the intangible of the space
rearing the river water flowing beneath
the sun, cascading from above.
Journey
Visitors are free to sit around the void or the
hanging verandah to simply enjoy the natural
beauty of the surroundings.
9. Figure 3.1: An aerial photo of the entire site where the plot of land highlighted
in red is where the building sits on whereas the community hall nearby is also
supported by slender concrete columns and beams (in yellow) which transfers
load to the piling foundation underground.
3.1 FOUNDATION
Foundations provide support to the structure above
through columns and the loads were eventually transferred
from the structure to the soil below ground level.
Foundation is one of the most crucial aspect of a building
structural component in ensuring that the lifespan of the
building would last for the next several decades; whilst
having to withstand all sorts of environmental impact in the
surroundings as well as dead loads that is imposed by the
structural components of the building itself and live loads.
Hence, a thorough study through comparison of several
alternatives of foundations in relation to the context of the
site will be conducted in order to address the problem
statement with a proposed solution before a conclusion will
be drawn based on the most suitable and reliable
foundation that can be applied in the construction of this
KNOT Visitor Interpretive Center, while taking into account
of three different aspects, namely stability, feasibility and
economy.
9
3.1.1 INTRODUCTION
Figure 3.2: An isometric drawing of the micro site with the structure of the
building (highlighted in red) which sits in between the river and the lake.
10. 3.1 FOUNDATION
In order to identify the suitable foundation to be used, there are several considerations or factors to be taken into consideration:
3. Water level of the river
The water level would consistently be 3 meters high
from the riverbed except during monsoon season in
the region which happens yearly. It is also recorded
that massive flood would occur once every 4 years
with strong currents where the water would rise up to
the height of a 4 storey-building. Hence, the building
has to be elevated above ground by multiple columns
which transfers its load to the foundations below.
Figure 3.3: The building is designed to be elevated from the ground level,
hence multiple concrete columns and pilotis can be seen which is supported
by an appropriate foundation system.
10
2. Soil conditions at site
The soil condition in Kampung Pulai is rather firm
and stable despite it being located off the riverbanks.
Hence, it would be able to support the the drilling
pressure imposed onto the soil condition once
foundation works are carried out in order to lift and
support the weight of the building above.
1. Total load from the structure above
The total load that would be transmitted from the live
and dead load has to be taken into consideration in
order to make sure that the capacity of the columns
and foundation below would be able to withstand the
overall load that is imposed onto it as shown in Figure
3.3.
3.1.2 FACTORS DETERMINING THE TYPES OF FOUNDATION
Figure 3.4: A site plan that shows the position of columns (in red) which is
supported by the foundations on the structural ground floor plan in relation
to the site where some columns is submerged partially into the river and lake.
4. Location of the building
It is located in an average-paced developed area
surrounded by well-preserved lush greeneries and
natural limestone caves. The contour of the site is
rather mild with a gentle slope at the edge of the
riverbank. (Figure 3.4)
11. 3.1 FOUNDATION
There are two types of foundations, namely shallow and
deep foundations.
When the bearing capacity of the surface soil is adequate to
carry the loads imposed by the structure above, shallow
footings are usually used.
On the contrary, when the bearing capacity of the surface
soil is not sufficient to carry the loads imposed by the
structure, deep foundation is used.
To sum it up, in regardless of the loads imposed from the
structure above, the loads have to be transferred to a
deeper level where the soil layer has a higher bearing
capacity to prevent any possible structural mishaps on the
building.
In this case where our building was built alongside
riverbank, deep foundation is needed to withstand strong
current and unfavourable weather that occurs every once in
a while.
Figure 3.7: Example of shallow foundation (left) and deep foundation (right)
where both of these foundations contains reinforcing bars before concrete are
poured over them to create a strong and rigid foundation.
11
3.1.3 SHALLOW AND DEEP FOUNDATIONPROBLEM STATEMENT
In the existing design of the KNOT Visitor Interpretive
Center (VIC), no proper foundation systems were
incorporated into the overall design as shown in Figure 3.5
and Figure 3.6. Hence, various study on the types of
foundations that’s deemed suitable to be built on site will be
carried out and tabulated in the following tables.
Figure 3.5: Existing design where no proper foundation system is applied based on the
longitudinal section drawing above.
Figure 3.6: A rendered
perspective of the building
where it’s mainly
surrounded by green,
natural elements. The
vibrating effect of piling
activity has to take into
account as another
existing structure of
concrete beams and
columns are located right
opposite (in red).
12. 3.1 FOUNDATION
3.1.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN 3 TYPES OF FOUNDATION
Types of Foundation
Pier Foundation Caisson Pile Foundation
Characteristics of
Foundation
Pier foundation is a type of deep
foundation.
It consists of a cylindrical column
of large diameter to support and
transfer large superimposed loads
to the firm strata below.
Caissons are watertight structures
made up of wood, steel or
reinforced concrete.
