Assignment.Pdf

Amity Campus
Uttar Pradesh
India 201303
ASSIGNMENTS
PROGRAM: MBA IB
SEMESTER-III
Subject Name : Organization Behavior
Study COUNTRY : The Gambia
Roll Number (Reg.No.) : IB01122014-2016023
Student Name :Saikou Saidy Jeng
INSTRUCTIONS
a) Students are required to submit all three assignment sets.
ASSIGNMENT DETAILS MARKS
Assignment A Five Subjective Questions 10
Assignment B Three Subjective Questions + Case Study 10
Assignment C Objective or one line Questions 10
b) Total weightage given to these assignments is 30%. OR 30 Marks
c) All assignments are to be completed as typed in word/pdf.
d) All questions are required to be attempted.
e) All the three assignments are to be completed by due dates and need to be
submitted for evaluation by Amity University.
f) The students have to attached a scan signature in the form.
Signature :
_________________________________
Date : _________________22nd
-11-2015________________
( √ ) Tick mark in front of the assignments submitted

Assignment
‘A’
√ Assignment ‘B’ √ Assignment ‘C’ √
Organization Behavior
Section A
1. What is your understanding of Johari Window?
The Johari Window is a test to develop self-awareness and group
dynamics, designed in 1955, by American psychologists Joseph Luft and
Harrington Ingham. That's actually where the name comes from - Joseph
and Harrington.
The Johari Window presents a visual model of awareness and has
four paned "window" as illustrated below. The window divides
personal awareness into four different types as represented by its
four quadrants. The two columns represent aspects of self
awareness and two rows represent awareness of the other
people, superior, colleague, friends, and group members.
Quadrant 1 is about openness, honesty and frankness, knowledge,
behavior feeling & motivation. Since, it is information available to both

self and others it can only be possible where there is a fairly good degree
of sharing and interaction. The larger this quadrant, the greater is the
person‘s contact with reality and the more available are his abilities and
needs. This is the open area.
Sometimes called, the arena, the open area is the area which is known to
all. You are open about your thoughts and feelings, you are aware of
your behaviors and have an understanding of your skills and capabilities.
Others that you are interacting with are aligned and understand your
thoughts and feelings that you are communicating, either verbally or
non-verbally. They also have visibility and awareness around your skills
and capabilities or other knowledge or information.
Quadrant 2 is the blind area. It is what is known about a person by
others in the group, but is unknown by the person him/herself. By
seeking or soliciting feedback from others, the aim should be to reduce
this area and thereby to increase the open area , ie, to increase self-
awareness. This blind area is not an effective or productive space for
individuals or groups. This blind area could also be referred to as
ignorance about oneself, or issues in which one is deluded. A blind area
could also include issues that others are deliberately withholding from a
person. We all know how difficult it is to work well when kept in the
dark. No-one works well when subject to 'mushroom management'.
People who are 'thick-skinned' tend to have a large 'blind area'.
Quadrant 3 is the façade. It contains what is known to ourselves but
kept hidden from, and therefore unknown, to others. This hidden or
avoided self represents information, feelings, etc, anything that a person
knows about him/self, but which is not revealed or is kept hidden from
others. The hidden area could also include sensitivities, fears, hidden
agendas, manipulative intentions, secrets - anything that a person knows
but does not reveal, for whatever reason. It's natural for very personal
and private information and feelings to remain hidden, indeed, certain
information, feelings and experiences have no bearing on work, and so

can and should remain hidden. However, typically, a lot of hidden
information is not very personal, it is work- or performance-related, and
so is better positioned in the open area.
Relevant hidden information and feelings, etc, should be moved into the
open area through the process of 'disclosure'. The aim should be to
disclose and expose relevant information and feelings - hence the Johari
Window terminology 'self-disclosure' and 'exposure process', thereby
increasing the open area. By telling others how we feel and other
information about ourselves we reduce the hidden area, and increase the
open area, which enables better understanding, cooperation, trust, team-
working effectiveness and productivity. Reducing hidden areas also
reduces the potential for confusion, misunderstanding, poor
communication, etc, which all distract from and undermine team
effectiveness.
Quadrant or Johari region 4, called the unknown area, contains
information, feelings, latent abilities, aptitudes, experiences etc, that are
unknown to the person him/herself and unknown to others in the group.
These unknown issues take a variety of forms: they can be feelings,
behaviors, attitudes, capabilities, aptitudes, which can be quite close to
the surface, and which can be positive and useful, or they can be deeper
aspects of a person's personality, influencing his/her behavior to various
degrees. Large unknown areas would typically be expected in younger
people, and people who lack experience or self-belief.
Examples of unknown factors are as follows, and the first example is
particularly relevant and common, especially in typical organizations
and teams:
 an ability that is under-estimated or un-tried through lack of
opportunity, encouragement, confidence or training
 a natural ability or aptitude that a person doesn't realize they
possess
 a fear or aversion that a person does not know they have
 an unknown illness

 repressed or subconscious feelings
 conditioned behavior or attitudes from childhood
The processes by which this information and knowledge can be
uncovered are various, and can be prompted through self-discovery or
observation by others, or in certain situations through collective or
mutual discovery, of the sort of discovery experienced on outward
bound courses or other deep or intensive group work. Counselling can
also uncover unknown issues, but this would then be known to the
person and by one other, rather than by a group.
Whether unknown 'discovered' knowledge moves into the hidden, blind
or open area depends on who discovers it and what they do with the
knowledge, notably whether it is then given as feedback, or disclosed.
As with the processes of soliciting feedback and disclosure, striving to
discover information and feelings in the unknown is relates to the
process of 'self-actualization' described in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
development and motivation model.
Again as with disclosure and soliciting feedback, the process of self
discovery is a sensitive one. The extent and depth to which an individual
is able to seek out discover their unknown feelings must always be at the
individual's own discretion. Some people are more keen and able than
others to do this.
Uncovering 'hidden talents' - that is unknown aptitudes and skills, not to
be confused with developing the Johari 'hidden area' - is another aspect
of developing the unknown area, and is not so sensitive as unknown
feelings. Providing people with the opportunity to try new things, with
no great pressure to succeed, is often a useful way to discover unknown
abilities, and thereby reduce the unknown area.
The quadrants expand or shrink in relation to each other as you gain
more knowledge about yourself through experience, observation,
feedback from others, communication, self reflection, and so on.

To operate most effectively and productively, you need to develop your
'open' area. This is the space where communication is good, with no
mistrust or misunderstanding - where there is openness.
Learning more about yourself through a new situation, such as work
experience, can shrink your 'unknown' area and expand your 'hidden'
area. If you demonstrate or communicate this self learning to other
people, you expand your 'open' area, where people know you and you
know yourself.
If you ask for and take note of feedback, then things people know about
you will become part of yourself knowledge, moving from your 'blind'
area to your 'open' area.
Here is example:
You get frustrated in teams when they want to brainstorm ideas and you
just want to get on with the task. Your fellow team members see you as
impatient. But when you explain where you're coming from, they
understand you better and realize that you play a vital role in getting
things done. In sharing yourself knowledge with others, you move it
from your 'hidden' area to your 'open' area.
What is the major difference between blind and hidden area, how does it
facilitates a manager in his/her organizational life?
The Blind Quadrant represents things that other people know about the
individual, but that the individual is not aware of, for example in an
ongoing conversation you may notice that eye contact may be
lacking. You may not say anything, since you may not want to
embarrass the particular person or you may draw your own inferences
that perhaps he is being insincere. The Hidden Quadrant,on the other
hand, represents things that the individual knows about him or
herself that other people do not know. For example a person, who
resents a remark by another, but keeps the resentments inside. Or in a

meeting a member may focus attention on a particular project, which
embraces others.
With the help of Johari Window application, a manager may find his or
her organizational or work life easier. The main objective of the Johari
Window is to increase the size of the open area so that both you and
colleagues are aware of your perceptual limitations. This is partly
accomplished by reducing the hidden area through disclosure —
informing others of your beliefs, feelings, and experiences that may
influence the work relationship. The open area also increases through
feedback from others about your behavior. This information helps you to
reduce your blind area, because coworkers often see things in you that
you do not see. Finally, the combination of disclosure and feedback
occasionally produces revelations about information in the unknown
area. Uncovering 'hidden talents' is another aspect of developing the
unknown area, and is not so sensitive as unknown feelings. Providing
people with the opportunity to try new things, with no great pressure to
succeed, is often a useful way to discover unknown abilities, and thereby
reduce the unknown area.
Johari Window is a very elegant and potent model, and as with other
powerful ideas, simply helping people to understand is the most
effective way to optimise the value to people. Explaining the meaning of
the Johari Window theory to people, so they can really properly
understand it in their own terms, then empowers people to use the
thinking in their own way, and to incorporate the underlying principles
into their future thinking and behaviour.
Johari Window helps manager to accomplish corporate health and
excellence by overcoming barriers in communication and also feeling of
impotence, distrust, resentment, insecurity, and social in consequence,
which people have at their work. Managers with the help of Johari
Window can develop better communication which in turn gives clarity
of purpose and shared activity for working towards a common goal.