It is normally built above the
ground level and then sunken into
the ground.
Pile foundation is a type of
deep foundation.
The loads are taken to a low
level by means of vertical
timber, concrete or steel.
Pile resistance Masonry or concrete piers and
drilled caissons.
Box, open, pneumatic, monolithic,
floating, excavated, etc.
End-bearing piles, friction piles,
compaction piles, anchor piles,
tension or uplift piles, sheet
and batter piles.
Method of
Construction
Pier is typically dug out and cast in
place using forms or being inserted
down into the bedrock.
Caissons are driven into the
surface of the soil, putting a box
into underwater and pouring/
filling it with concrete.
Piles are driven into the surface
of the soil driven by a
piledriver.
Presence of Footing Yes No No
12Table of Comparison on several aspects in the study of different types of foundation.
13. 3.1 FOUNDATION
CONCLUSION BASED ON THE COMPARISON MADE ON THE 3 TYPES OF FOUNDATION
13
Figure 3.8: Pier Foundation
Figure 3.9: Caisson Foundation
Figure 3.10: Pile Foundation
After the comparison has been made based on several
aspects as shown in Table 3.1, the most appropriate
foundation system to be introduced for this VIC in
particular is pile foundation.
This is because it is categorized under deep foundation
where the bearing capacity of the surface soil at the site is
not sufficient to carry the loads imposed by the structure
above.
Besides, it also does not require pad footing where piles
would only be driven into the surface of the soil driven by a
piledriver without involving much complexities in the
process of getting it completed at site.
14. 3.1 FOUNDATION
3.1.5 COMPARISON BETWEEN 2 TYPES OF PILE FOUNDATION
Types of Pile
Foundation
Bored Pile Foundation Driven Pile Foundation
Characteristics of
Foundation
Bored pile, also called drilled shaft, is a type of
reinforced-concrete foundation that supports
structures with heavy vertical loads. A bored pile is
a cast-in-place concrete pile, meaning the pile is
cast on the construction site. This differs from
other concrete pile foundations, like spun pile and
reinforced concrete square pile foundations, which
use precast concrete piles. Bored piling is
commonly used for bridge work, tall buildings, and
massive industrial complexes, all of which require
deep foundations.
Driven piles, also known as displacement piles, are a
commonly-used form of building foundation that
provide support for structures, transferring their
load to layers of soil or rock that have sufficient
bearing capacity and suitable settlement
characteristics.
Driven piles are commonly used to support
buildings, tanks, towers, walls and bridges.
Driven piles are very adaptable and can be installed
to accommodate compression, tension or lateral
loads, with specifications set according to the needs
of the structure, budget and soil conditions.
Piling Materials Masonry or concrete piers and drilled caissons. Piles of timber, prestressed concrete and steel are
also used in this method.
14
15. 3.1 FOUNDATION
3.1.5 COMPARISON BETWEEN 2 TYPES OF PILE FOUNDATION
Advantages
● Piles of variable lengths can be extended
through soft, compressible, or swelling
soils into suitable bearing material.
● Piles can be extended to depths below
frost penetration and seasonal moisture
variation.
● Large excavations and subsequent
backfill are minimized.
● Less disruption to adjacent soil occurs.
● Vibration is relatively low, reducing
disturbance of adjacent piles or
structures.
● High-capacity caissons can be
constructed by expanding the base of
the pile shaft up to three times the shaft
diameter, thus eliminating the need for
caps over groups of multiple piles.
● For many design situations, bored piles
offer higher capacities with potentially
better economics than driven piles.
● Piles can be pre-fabricated off-site which
allows for efficient installation once on site.
● Driven piles displace and compact the soil
which increases the bearing capacity of the
pile. Whereas, other deep foundations tend
to require the removal of soil which can lead
to subsidence and other structural
problems.
● They are cost-effective as a wide variety of
materials and shapes can be easily
fabricated to specified dimensions, which
can result in the need for fewer piles on site.
● They generally have superior structural
strength to other forms of foundation. Their
high lateral and bending resistance makes
them ideal for challenging conditions such
as wind, water, seismic loading, and so on.
● Installation usually produces little spoil for
removal and disposal.
15
16. 3.1 FOUNDATION
3.1.5 COMPARISON BETWEEN 2 TYPES OF PILE FOUNDATION
Disadvantages ● Susceptible to “wasting” or “necking” in
“squeezing” ground.
● Concrete is not placed under ideal
conditions and cannot be subsequently
inspected.
● Water under artesian pressure may pipe up
pile shaft washing out cement.
● Damage may occur in the pile at a position not
visible from the surface during driving
process.
● Pile may get laterally displaced if it encounters
any obstructions like rocks in the ground.
● The length of pile is estimated before driving
commences, but the accuracy of this
assumption is only known on site, where short
piles can be difficult to extend and long piles
may prove to be expensive and wasteful.
● Advance planning is required for handling and
driving, as well as the heavy equipment on
site.
● It may not be possible to determine the exact
length required and so splicing or cut-off
techniques may be required which has time
and cost implications.
● Driven piles may not be suitable where the
ground has poor drainage qualities.
● Driven piles may not be suitable for compact
sites, where the foundations of structures in
close proximity may be affected by the
vibrations caused by installation.
Cost Less More
16
17. 3.1 FOUNDATION
PROCESSES OF 2 TYPES OF PILES FOUNDATION
Figure 3.12: Process of driven piling beginning with the placement of pile (left),
installation of pile by hammering it into the ground (center) and the steps are
repeated until a small cap remains above the ground (right).
Figure 3.11: Process of bored piling.
Phase 1:
Casing
Installation
Phase 2:
Drilling
Phase 3:
Install
Reinforcement
Phase 4:
Pouring of
Concrete
Phase 5:
Extract the
Casing
17
18. Figure 3.13: A modified section drawings with the bored piles (highlighted in red) that has been introduced to address the issue of stability and feasibility in accordance to
the given site and soil condition.
3.1 FOUNDATION
Besides, the concrete structure that is located right
opposite (as shown in Figure 3.6) the VIC would also be
affected if driven pile foundation is introduced as it may
not be suitable for compact sites, where the foundations of
structures in close proximity may be affected by the
vibrations caused by installation.
3.1.6 STABILITY & FEASIBILITY
In order to ensure that the building will be feasible in
remaining upright and stable if the building erected, bored
pile foundation will be introduced in the construction of its
foundation systems as shown in Figure 3.13.
This is because, being built on an embankment/ riverbank
where strong current and waves can be unfavourable at
times, the foundation that’s supporting the load from the
columns above would need to be able to withstand the
forces acted on it.
PROPOSED SOLUTION
18
20. 3.2 SKELETAL FRAMING STRUCTURE
PROBLEM STATEMENT
3.2.1 FEASIBILITY
Wood stud and post-and-beam framing
The requirement for stability against side loads and wind is
high for load bearing structure. The existing design of the
building consists of both wood post-and-beam framing and
wood stud framing system (load bearing). The wood stud
wall in the building consists of large opening which may
resulted in the weakening of strength to the building.
20
Columns
Stud wall
Irregular and disturbed load distribution
The same sizes are aligned irregularly and not parallel to
each other causing an uneven load distribution.The columns
are not positioned systematically in a grid system which
cause the distribution of uneven load from the slab above.
Figure 3.14: Ground floor plan with columns and stud wall labelled.
21. Wood stud and post-and-beam framing
The initial first floor plan consists of high percentage of stud
wall which acts as load bearing structure that support the
weight of the roof. There are two columns only found at this
plan. The wood stud wall are with large opening and most of
the stud wall position are not aligned with the columns
supporting the first floor beam and slab.
3.2 SKELETAL FRAMING STRUCTURE
PROBLEM STATEMENT
3.2.1 FEASIBILITY
21
Columns
Stud wall
Figure 3.15: First floor plan of existing design with columns and stud wall labelled.
Figure 3.16: North elevation - stud wall with large openings highlighted.
Opening
Stud wall
22. Figure 3.17: Ground floor structural plan of columns and beams.
3.2 SKELETAL FRAMING STRUCTURE
3.2.1 FEASIBILITY
Grid structural system
Equal and even load distribution
Two-way systems found in the structural system and the
structures are designed to channel the loads acting on the
building to the ground.
PROPOSED SOLUTION
22
Columns
Regular grid define equal spans, allow the use of
repetitive structural element, and offer the efficiency of
structural continuity across a number of bays.
23. 3.2 SKELETAL FRAMING STRUCTURE
3.2.1 FEASIBILITY
PROPOSED SOLUTION
23
Columns
Figure 3.18: First floor structural plan of columns and beams.
Steel reinforcement
(rebar)
Concrete
Modifying proportions
The grid can be made irregular, which creates different
size, scales and proportions of modules in order to
accommodate the specific dimensional requirements of
spaces and functions of the existing building. Figure 3.19: Cross section of
composite columns with reinforcement
24. 3.2 SKELETAL FRAMING STRUCTURE
PROBLEM STATEMENT
3.2.2 STABILITY
Timber structures are sensitive to moisture fluctuation.
According to Oxley and Gobert, the main sources of
dampness in buildings are direct penetration through the
structure, faulty rainwater disposal, faulty plumbing and
more which will lower the load bearing capacity and increase
deformation.
Apart from that, the dimension of the timber can change due
to seasoning. Moreover, the geometry of the joints should
not be changed by shrinkage of the wood and bearing
surfaces should remain in tight contact.
Moreover, shear strength of timber is weak due to the knots,
faults and cracks that appeared in wood and resulting in
failure for structural purpose.