At first glance, the Johari Window may look like a complex tool, but it's
actually very easy to understand with just a little effort. As such, it
provides a visual reference that managers and employees can use to look
at their own characters, and it illustrates the importance of sharing, being
open, and accepting feedback from others.
People who have a large Open Area are usually very easy to talk to, they
communicate honestly and openly with others, and they get along well
with a group. People who have a very small Open Area are difficult to
talk to, they seem closed off and uncommunicative, and they often don't
work well with others, because they're not trusted.
Other people might have a large Blind Area, with many issues that they
haven't identified or dealt with yet. However, others can see these issues
clearly. These people might have low self-esteem, or they may even
have anger issues when working with others.
Managers can help employees to push the boundaries to become more
open and public (if this serves their interests) by encouraging them to
share more and to seek honest feedback from others. He can also help
discover their Blind Selves (perhaps by observing them or talking about
them with others) and then use this information in negotiations or when
he wants to persuade them.
In this way, the manager‘s organization life becomes easier.
2. How will you use the concept of Transactional Analysis for removing
dysfunctional behavior in your organization? Substantiate your answer
with suitable illustration.
Organizational conflicts that hinder organizations growth and prevent it
to achieve its goals can be termed as dysfunctional behavior. Since a
group exists to achieve certain pre-determined goals, the functionality of
conflicts can be measured by the impact it has to group or unit
performance, rather than on a single individual.

There can be an optional, highly functional level of conflict at
which a unit's performance can be at the maximum. This can happen
because at that level of conflict the group or the unit's internal
environment is characterized by self-criticism and
innovativeness. When the conflict level is low, it is
dysfunctional as the unit performance is low due to empathy,
stagnation, lack of new idea and non-responsiveness of the unit's
members to the demand of change. In such a situation, a manger
may have resolve to stimulating conflicts to make the unit more
viable. On the other hand, .when the conflict level is too high, it is again
dysfunctional as the survival of the group or the unit is
threatened owing to diversion of energies away from
performance and goal attainment activities of the members. Chaos
and disruption prevails. Transacti onal ana lysis can be used
to remove such kind of b ehavior in organizations.
But how i s this possible. Please follow the discussi on
below.
Transaction analysi s (TA ) refers t o stud y of
transaction that take plac e b et ween t wo individuals. TA
was originally developed by Dr. Eric Berne. TA is based on hypothesis
that a person has a multiple nature.
Transactional Analysis (TA) works from the premise that 3 ego states -
Parent, Adult, Child - govern our behavior.
When we express major emotion, we are working from the Child state.
It concerns behavior that demonstrates the feelings we remember
as a child. This state may be associated with having fun, playing,
impulsiveness, rebelliousness; spontaneous behavior and
emotional responses. Managers in this position tend to be too
much relations-oriented. They tend to be erratic and unpredictable.
When we are working without major emotions, we are working from the
Adult state. This position refers to an adult ego state, where

managers delegate authority and tend to be effective. They are
concerned with both people and for the task.
When we are treating other adults like children, we are working from the
Parent state. This stage is about behavior that concerns the attitudes,
feelings and behavior incorporated from external sources, primarily our
parents. It refers to feelings about right and wrong and how to care for
other people. Managers operating with this life positions are too
much task-oriented. They don't delegate authority and feel
decentralization is a threat.
Relying on the three ego stage, a manager can use the TA method to
remove dysfunction behavior within his or unit. Let us explain how this
can be done by way of illustration, as the one below.
Let's say that I supervise 3 people and have asked them to help with the
physical redesign of our office space to accommodate a shift in our
function and activities. Two staff started discussing possible layouts
while the 3rd sits with his arms folded across his chest and says nothing.
When asked for his input, he says it's my job, not his, to redesign the
office layout.
At this point, the three of us engaged in the discussion are having an
Adult-to-Adult transaction. Our egos are in check and we are directing
our efforts toward a group goal of making our environment more
effective.
The 3rd staffer is having a Child-to-Adult transaction by acting childlike
in his reaction to the task. If I respond by treating him like a Child -
scolding or yelling - then I am taking on the Parent state.
The goal is for me to respond from the Adult state, treating him like an
Adult, despite his acting like a Child. This is because the adult stage of
TA is concerned with behavior that concerns our thought processes and
the processing of facts and information. In this state we may be
objective, rational, reasonable – maturity in dealing with people.

Therefore, I could point out to the dissenting staff that having a say in
the decisions about layout will make the workplace more suitable for his
needs and that I'd like everyone's ideas before moving on. If he
responds from an Adult ego state, we can move on. If he stays in the
Child ego state, I must remain in the Adult ego state and continue
without him; reserving a meeting time for him later where we can
discuss his inappropriate work behavior.
From the forgoing, we can see that TA encourages Adult-to-Adult
transactions for a more effective work environment. Thus knowledge
and application of TA can be of benefit to managers who are dealing
with potentially difficult situations. In the majority of work situations the
Adult–Adult transactions should be the most likely norm. Where work
colleagues perceive and respond by adopting the Adult ego state, such a
transaction is more likely to encourage a rational, problem-solving
approach and reduce the possibility of emotional conflict.
2. What is stress?
Hans Selye, a medical researcher first used term ―Stress‖ to describe the
body‘s biological response mechanism. He defined stress as ―the
nonspecific response of the body to any demand‖. He views that stress
is the spice of life, the absence of stress is death.
According to Beehr and Newman, stress is a condition arising from the
interaction of people and their jobs and characterized by changes within
people that force them to deviate from their normal functioning.
John M. Ivancevich and Michael T. Matterson have defined stress as
―adoptive response, mediated by individual characteristics and/or
psychological processes that are a consequence of any external action,
situation or event that places special physical and/or psychological
demands upon a person‖. As it is clear from this definition, stress is
caused due to external factors, situations or events.

As can be seen from the above definitions, stress seems to be an elusive
concept to define in a precise way. However most people and we may as
well, tend to agree that stress is a dynamic condition in which an
individual is confronted with an opportunity, constraint or demand
related to he or she desires and for which the outcome is
perceived to be both uncertain and important. This is a complicated
definition. But its components will be more closely dissected during our
discussion of its nature and mechanism.
Is it always bad for the individual?
Stress is not necessarily bad in and of itself. While stress is
typically discussed in a negative context, it also has a positive
value. It is an opportunity when it offers potential gain. Let prove
our point by way of explanation and illustrations.
First and foremost, stress is positive in that it can be a great motivating
force at times and this is partly probably why we developed stress in the
first place. In fact it's often easy to see how stress can be a useful
motivating factor by looking at every day examples. You may remember
for instance being at school and revising for exams. Here some people
will have revised very hard and started very early – and this was an
important as a good way to prepare for any exam. Other people however
will have waited until the last night and then crammed as quickly as
possible to learn it all in a night – or they may even have decided to skip
this phase and to just hope that they remembered enough from classes.
Of course the people who revised harder and longer were the ones who
would have performed better in the exams and it was of course this
group who were the more effected by stress. If you're stressed then you
go about trying to rectify the problem, and you go about trying to
prepare/plan/fix.
Of course this is a very good example of how stress is good but only in
small doses – because you may also remember those students from
school who were forced to work in separate rooms because they

experienced too much stress. They may have been prone to panic
attacks, or may have just broken down crying when they were expected
to work in the main hall. This stress is crippling and that is enough to
make us effectively useless in a range of circumstances. The trick then is
to be able to control, monitor and ultimately harness stress so that you
feel only positive amounts and are able to benefit from this rather than
suffering for it. Psychologist Hans Seley is often called the 'Father of
Stress' due to his extensive research into the topic. He called these
smaller amounts of positive stress 'eustress'.
The people who felt eustress may also have experienced more success in
their exams for other reasons too – because the stress might have
actually improved some aspects of their intelligence. Incredible though it
may sound, stress is actually a cognitive enhancer which can boost
several aspects of our mental prowess and so help us in professional and
academic capacities. First of all, this is because stress helps our brain to
focus. Stress developed to help us to react to potential dangerous
situations in the wild – and this might mean for instance trying to escape
from a predator. That's not going to be any good if you are spending the
whole time thinking about what you're having for dinner that night, and
so stress can help you to narrow your attention and to focus on the task
in hand. Meanwhile stress has also been shown in some studies to help
increase memory and recall – so a little stress while revising for an exam
or a presentation can help you to remember what it is you've read on the
big night. This is supposed to be a result of slightly higher levels of
cortisone – though again moderation is key as levels of cortisone that are
too high have been shown to cause damage to the hippocampus.
As well as improving your brain function, stress can also increase your
physical performance and endurance. This is because it causes the
release of adrenaline which speeds up your heart rate and so your
metabolism. This can then result in increased reactions and reflexes,
while also acting as a painkiller meaning that you can have better
endurance. This may have once helped us to run for longer when being
chances, but today it might help us in a physical confrontation, or during