Less columns supporting the first floor and the beams
constructed is not structurally supporting by the columns
and stud walls below resulting instability floor. The timber
stud wall acts as load bearing structure cannot support the
load of floor and roof structures above.
24
Columns
Beams
Stud Wall
Figure 3.20: The existing ground floor plan with structural system components labelled.
Structural element Size
Column 120mm*160mm, 200mm*200mm
Beam 100mm*350mm
Table of structural elements of existing design and sizes
25. 3.2 SKELETAL FRAMING STRUCTURE
PROPOSED SOLUTION
Reinforced concrete frames are commonly used in the
structural designs of multi-storey buildings and are suitable
for our building with three-storeys height approximately. This
is due to the characteristics of the reinforced concrete
structure which is able to span greater distance and carry
heavier loads. The proposed reinforced concrete structure
layout made up od column size of 200mm*200mm has a
span range from 4m to 6m.
3.2.2 STABILITY
The efficiency of a beam is increased by increasing the
depth which reduces the bending stresses of the beam.
The elastic modulus is the resistance of a material to elastic
deformation under load. Elastic modulus of timber is
11000MN/m² compared with 27000MN/m² of reinforced
concrete. Reinforced concrete is stiffer than timber which is
a good resistant to bending.
25
Structural element Size
Column 200mm*200mm , 180mm*180mm
Beam 180mm*300mm
Figure 3.21: Load distribution path from beam to column and to ground.
Increased depth of beam
with steel reinforcement
Slab with steel
reinforcement
Table of structural elements of modified design and sizes
Figure 3.22: Increased depth of beam for higher efficiency
26. 3.2 SKELETAL FRAMING STRUCTURE
PROBLEM STATEMENT
3.2.3 ECONOMY
Timber
The initial material chosen for
the building is timber. The cost
required for material is cheaper
at first however, it might
required maintenance and
treatments overtime and it will
eventually increase the labour
cost.
Structural System
Assignable to confusing
structural system and building
frameworks, a longer
construction period is required
and issues such as needing of
more skilled workers and the
cost to hire workers arise.
Labour
Due to the irregular
arrangements of columns and
beams causing inconvenient
and unnecessary mistakes
during construction, it will be
resulting in requiring of more
skilled workers to solve the
issues.
26
27. 3.2 SKELETAL FRAMING STRUCTURE
3.2.3 ECONOMY
Reinforced concrete
Material cheaper in long term, as reinforced concrete is
more durable to weather. Laying out columns along the
regular grid allow cost saving for beams and slabs.
The cost of material is cheaper in long term, as reinforced
concrete has high durability to weather and require less
maintenance.
PROPOSED SOLUTION
27
With application of grid structural system, lesser mistakes
by labours and shorter time for construction is required
which result in cost saving.
Building material Price
Reinforced concrete (Cast in-situ) RM250/m²
Heavy hardwood (Sawn timber
strips)
RM852 - RM5508/m³
Building material Life span
Reinforced concrete (Cast in-situ) 75 - 100 years
Heavy hardwood (Sawn timber
strips)
30-50 years
Table of building material and life span
Table of building material and price
28. 3.2 SKELETAL FRAMING STRUCTURE
PROBLEM STATEMENT
3.2.4 SAFETY
Combustibility
When the frame is left exposed, the connections detailing is
unfavourable for structural and visual reasons.
Combustibility is one of the major downside of using
material in constructions. When timber is exposed to the
higher temperature, it encounters structural, chemical and
physical changes. Firstly, the moisture in the wood will
begin to evaporated when the wood is heated. Prolysis will
takes place when the temperature of the wood reach around
300 °C causing of loss in mass and weaken the strength and
mechanical properties. Finally, steel plates and bolt
connections will be loosen and failed.
28
Timber
Concrete
Figure 3.23: Timber and concrete column highlighted at section of existing design.
29. 3.2 SKELETAL FRAMING STRUCTURE
3.2.4 SAFETY
Reinforced concrete
Typically, concrete frames are rigid and qualify as
non-combustible and fire-resistive construction.
In reference of UBBL 1984, By law 158(3), 224, load bearing
structures of the building- columns, floor slab and roof with
thickness minimum of 180mm of unplastered concrete has a
minimum fire rating period of 4 hours:
PROPOSED SOLUTION
Hence it is a safe choice of using concrete for main
structural components.
29
Figure 3.24: Proposed section with new concrete columns and beams highlighted.
Concrete
31. 3.3 FLOOR
3.3.1 STABILITY
PROBLEM STATEMENT
Initially, the first floor slab is wood framing structure with
pinewood decking which cannot support the dead and live
load of the floors. It is one way slab which the wood beams
are arranged only in one direction and are not enough to
support the load above. The span between each beam is
3000mm but there is no column supporting. It may also
cause the bending of timber decking. When high stress is
applied beyond the elastic range, failure may occur due to
the bending force within the decking.
Wood framing structure with pinewood decking
Timber one way slab
31
Figure 3.25: The section of existing design highlighting the wood beams arranged in one direction in one way slab
32. 3.3 FLOOR
3.3.1 STABILITY
32
Figure 3.26: Proposed structural ground floor plan indicating types of slab
Figure 3.27: Proposed structural first floor plan indicating types of slab
Two-way slab
One-way slab
33. 3.3 FLOOR
3.3.1 STABILITY
PROPOSED SOLUTION
To solve the issue, RC slab is used instead of wood joist floor.
RC slab has higher compressive strength and can withstand
higher amount of tensile stress compared to wood joist
floor.The RC beam structure can support the RC slab more
sturdy and rigid which can prevent failure or bending.
Pinewood Decking
Concrete Slab
Concrete Beam Steel Reinforcement
To maintain the aesthetic value of timber, the RC slabs are
covered with timber finishing. In conclusion, the overall
aesthetic is maintained while achieving the stability of
structure.
33
Figure 3.28: Reinforced concrete slab with reinforced beam with thermally
modified wood decking
Figure 3.29: Concrete two way slab
Lx
Ly
≤ 2, One-way slab
≥ 2, Two-way slab
Figure 3.30: Concrete one way slab
34. 3.3 FLOOR
PROBLEM STATEMENT
3.3.2 OPTIMIZATION
Initially, the first floor is built with pinewood decking. The
first floor is an open space where part of the floor is
exposed to sun and rain. It requires water-proof painting
annually which need maintenance and increases the cost of
installing.
34
Figure 3.31: Exposed pinewood flooring at first floor of existing design.
Concrete
The gaps between the timber decking cause water leaking
problem from first floor to ground floor.
35. To remain the aesthetic, the flooring which exposed to sun
and rain is replaced by concrete; while the interior still
remains timber decking. Concrete slab is chosen to solve the
water leaking problem.
For deck installation, 75mm galvanised timber deck nail is
used to fix the wood decking and wood joist. Skirtboard is
also installed to cover the unsightly area under a deck.
3.3 FLOOR
SkirtboardWood Joist
Concrete slab Pinewood decking
35
Figure 3.34: Pinewood decking to
timber joist connection
3.3.2 OPTIMIZATION
Figure 3.35: Connection
between wood joist and
concrete slab
Figure 3.33: Installation of pinewood decking on concrete slab
PROPOSED SOLUTION
Figure 3.32: Flooring highlighted at first floor of proposed design.
Concrete
Timber
36. 3.3 FLOOR
PROBLEM STATEMENT
3.3.3 FEASIBILITY
PROPOSED SOLUTION
Timber framing structure is not suitable for ramp at first floor.
It is hard to shape and it might cost a lot for installation. It is
not strong enough to handle the dead load and live load
applied.
Timber framing structure is replaced by RC slab and RC beam,
as it is easier to mould the shape of the ramp, at the same time
to provide strength.
36
Figure 3.36: Section with ramp highlighted in red.
37. 3.3 FLOOR
PROBLEM STATEMENT
250mm concrete slab without beam would requires more
cement to form, it is more expensive compared to 150mm
concrete slab with beam.
PROPOSED SOLUTION
Initially, the ground floor concrete slab is 150mm without
beam. The concrete slab itself cannot support both the dead
load and live load. Beam is needed to provide resistance to
bending when load or force is applied.
37
Ground floor plan Concrete
3.3.4 ECONOMY
Figure 3.37: Concrete flooring highlighted at ground floor of existing design.
150mm
Concrete Slab
Concrete Beam Steel Reinforcement
150mm
Figure 3.38: 150mm concrete slab without beam
`
Figure 3.39: 150mm concrete slab with RC beam
39. 3.4 ROOF
3.4.1 STABILITY
The existing roof structure which are highlighted in brown as
seen in figure above are made up of couple pitched roof which
consisted of ridge board, rafters and wall plates. The spanning
of the roof varies, from largest span of 16.8, 12.8, 9.2, 8.2, 7.2,
5.8 meters, and the smallest span is 5.5 meters. The suitable
span for couple roof are only 3.6m in maximum, this can be
increased to 4.8m in the case of closed couple roof, and 5.5m in
the case of collar roof. The spans of the roof of the visitor
interpretive center are too large for the 39
simple pitched roof to be stable and this affects the integrity
of the whole timber roof structures to fulfill it function. Apart
from supporting its own dead load weight, the roof
structures are functioned to transfer the wind and rain loads
acting on the roofs to the load-bearing columns on which
they rest. The existing large spanning roof structures are
thus susceptible to collapse, and the safety of the occupants
will be jeopardized.
PROBLEM STATEMENT
Figure3.40: Section drawing before modification
wood rafters
40. 3.4 ROOF
Types of Truss Steel Truss Wood Truss
Advantage(s) High strength-to-weight ratio.
High tensile and compressive
strength.