a sporting event. A bit of stress for an athlete then is a great thing.
Adrenaline can also help to fight tiredness and fatigue.
This also shows another distinction between good stress and bad stress
however – and that is that 'good' stress should be acute and not
something that exists over a prolonged period. This is because an
increased heart rate and lack of tiredness or pain might increase your
endurance over short amounts of time, but over a long period of time the
stress to the body can be too great and damage your immune
system/cause heart problems.
This is all very good and well, but it doesn't distract from the fact that in
an interview or before giving a speech stress can be enough to turn you
into a nervous wreck and have you shaking and stuttering and unable to
perform optimally. The trick then is in these situations to try and harness
that nervous energy and to direct it into something a little more positive
and effective. One way to do this is to try and 'gee' yourself up in order
to make sure that when you have a 'fight or flight' response you are more
suited to the former rather than the latter. Try listening to some up-beat
and positive music, use positive affirmations, or try doing a bit of a
workout. This will help to psych you up and rather than trying to
suppress the stress you can instead embrace it and use it to motivate you
to success.
In conclusion therefore, we may posit that no, not all stress is bad. In
fact, it can be healthy because it helps us avoid accidents, power through
unexpected deadlines, or stay clear minded in chaotic situations.
Explain the nature, mechanism and classification of stress.
Let us now look at the nature, mechanism and classification of stress.
Stress is an unavoidable feature of modern living. Every
day events, such as crossing a street or an annoying draft,

are sources of stress. An exciting event such as college
graduation can also cause stress.
Stress is not always bad for us, especially if we prepare
our physical and psychological systems to cope with it.
The nature of stress is such that a person experiences
stress when an event in her environment presents a
constraint, an opportunity, or an excessive physical or
psychological demand.
The first condition for stress occurs when a constraint
blocks a person‘s efforts to reach a desired goal. The
individual can experience stress while trying to overcome
the constraint. The second condition for stress is more
positive. An opportunity from the person‘s environment
may present her with a chance to get something she values.
The third condition for stress returns to the negative. Some
event in the person‘s environment presents excessive
physical or psychological demands. The individual
experiences stress while trying to satisfy those demands.
The word stressor refers to an object or event in a person‘s
physical and social environment that can cause a stress
response. Potential stressors are present in the
environments a person passes through during daily
activities. These environments include the work
environment, the non work environment, and life
transitions.
A person‘s perceptual process decides whether t he
presence of a stressor leads to a stress response. One

person may perceive a stressor as a challenge to overcome;
another person may perceive the same stressor as a threat.
The stress response mechanism has both physiological and
psychological aspects. These psychophysiological
responses lead to behavior focused on the stressor.
The physiological response to perceived stress is an
integrated set of bodily functions that prepare the body to
respond to the stressor. The bodily changes ready a person
to either fight the stressor or run from it. Although the
response involves a complex network of
neurophysiological reactions, the immediate reaction to
perceived stress happens fast.
People have different stress responses to ev ents in their
environment. Some people quickly feel high amounts of
stress. Others feel less stress or no stress at all. Variations
in stress responses are related to a person‘s skills,
abilities, and experiences with those events.
The general adaptation syndrome is an early model of
stress response. This model views the stress response as a
natural human adaptation to a stressor in the individual‘s
physical or psychological environment. A person adapts to
the stressor by choosing behavior that lets her eith er
change the stressor (a fight response) or leave the stressor
(a flight response).
The stress response unfolds in three closely related stages.
The first stage is alarm. The body prepares to fight or
adjust to the stressor by increasing heart rate, respiration,
muscle tension, and blood sugar.

The second stage is resistance. The body tries to return to
a normal state by adapting to the stressor. The adaptation
can be closing a window to prevent an irritating draft or
quickly stepping back on the sidewalk to avoid an
oncoming car.
When a person repeatedly experiences a stressor or
constantly resists a stressor, the body moves to the third
stage of stress, exhaustion. During the exhaustion stage,
the body begins to wear down from exposure to the
stressor. If a person experiences the stressor long enough
and does not effectively manage the source of stress, then
stress-related illnesses can appear (high blood pressure,
headaches, ulcers, insomnia, and the like). The damaging
effects of stress occur in this stage of the stress response
both for the individual and for the organization. There are
many ways of building your body‘s resilience to stress, so
the exhaustion stage does not occur.
The stress response leads to generally classifying stress
into two broad categories; distress and eustress. Distress is
the dysfunctional result of stress. A person suffers distress
when she does not successfully adapt to the stressor or
does not remove the stressor from her environment. Such
kind of stress is bad and can lead to low productivity and
substances abuse. Eustress is a positive result of stress
that occurs when the person has successfully adapted to
the stressor or when the degree of stress has not exceeded
her ability to adapt to it. Some amount of stress can
energize and motivate a person to behave in desired ways.
As noted earlier, stress can be a response to an

opportunity. It can help move a person toward valued
results offered by the opportunity. Stress is also useful in
times of threat or danger. When threatened, a person‘s
adrenaline flows and her heart rate increases, preparing
her to face the threat. In this case, the stress is classified
as eustress.
It is important to note that the mechanism and the
classification of stress may also take the following nature;
Acute stress- Acute stress is the most common form of stress. It
comes from demands and pressures of the recent past and anticipated
demands and pressures of the near future. Acute stress is thrilling and
exciting in small doses, but too much is exhausting. A fast run down a
challenging ski slope, for example, is exhilarating early in the day. That
same ski run late in the day is taxing and wearing. Skiing beyond your
limits can lead to falls and broken bones. By the same token, overdoing
on short-term stress can lead to psychological distress, tension
headaches, upset stomach and other symptoms.
Fortunately, acute stress symptoms are recognized by most people. It's a
laundry list of what has gone awry in their lives: the auto accident that
crumpled the car fender, the loss of an important contract, a deadline
they're rushing to meet, their child's occasional problems at school and
so on.
Because it is short term, acute stress doesn't have enough time to do the
extensive damage associated with long-term stress. The most common
symptoms are:
 Emotional distress — some combination of anger or irritability,
anxiety and depression, the three stress emotions.
 Muscular problems including tension headache, back pain, jaw
pain and the muscular tensions that lead to pulled muscles and
tendon and ligament problems.

 Stomach, gut and bowel problems such as heartburn, acid stomach,
flatulence, diarrhea, constipation and irritable bowel syndrome.
 Transient overarousal leads to elevation in blood pressure, rapid
heartbeat, sweaty palms, heart palpitations, dizziness, migraine
headaches, cold hands or feet, shortness of breath and chest pain.
Acute stress can crop up in anyone's life, and it is highly treatable and
manageable.
Episodic acute stress- There are those, however, who suffer acute
stress frequently, whose lives are so disordered that they are studies in
chaos and crisis. They're always in a rush, but always late. If something
can go wrong, it does. They take on too much, have too many irons in
the fire, and can't organize the slew of self-inflicted demands and
pressures clamoring for their attention. They seem perpetually in the
clutches of acute stress.
It is common for people with acute stress reactions to be over aroused,
short-tempered, irritable, anxious and tense. Often, they describe
themselves as having "a lot of nervous energy." Always in a hurry, they
tend to be abrupt, and sometimes their irritability comes across as
hostility. Interpersonal relationships deteriorate rapidly when others
respond with real hostility. The workplace becomes a very stressful
place for them.
The cardiac prone, "Type A" personality described by cardiologists,
Meter Friedman and Ray Rosenman, is similar to an extreme case of
episodic acute stress. Type A's have an "excessive competitive drive,
aggressiveness, impatience, and a harrying sense of time urgency." In
addition there is a "free-floating, but well-rationalized form of hostility,
and almost always a deep-seated insecurity." Such personality
characteristics would seem to create frequent episodes of acute stress for
the Type A individual. Friedman and Rosenman found Type A's to be
much more likely to develop coronary heat disease than Type B's, who
show an opposite pattern of behavior.

Another form of episodic acute stress comes from ceaseless worry.
"Worry warts" see disaster around every corner and pessimistically
forecast catastrophe in every situation. The world is a dangerous,
unrewarding, punitive place where something awful is always about to
happen. These "awfulizers" also tend to be over aroused and tense, but
are more anxious and depressed than angry and hostile.
The symptoms of episodic acute stress are the symptoms of extended
over arousal: persistent tension headaches, migraines, hypertension,
chest pain and heart disease. Treating episodic acute stress requires
intervention on a number of levels, generally requiring professional help,
which may take many months.
Often, lifestyle and personality issues are so ingrained and habitual with
these individuals that they see nothing wrong with the way they conduct
their lives. They blame their woes on other people and external events.
Frequently, they see their lifestyle, their patterns of interacting with
others, and their ways of perceiving the world as part and parcel of who
and what they are.
Sufferers can be fiercely resistant to change. Only the promise of relief
from pain and discomfort of their symptoms can keep them in treatment
and on track in their recovery program.
Chronic stress- While acute stress can be thrilling and exciting,
chronic stress is not. This is the grinding stress that wears people away
day after day, year after year. Chronic stress destroys bodies, minds
and lives. It wreaks havoc through long-term attrition.
Chronic stress comes when a person never sees a way out of a miserable
situation. It's the stress of unrelenting demands and pressures for
seemingly interminable periods of time. With no hope, the individual
gives up searching for solutions.