Superior spanning capacity.
Recyclable materials, eco-friendly to
environment.
Innate insulation to solar heat, energy efficient in interior
cooling.
Low embodied energy materials, consumes much less energy to
produce compared to steel trusses
Better performance in fire. The charring of the wood surfaces
insulated the wood from further burning, the remain intact
cross-section continues to support load. Glulam performs very
well in intense heat of a fire, where temperatures can achieve
900 °C or higher. Unprotected steel members typically buckle
and twist in such high temperatures, causing catastrophic
collapse of the roof.
Disadvantage(s) Vulnerable to rust as a result of
chronic moisture exposure when the
coating worn out or defective vapor
barriers.
Heated easily due to solar heat gain,
detrimental to interior thermal
comfort
Treatment needed to protect from termite attack.
Treated to be moisture resistance to prevent rotting and decay
of wood.
40
PROPOSED SOLUTION
3.4.1 STABILITY
41. Timber Roof Truss
The proposed solution for large spanning roof would be the
use of roof trusses. The preferable choice are wood trusses
as compared to steel trusses. The use of timber in the
long-run is more energy efficient. This is due to the fact of
lower energy consumption – both the embodied energy
required to extract, process, transport, and install building
materials and the operational energy to cool the building.
The large spans will require designed roof trusses.
3.4 ROOF
41
3.4.1 STABILITY
PROPOSED SOLUTION
Wood trusses are prefabricated in plants according to the
design specifications, this means higher quality control can
be achieved during the manufacture process. The
members of the trusses are all prefabricated and
connected beforehand, thus it is quicker to install on site
and save time, this may lead to a lower labour cost and the
overall construction cost. All members in a trussed rafter
are machined on all faces so that they are identical and of
uniform thickness, ensuring a strong connections on both
faces. On-site framing problems are eliminated as well.
Figure3.41: Section drawing after modification
42. The remote site of the VIC from the main city coupled with the
high rainfall in Malaysia climate, justified for the application of
rainwater collection system. A water cisterns used for
harvesting rainwater can significantly reduce the demand of
treated drinking water from the grid for secondary uses such
as toilet flushing, landscaping watering, washing kitchen
appliances. In the pre-modification, separate room spaces in
the VIC need to be designed to contain the water storage tank
.This will results in additional take taken up and inefficient use
of the space.
3.4 ROOF
3.4.2 INTEGRATION
Problem Statement
The interstitial roof space created from the roof trusses
can be utilized to integrate the water cistern
placement. A ceiling can be provided to hide the
services without affecting the aesthetic value of
designated spaces for users. Moreover, additional
separate space for water cistern storage can be saved
up by optimizing the once undefined space by turning
it as usable roof spaces without further compromising
the floor-to-ceiling height.
42
Proposed Solution
Figure 3.42: Section drawing after modification
wood trusses
water cistern
43. The aspect of optimization in the design is often undermined, safety, feasibility, economy, practicality may be overlooked
at the design stage, while aesthetics more often than not given the most priority. In the selected building. The designer’s
want to design the tall and voluminous feel of the spaces at the first floor has compromised the economical use of spaces
and practicality of large spanning by using simply rafter framing. The single-minded attention to aesthetics , e.i. primarily
designed for used to experience the spaces in certain way has led to inefficient utilization of the roof spaces.
3.4 ROOF
3.4.3 OPTIMIZATION
Problem Statement
43
Figure 3.43: Section drawing before modification
windows
wood rafters
44. 3.4 ROOF
3.4.3 OPTIMIZATION
44
Proposed Solution
After the issue of the roof structures and roof interstitial spaces are addressed in the post-modification version of the building,
modifications to the window openings in the building’s design is needed. The top part of the window design could no longer
follows the pitch of the roofline and change to rectilinear windows instead. The problem of the window height prior to
modification is too tall to be anthropometric for users is addressed as well.
windows
wood trusses
Figure 3.44: Section drawing after modification
46. 3.5 BRIDGE
3.5.1 STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF THE EXISTING BRIDGE
The existing bridge is currently in poor condition. It is safe
to accommodate a small group of three users at a time.
The durability of the structure is relatively high to
withstand the weather in Kampung Pulai over decades.
The bridge can be improved in strength by using steel
beams instead of timber beams, in order to accommodate
larger live load.
46
Figure3.45: Section Drawing that cuts through the proposed suspended bridge (highlighted in red) which connects to the other end of the existing site (right) from the
newly-designed building (left).
Figure 3.46: Side view of the existing suspended cable bridge.
Figure 3.47: Close-up view of the structural component of the bridge.
47. 3.5 BRIDGE
3.5.2 STABILITY
PROBLEM STATEMENT
The initial structure of the bridge was designed without
proper supporting system to accommodate the dead load
and live load as shown in Figure. The bridge is only held
together by the hand rails that connects from the VIC to the
existing building. The other issue is the timber materiality as
shown in Figure which is rather unsustainable and not
durable as the span of the bridge is too long and is
constantly exposed to the surrounding heat, moisture and
rainwater.