Some chronic stresses stem from traumatic, early childhood experiences
that become internalized and remain forever painful and present. Some
experiences profoundly affect personality. A view of the world, or a
belief system, is created that causes unending stress for the individual
(e.g., the world is a threatening place, people will find out you are a
pretender, you must be perfect at all times). When personality or deep-
seated convictions and beliefs must be reformulated, recovery requires
active self-examination, often with professional help.
The worst aspect of chronic stress is that people get used to it. They
forget it's there. People are immediately aware of acute stress because it
is new; they ignore chronic stress because it is old, familiar, and
sometimes, almost comfortable.
Chronic stress kills through suicide, violence, heart attack, stroke and,
perhaps, even cancer. People wear down to a final, fatal breakdown.
Because physical and mental resources are depleted through long-term
attrition, the symptoms of chronic stress are difficult to treat and may
require extended medical as well as behavioral treatment and stress
management.
We all have experienced the general adaptat ion syndrome.
Recall some event in the past that alarmed you—turning
into a dark alley, riding a horse that suddenly reared,
hitting the brakes on a car to avoid an oncoming truck, or
suddenly discovering a major error in a report due to your
boss in one hour. In such circumstances, you should have
experienced the reactions described by the syndrome: Your
heart rate increased; the palms of your hands became
sweaty; and you started to breathe faster. These wer e all
natural responses invoked by your central nervous
system‘s reactions to a threat. Stress is a natural human
response to a condition that is overwhelming, either for a
moment or for a long time.

4. In our culture, do you think the traditional or the behavioral
approach to conflict management is most frequently taken by the
managers? Give plausible reasons for your projected answer?
Management today is faced with the responsibility of ensuring
optimum levels of growth and productivity in an environment that is
full of conflict situations. Conflicts could be within an individual,
between individuals, between individuals and a group, between groups
within organizations, or between organizations.
Traditional View: Th e ea rly approach to c onflict assumed
all con flict was bad and to be a void ed. Conflict was
vi ewed negati vely and discussed with such terms as
violenc e, d estruction, and irrationa lit y t o reinforc e
its negati ve c onnotation. Th is traditional vi ew of
conflict was c onsist ent with attitudes about g roup
behavi or that prevailed in the 1930s and 1940s.
Conflict was a d ysfunctional outcome resu lting from
poor communication, a lack of op enness and trust
bet ween peop le, and the fai lure of managers t o be
responsi ve to th e n eeds and aspirations of th eir
emp loyees.
Th e vi ew that all c onflict is bad certainly offers a
simple approach to looking at the beha vior of p eop le
wh o creat e c onflict. We n eed merely direct our
attention to th e causes of c onflict and correct those
malfunctions to imp rove group and organi zati onal
performanc e.
Behavioral View; This school of thought argues that conflict is logical
and inevitable outcome of any organization and as such should be
accepted up to a certain point. Minimum level of conflict between the
groups would increase competitiveness that will lend itself to higher
productivity and increased job satisfaction. It must be borne in mind that
only minimum level of conflict is necessary for it to be beneficial.
Behavioral view proposes that because people differ in their attitudes,

values and goals, conflict is but a natural outcome in any group of
people and that it can be helpful and constructive.
In our culture, marked with huge changes in the complexity of
organizations, globalization, technology, functioning styles, etc, the
approach taken in the conflict management is mostly of behavioral view.
The following are the key reasons;
Behavioral scientists encourage conflict on various grounds. They feel
that a group having inter-group harmonious relations, peace and
cooperation among group members is likely to be non-vibrant, static in
nature and can display apathetic attitude towards group members. In this
situation, the groups are non responsive. What is required today is
innovation, creativity and an ability of the group to meet the social
obligations. Hence there is a need for maintaining minimal level of
conflict within the group. This would lead to group being viable. Group
members should be self-critical and develop creativity.
Some of the positive points of minimum level of conflict are as under:
(a) Conflict should be expressed. By doing so, communication between
two groups is restored that promotes growth.
(b) Minimum level of conflict serves as pre-requisite for organizational
development. Conflict brings changes.
(c) Conflict helps achieve cohesion within the group that develops group
identity and members of the group follow group norms setting aside
personal problems. This tendency leads higher level of productivity,
sense of identity with the organization and increases group ability to
compete with groups and departments.
(d) Poor decisions are detrimental to organizational growth. Minimum
level of conflict promotes stimulus for analytical thinking, which may

challenge views, policies and systems prevailing in the organization. It
will lead to reviews hence new policies may be introduced in the
organization.
(e) Conflict can serve as power equalizer between two parties. This is
clearly observed during management union meetings. While
management is powerful at the beginning of the discussion it however
tends to equalize itself as the discussion proceeds.
5. Apply the concepts of activities, interactions and sentiments to a
group in which you have been a member either in academic setting or in
a work setting and describe the events. Describe for each concept the
required and emergent behavior in that situation.
Activities are the formal group or organizational requirements, such as
job duties and responsibilities. Activities follow from formal group
membership and the group‘s division of labor. The physical layout of the
work area and the technical process of the organization can also demand
certain activities. Activities are the same as required behaviors.
Interaction refers to social interaction between two or more people. The
interaction can be face to face, with two people talking to each other, or
interaction through memoranda and reports. Interaction can also occur
using telecommunications devices, televideo devices, personal
computers (PCs), e-mail, and the World Wide Web (WWW). Emergent
behavior grows out of the interactions among group members. Such
behavior can focus on work tasks or be purely social. The norms of a
group can define emergent behavior.
Sentiments are attitudes, beliefs, and feelings about the person or
persons with whom an individual interacts. Sentiments develop from
social interactions and are feelings of like or dislike for one another.
Required behavior can lead to social interaction. People are required to
do certain things as employees of the organization or members of a

group (activities). Those required activities bring a person into contact
with other people (interaction) in which feelings may be expressed
(sentiments).
The following is an application of activities, interactions, and sentiments
with the attendant required and emergent behavior patterns:
Baba Bah joined a cross-functional team at MP Trading (G) Ltd that had
the task of analyzing the complex procurement processes of his
company. The aim was to come up with a report that would help
simplify the overall procurement activity of the company. It was hoped
that this in turn would contribute to efficient service delivery to the
company‘s customers, thus increasing the company‘s market share in the
face of stiff competition in the industry in which the firm operated.
The team was large, with 32 members. Baba had come from the Human
Resources function; other team members came from Accounting,
Finance, Marketing, and Manufacturing. They were tasked to have series
of meetings for one month- 1st
January to 1st
of February, 2005. As
mentioned earlier, the team had to prepare and present a report to the
management of the company.
During the team‘s formal and informal discussions (activities or
required behavior), Baba of course interacted with Faburama from
Manufacturing. He learnt from their conversations that he and Faburama
shared a common interest in restoring older local soap called
SENEYANDI. They therefore agreed to later come up with a business
proposal for management consideration in the near future (emergent
behavior).
Notice that the interactions were part of required team behavior.
Required behavior in this team was what a person must do because of
group membership and as part of the person‘s role in the team. In our
above case, the required behaviors include attending the discussion
meetings or sessions at a specific time, performing report preparation

and presentation duties in a certain way, and interacting with other group
members to complete the task.
During the interaction, the two gentlemen learnt about each other‘s
background and interests and discovered they have a common interest of
the old local soap to again hit the market. From this information, they
developed positive feelings (sentiments) about each other, which
propelled them to come up with a new proposal (emergent behavior).
Observe that the team did not prescribe emergent behavior of the two
members concerned and had never formally acknowledged that such
behavior happens. The behavior happened at their level and the team as
a whole had no hand in it. A newcomer to this team would not have
immediately understood the function and meaning of this emergent
behavior.
In conclusion, we can posit that group activities lead to patterns of social
interaction that let people sort out their sentiments. If they find they
share similar interests, likes, and dislikes, they can be attracted to each
other. A cohesive group can form if the interactions involve several
people.
Assignment B
Q.1Describe your own pattern of needs and discuss the kind
of work environment that will be most satisfying to you in terms of
fulfilled your needs from the any theory of work motivation.
There is no single magic word to motivate employees as their needs and
priorities of satisfaction differ. As rightly pointed out by many schools
of thoughts, motivation has something to do with our way of life and
thinking.
In order to answer the above question, we will use Maslow‘s hierarchy
of needs theory as applicable to me. But before doing that, I would like

to say something about the nature of my work and then give a brief
rundown of Maslow‘s theory.
To get started, I would like to state that I am working as the Procurement
Officer at the University of the Gambia. The position is a junior rank
within the organizational setup and has a career ladder up to Director of
Procurement position. My desire is to be one day the Director.
One of the most popular needs theories is Abraham Maslow's
hierarchy of needs theory. Maslow proposed that motivation is the
result of a person's attempt at fulfilling five basic needs: physiological,
safety, social, esteem and self-actualization. According to Maslow, these
needs can create internal pressures that can influence a person's
behavior.
As the name of the theory indicates, Maslow believed that these needs
exist in a hierarchical order. This progression principle suggests that
lower-level needs must be met before higher-level needs. The deficit
principle claims that a once a need is satisfied, it is no longer a
motivator because an individual will take action only to satisfied unmet
needs. If you look at this pyramid you can see how Maslow's needs are
organized with basic physiological needs, such as air, food, water and
sleep, at the bottom and the idea of self-actualization, or when a person
reaches the full potential in life, at the top. Again, according to Maslow,

before a person can take action to satisfy a need at any level on this
pyramid the needs below it must already be satisfied.
Having briefly laid the foundation as to the nature of my job and
Maslow‘s theory, I can now describe my pattern of needs at the
University within the context of Maslow‘s theory.
My physiological needs are those needs required for my survival such
as air, food, water, shelter, clothing and sleep. The university can
account for my physiological needs by providing comfortable working
conditions, reasonable work hours and the necessary breaks to use the
bathroom and eat and/or drink. Besides, I should be provided good
working conditions such as providing adequate lighting, comfortable
chairs, enough ventilation and providing a leisure room for me to relax
during lunch time Moreover, to satisfy my physiological needs would
include providing cafeterias, vending machines and fountains on the
University campus
For my safety needs, the University should provide me with a sense of
security and well-being. Personal security, financial security, good
health and protection from accidents, harm and their adverse affects are
all included in these safety needs. On the specifics, the University can
account for these needs of mine by providing safe working conditions,
secure compensation (such as a salary) and job security, which is
especially important in a bad economy. In other words, I should be paid
a decent salary. Also, I should be provided health cover and insurance
such as sick pay and retirement funds. Besides, I should be made to feel
secured by setting up trust between me and my employers. Trust can be
set up by signing work contract to protect me. In addition, my employers
should have a great faith in my ability. By adopting these policies, I will

feel secured in the organization. I should feel comfortable about the
environment of workplace will can allow me to concentrate on my work.
The following examples form part of my safety or security pattern of
needs as far as my working life is concerned;
My Social needs, also called love and belonging, refer to the need to
feel a sense of belonging and acceptance. Social needs are important to
me so that I do not feel alone, isolated and depressed. Friendships,
family and intimacy all work to fulfill my social needs. The University
can take care of these needs by making sure I and its other employees
know one another, encouraging cooperative teamwork, having an
accessible and kind supervisor and promoting a good work-life balance.
Economic
 Wages and salaries
 Fringe benefits
 Retirement benefits
 Medical benefits
Psychological
 Provide job descriptions
 Avoid abrupt changes
 Solve employee's problems
Physical
 Working conditions
 Heating and ventilation
 Rest periods

Besides, I will need some informal gathering and training camps during
which aim to help me establish friendships among peers. By allowing
social interaction, I will feel like a part of a team.
Then comes my esteem needs. Esteem needs refer to the need for self-
esteem and respect, with self-respect being slightly more important than
gaining respect and admiration from others. To fulfill these needs, my
employers should be offering praise and recognition when I, as an
employee, do well, and offer promotions and additional responsibility to
reflect my belief that I am a valued employee
A list of my esteem needs include;
Design challenging jobs
Use praise and awards
Delegate responsibilities
Give training
Encourage participation
Self-actualization needs describe my need to reach my full potential.
The need to become what one is capable of is something that is highly
personal. While you might have the need to be a good parent, I
personally have the need to hold an executive-level position within my
organization.
In this regard, I need challenging work, the desire to participate in
decision-making and giving me flexibility and autonomy in my jobs and
eventual promotion to the Director of Procurement.

In terms of work environment, I would like to see the University to
institute the following to motivate me within the Maslow theory concept
just described above;
A w e l l d e f i n e d h u m a n i s t i c p e r s o n n e l p o l i c y
w h e r e i n t h e w o r k f o r c e i s regarded as the valuable asset of
an organization.
A lon g t erm emp loyment p olic y p roj ec ting ima ge of
fai rn ess in recruit ment and selection, placement of the right
personnel at the right job, sound and fair promotion, transfer policies,
planned need based training programme for grooming employees.
Fair wages and salary administration ensuring equitable wage
structure, free from internal and external inequalities
Good p erformanc e shou ld be rewa rd ed ad equa t ely at
th e ea rli est and a lso gi ven deserving publicity.
A c o n s t r u c t i v e a n d o b j e c t i v e s y s t e m o f
p e r f o r m a n c e a p p r a i s a l a n d m e r i t r a t i n g o f
e m p l o y e e s aiming at servicing and improving them.
Prompt handling of workers grievances by having short time
bound procedure well known to employees. In handling
grievances the attitudes of persons managing grievances
should be co-operative and positive and the workers should have the
feeling that he will be properly heard and justice will be done.
In hand lin g di scip lina ry ca ses th e mana gement sh ou ld
n ot on ly b e fair bu t also seem to be fair. Disciplinary
procedure should confirm to principle of natural justice. A
corrective and positive approach in this respect may be more motivating.

Participative and consultative style of management and
supervision and increasing autonomy in work may create
necessary conditions for motivating me and other workers to give their
best.
Job enrichment and enlargement, on making the job more
challenging are also essential for making me give my best, as
these were not only reduced job boredom and frustration, but a lso
inc rea se j ob sati sfacti on and sati sf y my est eem or
ego and self a ctua li zat ion need s .
Self moti vati on b y th e uni versit y t op mana gement ,
seni ors and midd le mana gers and sup ervi sors i s
essenti a l i f I a m to be motivated. The dictum ―before you
motivate others, you must first motivate yourself‖ should not be lost
sight of. Seniors are expected to provide there juniors effective
leadership and set an example of dedication and superior skills.
Q2. Explain the concept of perceptual defence.
Perceptual defence is the tendency to avoid or screen out
certain stimuli that are perceptually disturbing or threatening.
People may tend to select information that is supportive of
their point of view and choose not to acknowledge contrary
information. For example, a manager who has decided
recently to promote a member of staff against the advice of
colleagues may select only favorable information which
supports that decision and ignore less favorable information
which questions that decision.
What are most common perceptual errors you make?
Thecommonperceptualerrorspeoplemakeincludethefollowing;
Stereotype: This is the tendency to ascribe positive or negative
characteristics to a person on the basis of a general categorization and

perceived similarities. The perception of that person may be based more
on certain expected characteristics than on the recognition of that person
as an individual. It is a form of typecasting. Stereotyping is a means of
simplifying the process of perception, making sense of the world and
making judgements of other people instead of dealing with a range of
complex and alternative stimuli. It occurs when an individual is judged
on the basis of the group to which it is perceived that person belongs.
When we see all people belonging to a particular group as having the
same characteristics, we are stereotyping individuals. Pre-judgements
are therefore made about an individual without ever really knowing
whether such judgements are accurate; they may be wildly wrong.
Examples of common stereotyping may be based on:
■ Nationality, for example all Germans are orderly and industrious, all
Australians like cricket;
■ Occupation, for example all accountants are boring, all librarians are
serious and undemonstrative;
■ Age, for example all young people are unreliable, no old person wants
to consider new ideas;
■ Physical, for example all people with red hair have a fiery
temperament; all fat people are lazy;
■ Education, for example all graduates are intelligent;
■ Social, for example all unemployed people are lazy; immigrants do
not want to learn English;
■ Politics, for example all Labour voters favour strong trade unions, all
Conservative voters support privatization.
Although stereotyping condenses the amount of information that we
need to know and thus enables us to cope with a vast information flow,
the consequences of attributing incorrect characteristics are extremely
negative. Stereotyping can lead to bias and a failure to try and really
understand other people. Stereotyping infers that all people within a
particular perceived category are assumed to share the same traits or
characteristics. A significant social implication of stereotyping is
therefore the perception held about particular groups of people based on,
for example, gender, race, disability, sexual orientation, age, or religious
belief. A major danger of stereotyping is that it can block out accurate

perception of the individual or individual situation. Stereotyping may
lead to potential situations of prejudice or discrimination. An example
might be the perception of people with HIV or AIDS. Stereotyping may
work either negatively or favorably for a particular group of people. For
example, a sizeable number of employers may appear to maintain
negative and inaccurate stereotypes about the capabilities and training of
older workers. However some firms may have a policy of staffing
certain stores with people over 50 years of age.
Halo Effects: A ha lo effects occu rs wh en on e att ribut e
of a p erson or a situati on i s u sed t o develop overall
impressions of the individual or situation. This is a process of
generalization from one person from one attribute to the total person
or event. Halo effects are very significant in the performance
appraisal process since they can influence a manager‘s
evaluation of subordinate work performance. A subordinate
reaction to one unique trait may affect his or her overall perspective
of the manager. By the name taken, Halo effects can affect an
employee‘s view of the organization as a workplace. The fact
that sales are deeluring or resources are shrinking may create
a tendency to picture all aspects of the work environment as
equally grim. The astute manager will be alert to such
tendencies and will take action to reduce their negative impact on
the situation.
Selecti ve Perc epti on : Sel ecti ve p erc epti on is th e
t end enc y t o sin gle out for att enti on those asp ect s of a
situation or person which reinforce, or emerge consistent with existing
beliefs, values and needs. This perceptual distortion is identified in
dassis research study involving executives in a manufacturing Company.
Managers can encounter problem by either being in appropriately locked
into a selective perception or by being unable to handle the ―clash‖
between alternative selective perceptions in situations such as the
research case just described. This tendency towards selecting is one that