47
Figure3.48: Section Drawing that cuts through the proposed suspended bridge (highlighted in maroon) which connects to the other end of the existing site (right) from the
newly-designed building (left).
Figure 3.49: The newly-designed suspension cable bridge’s walkway path
(highlighted in red) is laid out with plywood sheets.
Timber slab
48. 3.5 BRIDGE
3.5.2 STABILITY
PROPOSED SOLUTION
48
Figure 3.52: I-Beam
150mm
(Web)
100mm
(Flange)
Figure 3.51: Suspended Bridge Component
Steel Cable
6mm diamond thread aluminium
stainless steel sheet
Steel hook welded to the top
‘flange’ of the I-Beam
1. Build cable system
The suspension cables and stringers are cut
and assembled. Stringers are adjusted to be
specific height to keep the deck level.
2. Consider the resonance
The stringers were also spaced to deal with
harmonic resonance.
3. Span the cables and stringers
Suspended between the concrete
rectangular arch structures.
4. Add support beams
5. Add decking
Steel Cable
(underneath I-Beam)
Figure 3.49: The proposed suspension cable bridge’s walkway path (highlighted in red).
49. 3.5 BRIDGE
3.5.3 ECONOMY
49
PROBLEM STATEMENT
Timber
The initial material chosen for
the bridge is timber. The cost
required for material is cheaper
at first however, it is vulnerable
to water damages and is prone
to decay faster due to the
weather condition in Kampung
Pulai.
Steel
Proposed material for the bridge
is steel. Material cheaper in long
term, as steel is more durable to
weather. Steel framing improves
design efficiency, saves time, and
reduces costs.
PROPOSED SOLUTION
Building material Price
Steel RM16/kg
Plywood RM422/m²
Building material Life span
Steel 65 - 70 years
Plywood 30 - 40 years
Table of building material and life span
Table of building material and price
50. 3.5 BRIDGE
50
3.5.4 SAFETY
PROBLEM STATEMENT
Deterioration of wood
Wood is a nutritional product for some plants and animals.
Humans can not digest cellulose and the other fiber
ingredients of wood, but some fungi and insects can digest it,
and use it as a nutritional product. Insects drill holes and drive
lines into wood. Even more dangerously, fungi cause the wood
to decay partially and even completely.
Figure 3.53: The newly-designed suspension cable bridge’s walkway path (highlighted in red) is laid out with plywood sheets.
Biological deterioration of wood due to attack by decay
fungi, wood boring insects and marine borers during its
processing and in service has technical and economical
importance.
51. 3.5 BRIDGE
3.5.4 SAFETY
Aluminium stainless steel sheet
Today, aluminium is the second most used metal in buildings
after steel. Because of its ductility, aluminium can be formed
into many shapes and profiles. It is commonly used for
building exteriors, with large wall panels requiring fewer
joints, resulting in time-efficient installation.
PROPOSED SOLUTION
Figure 3.54: Proposed decking material - diamond thread aluminium stainless steel sheet.
Aluminium is remarkable for its low density and its ability
to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of
passivation.
Hence it is a safe choice of using aluminium stainless
steel sheet for the decking of the bridge.
51
6mm diamond
thread aluminium
stainless steel sheet
Figure 3.55: Suspended Bridge Component
53. 5.0 CONCLUSION
To make sure the structure is buildable, structural systems
and forces was identified, at the same time to apply
structural theory in designing structural elements, appraise
the technical standards as well as structural design codes
and loading codes to be applied to building design.
Structural analysis has been conducted based on safety,
feasibility, economy, optimization, integration, stability,
strength, rigidity when implement the new structural
design. The implementation of new structural design
achieve both structural stability and safety.
53
54. 6.0 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1: An aerial
photo of the entire site where the plot of land highlighted in red is where the
building sits on whereas the community hall nearby is also supported by slender
concrete columns and beams (in
yellow) which transfers load to the
piling foundation underground.
Figure 3.2: An isometric
drawing of the micro site with the structure of the building (highlighted in
red) which sits in between the river and the lake.
Figure 3.3: The building
is designed to be elevated from the ground level, hence multiple concrete
columns and pilotis can be seen which is supported by an appropriate
foundation system.
Figure 3.4: A site plan
that shows the position of columns (in red) which is supported by the
foundations on the structural ground floor plan in relation to the site where some
columns is submerged partially into the river and lake.
Figure 3.5: Existing
design where no proper foundation system is applied based on the longitudinal
section drawing above.
Figure 3.6: A rendered
perspective of the building where it’s mainly surrounded by green, natural
elements. The vibrating effect of piling activity has to take into account as
another existing structure of concrete beams and columns are located right
opposite (in red).