a manager must be able to control in terms of his or her own behavior as
well as recognizes in the behavior of others.
P r o j e c t i o n : A t t r i b u t i n g , o r p r o j e c t i n g , o n e ‘ s
o w n f e e l i n g s , m o t i v e s o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o
o t h e r p e o p l e i s a f u r t h e r d i s t o r t i o n w h i c h c a n
o c c u r i n t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f o t h e r p e o p l e .
J u d g m e n t s o f o t h e r p e o p l e m a y b e m o r e
f a v o r a b l e w h e n t h e y h a v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
l a r g e l y i n c o m m o n w i t h , a n d e a s i l y r e c o g n i z e d
b y , t h e p e r c e i v e r . P r o j e c t i o n m a y a l s o r e s u l t i n
p e o p l e e x a g g e r a t i n g u n d e s i r a b l e t r a i t s i n
o t h e r s t h a t t h e y f a i l t o r e c o g n i z e i n
t h e m s e l v e s . P e r c e p t i o n i s d i s t o r t e d b y f e e l i n g s
a n d e m o t i o n s . P r o j e c t i o n m a y b e u s e d a s a
m e a n s o f a t t e m p t i n g t o e x t e r n a l i z e d i f f i c u l t o r
u n c o m f o r t a b l e f e e l i n g s . F o r e x a m p l e , a
m a n a g e r w h o i s c o n c e r n e d a b o u t p o s s i b l e
r e d u n d a n c y m a y p e r c e i v e o t h e r m a n a g e r s t o b e
e v e n m o r e c o n c e r n e d . P e o p l e h a v e a t e n d e n c y
t o p e r c e i v e o t h e r s l e s s f a v o r a b l y b y p r o j e c t i n g
c e r t a i n o f t h e i r o w n f e e l i n g s o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o n t o t h e m . A s a n o t h e r e x a m p l e , s u p e r v i s o r s
m a y c o m p l a i n t h a t t h e i r m a n a g e r d i d n o t w o r k
h a r d e n o u g h t o s e c u r e a d d i t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s f o r
t h e d e p a r t m e n t w h e n i n f a c t t h e s u p e r v i s o r s
f a i l e d t o p r o v i d e t h e m a n a g e r w i t h a l l t h e
r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n a n d s t a t i s t i c s . H o w e v e r ,
p r o j e c t i o n m a y a l s o b e u s e d t o e x t e r n a l i z e
p o s i t i v e f e e l i n g s o n t o o t h e r m e m b e r s o f s t a f f
b y a t t e m p t i n g t o c r e a t e a n o v e r s t a t e d a n d
u n r e a l i s t i c l e v e l o f e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d
p e r f o r m a n c e . D i s c u s s e d b y F r e u d i n h i s
d e s c r i p t i o n o f d e f e n c e m e c h a n i s m s , p r o j e c t i o n
i s a w a y i n w h i c h w e p r o t e c t o u r s e l v e s f r o m

a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h a t w e m a y p o s s e s s u n d e s i r a b l e
t r a i t s a n d a s s i g n t h e m i n e x a g g e r a t e d a m o u n t s
t o o t h e r p e o p l e . F o r i n s t a n c e , a m a n a g e r w h o
c o n s i d e r s a l l s u b o r d i n a t e s a s i n s i n c e r e m a y b e
p r o j e c t i n g o n e o f t h e m a n a g e r ‘ s o w n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
Self-fulfillingprophecy: Another perceptual error is self-fulfilling prophecy.
A common feature of social interaction is the concept of the self-
fulfilling prophecy (sometimes known as the Pygmalion effect), a term
that is usually attributed to Merton. The essence of the prophecy is that
simply because it has been made, this will cause it to happen. People
strive to validate their perceptions irrespective of the actual reality.
People‘s beliefs or expectations influence their actions and behavior in
such a way as to make the beliefs or expectations more likely to come
true. If staff believe a rumour (prophecy) that there will be no
promotions or bonuses for the foreseeable future, they are likely to
behave in such a way that their performance would not justify promotion
or bonuses (even if the rumour were not true).
Rosenthal and Jacobson undertook a study of American school students
in which psychological tests were claimed to predict levels of
achievement. The researchers informed teachers that certain named
students had been identified as ‗fast developers‘ when, in reality,
students were assigned at random to both the high-potential and control
groups. At the end of the academic year those students designated with
high potential achieved noticeably greater increased IQ scores and
reading ability than the control group of students.
In the organizational setting, a study by Word et al. produced evidence
that black candidates in job interviews received fewer supportive non-
verbal signs from white interviewers than white candidates. As a result
the black candidates gave less confident answers to questions and were
given a poorer rating. The expectation of managers has a powerful
influence on the behavior and performance of staff. If a manager expects
only minimal performance from staff, they are not likely to perform to
the best of their abilities. Therefore, managers need to establish an

organizational framework and supportive culture that reinforces positive
performance expectations at all levels of the organization. Staff should
also be encouraged to have high self-expectations of performance
through working towards common goals.
How does it operate?
Perceptual defense operates when a person is confronted with conflicting
or unacceptable or threatening stimuli. In this case, the person will
usually put a defense against it. The defense can be; denial, or
modification or change in perception, or recognition but refusal to
change. Thus perceptual defense operates by people denying the
existence or importance of conflicting stimuli, or distorting the new
stimuli to match the old, or acknowledging the existence of the new
stimuli but treating it as a non-representative exception. In these ways,
people often screen out perceptual stimuli that make them uncomfortable
or distressing.
How can we reduce it?
Three potentially effective ways to improve perception and reduce
perceptual defense error that go with it include awareness of perceptual
biases, self-awareness, and meaningful. Each of these is discussed
below.
Awareness of Perceptual Biases; One of the most obvious and widely
practiced ways to reduce perceptual defense and other errors is by
knowing that they exist. For example, diversity awareness training tries
to minimize discrimination by making people aware of systemic
discrimination as well as prejudices that occur through stereotyping.
This training also attempts to dispel myths about people from various
cultural and demographic groups. Awareness of perceptual biases can
reduce these biases to some extent by making people more mindful of
their thoughts and actions. However, awareness has only a limited effect.
For example, trying to correct misinformation about demographic

groups has limited effect on people with deeply held prejudices against
those groups. Also, self-fulfilling prophecy training informs managers
about this perceptual bias and encourages them to engage in more
positive rather than negative self-fulfilling prophecies, yet research has
found that managers continue to engage in negative self-fulfilling
prophecies after they complete the training program.
Improving Self-Awareness; A more powerful way to minimize
perceptual biases like perceptual defense is to help people become more
aware of biases in their own decisions and behavior. Self-awareness is a
critical foundation for developing a global mindset. We need to
understand our beliefs, values, and attitudes to be more open-minded
and nonjudgmental toward others. Self-awareness is equally important in
other ways. One formal procedure, called the Implicit Association Test
(IAT), detects subtle race, age, and gender bias by associating positive
and negative words with specific demographic groups. Many people are
much more cautious about their stereotypes and prejudices after
discovering that their test results show a personal bias against older
people or individuals from different ethnic backgrounds. For example,
Jennifer Smith-Holladay was surprised to learn after taking the IAT that
she is biased in favor of white people, a group to which she belongs, and
in favor of heterosexuals, a group to which she does not belong. ―I
discovered that I not only have some in-group favoritism lurking in my
subconscious, but also possess some internalized oppression in terms of
my sexuality,‖ says Smith Holladay. She adds that the IAT results will
make her more aware of personal biases and help her to minimize their
application in decision making. ―In the case of my own subconscious in-
group favoritism for white people, for example, my charge is to be color
conscious, not color blind, and to always explicitly consider how race
may affect behaviors and decisions.‖ More generally, people tend to
reduce their perceptual biases by ―knowing themselves‖—increasing
awareness of their own values, beliefs, and prejudices. The Johari
Window, described above, is a popular model for understanding how co-
workers can increase their mutual understanding.

Meaningful Interaction; Self-awareness and mutual understanding can
also improve through meaningful interaction. This statement is based on
the contact hypothesis, which states that, under certain conditions,
people who interact with each other will be less prejudiced or
perceptually biased against each other. Simply spending time with
members of other groups can improve your understanding and opinion
of those persons to some extent. However, the contact hypothesis effect
is much stronger when people have close and frequent interaction
working toward a shared goal and need to rely on each other (i.e.,
cooperate rather than compete with each other). Everyone should have
equal status in that context and should be engaged in a meaningful task.
An hour-long social gathering between executives and frontline
employees would not satisfy the contact hypothesis conditions.
Meaningful interaction does more than reduce our reliance on
stereotypes. It also potentially improves empathy toward others, that is,
the extent to which we understand and are sensitive to the feelings,
thoughts, and situations of others. You have empathy when actively
visualizing the other person‘s situation and feeling that person‘s
emotions in that situation. Empathizing with others improves our
sensitivity to the external causes of another person‘s performance and
behavior, thereby reducing fundamental attribution error. A supervisor
who imagines what it‘s like to be a single mother, for example, would
become more sensitive to the external causes of lateness and other
events among such employees.
3. What is risky shift? Give an example of the operation of the
phenomenon in any situation that you are aware of, or have been
exposed to.
Risky shift describes a phenomenon of risk taking by groups. There is a
tendency for groups to gamble with decisions more than they would as
individuals making decisions on their own. Although this may not
necessarily be an hindrance to good decision making, it does put
decision at risk.