Figure 3.7: Example of shallow
foundation (left) and deep foundation (right) where both of these foundations
contains reinforcing bars before concrete are poured over them to create a
strong and rigid foundation.
Figure 3.8: Pier Foundation
Figure 3.9: Caisson Foundation
Figure 3.10: Pile Foundation
Figure 3.11: Process of
bored piling.
Figure 3.12: Process of driven piling beginning with the placement of pile (left),
installation of pile by hammering it into the ground (center) and the steps are repeated
until a small cap remains above the ground (right).
Figure 3.13: A modified section drawings with the bored piles (highlighted in red) that
has been introduced to address the issue of stability and feasibility in accordance to
the given site and soil condition.
54
Figure 3.14: Ground floor plan with columns and stud wall labelled.
Figure 3.15: First floor plan of existing design with columns and stud wall labelled.
Figure 3.16: North elevation - stud wall with large openings highlighted.
Figure 3.17: Ground floor structural plan of columns and beams.
Figure 3.18: First floor structural plan of columns and beams.
Figure 3.19: Cross section of composite columns with reinforcement
Figure 3.20: The existing ground floor plan with structural system components
labelled.
Figure 3.21: Load distribution path from beam to column and to ground.
Figure 3.22: Increased depth of beam for higher efficiency
Figure 3.23: Timber and concrete column highlighted at section of existing design.
Figure 3.24: Proposed section with new concrete columns and beams highlighted.
Figure 3.25: The section of existing design highlighting the wood beams arranged in
one direction in one
way slab
Figure 3.26: Proposed
structural ground floor plan indicating types of slab
Figure 3.27: Proposed structural first floor plan indicating types of slab
Figure 3.28: Reinforced concrete slab with reinforced beam with thermally modified
wood decking
Figure 3.29: Concrete two way slab
Figure 3.30: Concrete one way slab
Figure 3.31: Exposed pinewood flooring at first floor of existing design.
Figure 3.32: Flooring highlighted at first floor of proposed design.
Figure 3.33: Installation of pinewood decking on concrete slab
Figure 3.34: Pinewood decking to timber joist connection
Figure 3.35: Connection between wood joist and concrete slab
Figure 3.36: Section with ramp highlighted in red.
Figure 3.37: Concrete flooring highlighted at ground floor of existing design.
Figure 3.38: 150mm concrete slab without beam
Figure 3.39: 150mm concrete slab with RC beam
55. 6.0 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure3.40: Section drawing before modification
Figure3.41: Section drawing after modification
Figure 3.42: Section drawing after modification
Figure 3.43: Section drawing before modification
Figure 3.44: Section drawing after modification
Figure3.45: Section Drawing that cuts through the proposed suspended bridge
(highlighted in red) which connects to the other end of the existing site
(right) from the newly-designed building (left).
Figure 3.46: Side view of the existing suspended cable bridge.
Figure 3.47: Close-up view of the structural component of the bridge.
Figure3.48: Section Drawing that cuts through the proposed suspended bridge
(highlighted in maroon) which connects to the other end of the existing site
(right) from the newly-designed building (left).
Figure 3.49: The proposed suspension cable bridge’s walkway path (highlighted in
red).
Figure 3.51: Suspended Bridge Component
Figure 3.52: I-Beam
Figure 3.53: The newly-designed
suspension cable bridge’s walkway path (highlighted in red) is laid out with plywood
sheets.
Figure 3.54: Proposed decking material - diamond thread aluminium stainless steel
sheet.
Figure 3.55: Suspended Bridge Component
55
56. 7.0 REFERENCES
Ambrose, J. (1993). Building structures. John Wiley & Sons.
Ching, F. D. (2014). Building construction illustrated. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Ching, F. D. (2013). Building Structures Illustrated: Patterns, Systems, and Design. John Wiley & Sons
Designing Buildings Wiki Share your construction industry knowledge www.designingbuildings.co.uk. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Pile_foundations
Gang-Nails System Limited. (n.d.). The Trussed Rafter Manual[PDF]. Gang-Nails System Limited.
Home.(n.d.).Retrieved from
https://civiltoday.com/geotechnical-engineering/foundation-engineering/deep-foundation/176-pile-foundation-definition-types
Kassimali, A. (2009). Structural analysis. Cengage Learning
Klevaklip. (n.d.). How to build a deck on a concrete slab. Retrieved from
http://www.klevaklip.com.au/How-to-build-a-deck-on-a-concrete-slab
Mirasha, G. (2018, September 10). Types of Foundation and their Uses in Building Construction. Retrieved from
https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/foundation-types-and-uses/9237/
Mustaq, M. (n.d.). Difference between piles, piers and caissons. Retrieved from
https://civiltoday.com/geotechnical-engineering/foundation-engineering/deep-foundation/151-difference-between-piles-piers-c
aissons
Park, Robert, and Thomas Paulay. Reinforced concrete structures. John Wiley & Sons, 1975.
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