Risky shift phenomenon suggests that instead of the group taking fewer
risks and making safer or more conservative decisions, the reverse is
often the case. Pressures for conformity mean there is a tendency for
groups to make more risky decisions than would individual members of
the group on their own.
Studies suggest that people working in groups generally advocate more
risky alternatives than if they were making an individual decision on the
same problem. Presumably, this is because members do not feel the
same sense of responsibility for group decisions or their outcomes. ‗A
decision which is everyone‘s is the responsibility of no one.‘ This is
called diffusion of responsibility.
Other explanations offered for the risky-shift phenomenon include;
1. People inclined to take risks are more influential in group discussions
than more conservative people.
2. Risk-taking is regarded as a desirable cultural characteristic that is
more likely to be expressed in a social situation such as group working.
However, groups do appear to work well in the evaluation of ideas and
to be more effective than individuals for problem-solving tasks requiring
a range of knowledge and expertise.
One of the risky shift situations I have once experienced was when our
local football team, of which I was the captain, played another team in
our district tournament. I and three others were the defenders in the
team.
Within the first minute of the match, my team conceded a goal. As the
match processed, my team could not equalize due to our cautiousness
not to concede another goal, thus dashing our hope to at least get a point
from the match.
However, as the munities ticked by, we became desperate. This
desperation spurred all my team members onto an aggressive or

offensive strategy. My three defensive partners started taking up
attacking positions, and as a consequence, I had to cover for them. My
initial reaction was to yell at them to confine themselves to their
defensive duties. But eventually, spurred by the attitude of my co-
defenders and hoping for the team to score, I also started making inroads
towards the opposition goal area.
This actually put me and my team mates into a risky shift phenomenon
because the entire football team got into a very aggressive mood as we
threw caution to the winds trying to score. The result! We conceded a
second goal and therefore, lost the match.
This goes to show that a risky shift phenomenon may results into
positive or negative consequences. In my team‘s case, the result was that
we lost three points that would have enabled the team to top the league
table at that point in time. But had we won the match due to the team‘s
risky shift approach, the consequence would have been a positive one.
Describe: A, the norms in any of your class project groups in which you
have been identified, B. the extent of the cohesion in the group and the
reasons therefore.
Norms:
Group norms are unwritten rules that define acceptable role behavior of
group members. Norms include performance levels valued by the group,
teamwork within the group, and relationships with managers and other
aspects of the formal organization.
When the group functions for a period of time to attain certain
objectives, it develops norms or standards of behavior. A norm is a rule.
This tells the individual how to behavior in a particular group. It is
important to know what behavior is significant for the group which helps
to develop a norm. A relevant group norm is one which is neither central
nor absolutely essential to follow but is worthwhile and desirable. So

any norm may be pivotal in a group, but may be irrelevant to another.
With an increase in size of the group, norms are less likely to be
accepted. Norms allow possible deviations for the manager.
During my undergraduate studies at the University of the Gambia in
2005, our Introduction to Psychology lecturer gave my group to write a
project on by-stander effect on human behavior. The group members
were six in number. During the course of undertaking the assignment,
the group developed a number of norms, which include the following;
One of the most important norms was how the project task was to be
accomplished. One student was responsible for initiating and sustaining
communication with the rest of the group, another with coordinating
schedules and organizing meetings, another with recording ideas
generated and decisions made at meetings and a fourth with keeping the
group on track and cracking the whip when deadlines were approaching.
The norm was to rotate members through these roles, so that they each
get practice performing each function.
Another norm was to participate but no monopolizing. Participation is
one of the most important norm of the group. Everyone was usually
given the chance to voice their ideas and concerns but monopolizing
group discussions and activities was seriously discouraged.
The group members would practice consistent commitment to sharing all
the information they have. It was an established norm that each member
would share the complete information that he or she had up front. The
aim was to help members to prepare themselves to critically analyze the
information during the course of the group subsequent meeting.
Placing cell phones on silent during the group‘s meetings was another
norm of the group. This was to avoid unnecessary distractions and
disruptions of the group work.

Voicing problems, issues, etc. to the group- and avoid taking them
outside of the group to avoid creating a hostile environment was another
norm of the group.
Opening and closing meetings with Islamic prayers had become a norm
of the group.
Expending efforts to practice all of these norms and to care enough
about the group and its work to confront each other, with care,
compassion, and purpose, when a team member failed to practice these
norms was also an unwritten of the group .
In addition, the following list was also part of our group norm;
฀ Treat each other with dignity and respect.
฀ Transparency: avoid hidden agendas.
฀ Be genuine with each other about ideas, challenges, and feelings.
฀ Support each other- never throw each other under the bus.
฀ Avoid territoriality; think instea
d of the overall good for the group.
฀ The discussion of i
ssues, ideas, and direction would not become a
personal attack or return to haunt you in the future.
The Group Cohesiveness: the cohesiveness of our group was strong.
This is so because the members were motivated to remain within the
group and consequently behaved in similar ways. Being part of the
group also helped the members in their satisfaction of needs and
attainment of goals. This cohesiveness developed out of the activities,
interactions and sentiments of the people. The group acted as one man to
attain its goals.
The group had members who were attracted to the group‘s task, to its
prestige, and to other members of the group. The members liked to be
together, cared about each other, and typically knew each other well.

Given the above, we can see that the extent to which the group was
cohesive was strong. But why was this strong cohesiveness? Factors that
lent themselves into explaining this include the following:
Size of the group - My group was a small group. This made it more
cohesive because as a small group, problems that arise with
communications and co-ordination was virtually nonexistent. Unlike
small groups, large groups are more difficult to handle and require a
higher level of supervision. Absenteeism also tends to be higher in larger
groups. When a group becomes too large it may split into smaller units
and friction may develop between the sub-groups. Our group was able to
avoid all these problems because of its small size of six members.
Proximity of the group – Secondly, because our group was working
closely together, it helped in cohesiveness. It helped face to face contact
and constant interactions, leading to members showing understanding of
personal problems and empathy.
Compatibility of the group members- Our group was a homogeneous
one in terms of such features as shared backgrounds, interests, attitudes
and values of its members, thus making it easier to promote
cohesiveness. Variations in other individual differences, such as the
personality or skills of members, served to complement each other and
help made for a cohesive group.
Nature of the task at hand- Since the group members were involved in
similar work, shared a common task or faced the same problem of
solving the psychology assignment, this assisted in its cohesiveness. The
nature of the task served to bring us together when it was necessary for
us to communicate and interact regularly with each other in the
performance of our assignment duties.
Communications- the more easily members can communicate freely
with each other, the greater the likelihood of group cohesiveness.
Constant communication was one feature of our project group.

The group leadership style- Groups tend to be a mirror image of their
leaders. The form of management and style of leadership adopted will
influence the relationship among the group and are major determinants
of group cohesiveness. In general terms, cohesiveness will be affected
by such things as the manner in which the leader gives guidance and
encouragement to the group, offers help and support, provides
opportunities for participation, attempts to resolve conflicts and gives
attention to both employee relations and task problems. Our team leader
was excellent in this regard.
Outside Pressure – My group had other competitors in terms of other
groups in the psychology class. Cohesiveness was enhanced in our group
by members co-operating with one another because of this common
external threat. This apparent competition (in terms who gets the best
mark) increased the cohesiveness of our group.
Case Study
KAILASH GENERAL HOSPITAL
Kailash General Hospital is located in a medium sized suburban community. It serves a
large portion of the surrounding area and is usually operating at or beyond its capacity.
Each floor of the hospital has its own particular structure with regard to the nurses who
staff it. The formal hierarchy runs from the supervisor (a registered nurse) to registered
nurses (RNs) to licensed practical nurses (LPNs) to students and nurses aides.
Professionally, there are some duties that are supposed to be performed by only the
RNs. The RNS are happy because they are very busy with other duties over a long
period of time, the RNs and LPNs have worked out how to get the required tasks done
quite efficiently, without thinking of whose job it's suppose to be. The hospital is
normally so crowded that, even with every one performing all types of work, there never
seem to be enough time or enough help
A current sticky point in the hospital is vacation privileges. They are different for
various groups of nurses. RNs receive two week's vacation after nine months on
the job while LPNs must work at hospital for ten years before being eligible for
the second week of vacation. The LPNs believe this is extremely unfair and have

been trying to have the privileges somewhat more equalized. Their efforts have met
with little cooperation and no success. The hospital administration has simply told them
that the vacation privileges are those stated in the hospital manual and that they see no
need to change them.
The hospital procedure manual was developed in the early years of establishment in
1980s. It has never been revised since. Everyone knows that it is outdated and there is
little similarity between what is done now and manual. Nearly everything has changed
ever since it was written. Some of the nurses at Kailash decided to take matters into
their own hands. The LPNs on the fourth floor decided that if the manual were to be
followed for the vacation privileges, they would follow it in all phases, going strictly
according to books. This is when the difficulties started. The RN's have more work
than they can handle, and the LPN's are just as busy only doing their "prescribed"
duties.
Both are exerting as much effort as before, but less is being accomplished because to
jump around from place to place and job to job to work strictly according to the manual.
An example of this is taking doctor's order by telephone. When doctors phone in the
type of treatment that a patient is to receive- medicines, time for dispensing such,
diet and so forth -the manual prescribes that the order is to be taken by an RN.
However, in practice whoever nearest the phone would take the order. If an LPN
too the order, she had it signed by the supervisor (stationed at the desk) as a
safeguard. This saved the time and effort involved in getting an RN to the phone for
every order.
Now, however, since they are working according to manual, the LPN's refuse to
take the doctor's orders. They call for an RN when a doctor is on the phone. The
RN has to leave the work she is doing, go to the phone, take the order, then go
back to her unfinished work. This procedure waste the time of the doctor, the RN, and
the person who had to locate the RN. Going by the book has raised the hostile feelings
among both the group of nurses and among the doctors who work on the floor. Many
believe this has led to reduction in the high quality of patient care.
The conflict brought on by the vacation privilege controversy resulted in other
complaints. In the manual, the categories described for the vacation privileges are
"supervisors" "RNS", "Lab technicians", and "others". The LPN's resented being
placed in the "others" category, believing that they reserved a separate category
because they have the same amount of training as other professionals, such as
the lab technicians got a second week of vacation after only one year at the hospital.
Another problem was that RNs were allowed to sign themselves in the job when they
reported, whereas the LPNs were required to punch in. The LPNs time was carefully
monitored.

They were docked in salary for any time missed. The. RNs complained to the hospital
administration more frequently than ever about being understaffed. They felt that
there should be more RNs on every floor on every shift. The shortage was
especially acute at nights when unfamiliarity with individual patients often led to
mix-ups in the treatments.
The ill feeling led to the nurses to argue among themselves. The LPN felt that they
always do more work than the RNs, that they spend more time with the patients
because the RNs had more to do at the desk, and that they know more about
treatments because they more often accompanied doctors on their rounds. They
now voiced these opinions. The RNs argued that they were superior because of
their longer and more extensive formal training.
All these factors combined to bring about a tremendous drop in morale and a marked
decrease in efficiency, and the conflict was in danger of spreading to the other floors in
the hospital.
Questions:
1. Why is there such conflict between these groups?
One source of conflict in this case study was about the LPN‘s perception
of unjust treatment. As per the case, The LPN felt that they always do
more work than the RNs, that they spend more time with the patients
because the RNs had more to do at the desk, and that they know more
about treatments because they more often accompanied doctors on their
rounds.
Another issue around which the conflict revolved was the vacation
privileges. This was unfair to the LPNs. From the point of view of the
LPNs, the vacation privileges were to their disadvantage visa vis the
vacations of the RNs. This problem was compounded by Management‘s
instance on selective application of an outdated manual.
The LPN felt that they always do more work than the RNs that they
spend more time with the patients because the RNs had more to do at the
desk, and that they know more about treatments because they more often

accompanied doctors on their rounds. But then the RN's have more work
than they can handle, and the LPN's are just as busy only doing their
"prescribed" duties. The conflicting situation from these two statements
from the case is apparent. Work overload, as far as the two camp
perceived each other, had contributed a conflict situation in this
Hospital.
Status categorization was also a source of tension in this case.We can
see this in the case when it was mentioned that In the manual, the
categories described for the vacation privileges are "supervisors"
"RNS", "Lab technicians", and "others". The LPN's resented being
placed in the "others" category, believing that they reserved a separate
category because they have the same amount of training as other
professionals, such as the lab technicians got a second week of vacation
after only one year at the hospital.
It must be stated that Management had also contributed to aggravating
this conflict in the sense that its adamancy on following the manual and
refusal to revise it led to the LPN's refusal to take the doctor's orders.
They call for an RN (as prescribed by the manual) when a doctor is on
the phone. The RN has to leave the work she is doing, go to the phone,
take the order, then go back to her unfinished work. This procedure
waste the time of the doctor, the RN, and the person who had to locate
the RN.
From the above, we can discern that this conflict was between different
units of the hospital. Hence we can call it inter-group conflict. This
conflict occurs due to factors inherent to the organizational structure like
inconsistency in various policy matters, variance on reward system and
different standards being adopted for the different sub-units.
This case study has it all.

2. What are the consequences of this conflict?
The consequences of this conflict led to
1. Poor quality patient care;
2. Frequent complaints of RN nurses to the hospital administration
3. Low staff morale
4. Time wasting of all the staff involved.
5. The efficiency level of the staff involved also dropped consirably.
6. Arguments between the LPN and RN nurses
3. What will you do as a consultant to this hospital?
As Consultant, the following may be recommended;
1. For the manual, which the hospital was using, to be revised since it
was outdated. Nearly everything has changed ever since it was written.
The manual should be revised to incorporate the new changes.
2. Clearly spelt out the job description for each category of staff.
3. To make a more realistic office layout for the staff.
Section C
1. The Hawthorne experiment was started by:
a. Kurt Lewin
b. B.F. Skinner
c. Elton Mayo
d. W. Dickson

2. The Hawthorne experiment was started by:
a. F. W. Taylor
b. Max Weber
c. Henri Fayol
d. L. Urwick
Note; None of the above is correct
3. Father of Admmistratlve Management:
a. F. W. Taylor
b. Max Weber
c. Henri Fayol
d. L. Urwick
4. The 'Carrot and Stick' theory of motivation is related to:
a. Theory X
b. Theory Y
c. Theory Z
d. Maslow's need hierarchy
5. The dual factor theory given by:
a. Maslow
b. Herzbery
c. Vroom
d. Adam
6. Learning is a behaviour.
a. Permanent
b. Flexible
c. Relatively permanent
d. Natural

7. The concept of observational learning is given by:
a. Watson
b. Thorndike
c. Bandura
d. Skinner
8. Reinforcement principles is associated with:
a. Tollman
b. Hull
c. Skinner
d. Guthrie
9. Attribution theory has been proposed by:
a. Kelly
b. Hull
c. Dollard & Miller
d. Pavou
10. The "ERG' theory is related to:
a. Maslow
b. Herzberg
c. Alderfer
d. McGregor
11. The motives which are unlearned but not physiologically based are
called:
a. Primary Motives
b. Secondary Motives
c. General Motives

d. None
12. Equity theory of motivation has been advocated by:
a. Porter & Lawler
b. Adams
c. Vroom
d. Argyris
13. Rorschach is a:
a. Personality inventory
b. Projective technique
c. Situational test
d. Group test
14. Individual exposed to ambiguous pictures and to makeup a story:
a. MMPI
b. TAT
c. Rorschach
d. Brooktest
15. Field theorist is called:
a. Trait theorist
b. Learning theorist
c. Holistic theorist
d. Work theorist
16. Which one is called as trait theorist?
a. Rogers
b. Sheldon
c. Maslow

d. Doliard & Miller
17. The father of stress:
a. Kohler
b. Hans Selye
c. Cooper & Marshal
d. Pestonjee
18. Perceptual organization is determined by:
a. Functional factors
b. Mental set
c. Physiological factors
d. None.
19. Divergent perceptual sets may cause:
a. Industrial conflict
b. Absenteeism
c. indiscipline
d. Attitude
20. One of the sub-process of perception is:
a. Halo effect
b. Set
c. Feedback
d. Thinking
21. Cluster is a type of:
a. Grapevine
b. Informal Organization
c. Formal Organization

d. None
22. The basic influence in informal organization is:
a. Position
b. Power
c. Authority
d. Control
23. Bases of power identified by:
a. French & Raven.
b. French & Bell.
c. French
d. French & Thomas
24. Elements of interaction, activities and sentiments given by:
a. Homans
b. Asch
c. Janis
d. Watson
25. There are stages of group development:
a. Two
b. Three
c. Four
d. Five
26. Asch experiment was on:
a. Decision making
b. Group pressure
c. Group thinking

d. Group size
27. Labour power represents:
a. A power bloc
b. A power elite
c. Power corollary
d. None
28. Which is positively related with group cohesiveness?
a. Legitimate power
b. Expert power
c. Referent power
d. None
29. Authority can be classified as:
a. Rational, traditional and charismatic
b. Basic, general and independent
c. Coercive, legitimate and referent
d. None
30. Who has conducted autokinesis experiments:
a. Shaw
b. Mereil
c. Sherif
d. None
31. Which of the following is more relevant is determining ability of
individuals to remember communications over time:
a. Non-verbal communication
b. Feedback

c. Presentation
d. None
32. Which of the following is concerned with an understanding of
interpersonal styles in social encounters?
a. Communication networks
b. Johari Window
c. Flow pattern of message
d. None
33. Which of the following communication networks is more effective
vis-a-vis speed and accuracy of performance?
a. Circle
b. Wheel
c. Diagonal
d. None
34. Which one is called a naturalistic or an organic organization?
a. Project
b. Matrix
c. Free form
d. None
35. Which of the following is the vertical expansion of jobs:
a. Job enlargement
b. Job enrichment
c. Job rotation
d. None
36. Which is neo classical theorist:

a. Fayol
b. Kahn
c Worthy
d. None
37. Which of the following is the vertical expansion of jobs:
a. Job design
b. Job enrichment
c. Job rotation
d. Job enlargement
38. One of the objectives of organizational change is:
a. Increased motivation.
b. Greater innovation
c. Changes in an organization's level of adaptation to its
environment.
d. None
39. Provided five OD steps comprising diagnosis, strategy planning,
education, consulting and training and evaluation.
a. Blake and Mouton
b. Lippitt
c. White
d. Beckhard
40. One of the advantages of process consultation is:
a. Stress on participants involvement
b. Involvement of little time and cost
c. Focus on significant interpersonal inter group problems
d. None

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