11. CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF OB
Economic pressures
Continuing globalization
Working demographics
Workforce diversity
Customer service
People skills
Networked organizations
Social media
Employee well-being
Positive work environment
Ethical behavior
25. WHAT IS PERSONALITY?
The word personality is derived from a Greek word “persona” which means “to speak
through”. Personality is the combination of characteristics or qualities that forms a
person’s unique identity.
Personality is the fundamental and foremost determinant of individual behaviour. It
seeks to integrate the physiological and psychological facets of an individual to put
them into action.
26.
27. DEFINITIONS OF PERSONALITY
The dynamic organisation within the individual of those psychophysical systems that
determine his unique adjustments to his environment
-Gordon Allport
Personality is a pattern of stable states and characteristics of a person that
influences his or her behaviour toward goal achievement. Each person has unique
ways of protecting these states
-
Personality is how people affect others and how they understand and view
themselves, as well as their pattern of inner and outer measurable traits and the
person situation interaction
-Fred LuthansGluck
29. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
The study of the biological contributions to personality may be studied under three heads:
Heredity
Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical stature, facial
attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological
rhythms are characteristics that are considered to be inherent from one’s parents.
The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual’s personality is the
molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes.
Brain
The second biological approach is to concentrate on the role that the brain plays in personality. The
psychologists are unable to prove empirically the contribution of the human brain in influencing
personality.
Biofeedback: Until recently, physiologists and psychologists felt that certain biological functions such
as brainwave patterns, gastric and hormonal secretions, and fluctuations in blood pressure and skin
temperature were beyond conscious control.
Now some scientists believe that these involuntary functions can be consciously controlled
through biofeedback techniques. In BFT, the individual learns the internal rhythms of a particular
body process through electronic signals that are feedback from equipment that is wired to the body.
30. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Physical features
A vital ingredient of the personality, an individual’s external appearance, is
biologically determined. The fact that a person is tall or short, fat or skinny, black or
white will influence the person’s effect on others and this in turn, will affect the
self-concept.
31. CULTURAL FACTORS
Among the factors that influence personality formation is the culture in which we are
raised, early conditioning, norms prevailing within the family, friends and social
groups and other miscellaneous experiences that impact us.
The culture largely determines attitudes towards independence, aggression,
competition, cooperation and a host of other human responses.
According to Paul H Mussen, “each culture expects, and trains, its members to behave
in ways that are acceptable to the group. To a marked degree, the child’s cultural
group defines the range of experiences and situations he is likely to encounter and the
values and personality characteristics that will be reinforced and hence learned.
32. FAMILY FACTORS
A substantial amount of empirical evidence indicates that the overall home
environment created by the parents, in addition to their direct influence, is critical to
personality development.
The parents play an especially important part in the identification process, which is
important to the person’s early development.
According to Mischel, the process can be examined from three different
perspectives.
(a) Identification can be viewed as the similarity of behaviour including feelings and
attitudes between child and model.
(b) Identification can be looked at as the child’s motives or desires to be like the model.
(c) It can be viewed as the process through which the child actually takes on the
attributes of the model.
33. SOCIAL FACTORS
Socialization involves the process by which a person acquires, from the enormously
wide range of behavioural potentialities that are open to him or her, those that are
ultimately synthesized and absorbed.
Socialization starts with the initial contact between a mother and her new infant. After
infancy, other members of the immediate family – father, brothers, sisters and close
relatives or friends, then the social group: peers, school friends and members of the
work group – play influential roles.
Socialization process is especially relevant to organisational behaviour because the
process is not confined to early childhood, taking place rather throughout one’s life. In
particular, the evidence is accumulating that socialization may be one of the best
explanations for why employees behave the way they do in today’s organisations.
34. SITUATIONAL FACTORS
An individual’s personality, while generally stable and consistent, does change in
different situations. The varying demands of different situations call forth different
aspects of one’s personality.
According to Milgram, “Situation exerts an important press on the individual. It
exercises constraints and may provide a push. In certain circumstances, it is not so
much the kind of person a man is, as the kind of situation in which he is placed that
determines his actions”. We should therefore not look at personality patterns in
isolation.
35. PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS
Seven personality characteristics that influence individual are:
1. Locus of Control
2. Self-Efficacy
3. Self-Esteem
4. Self-Monitoring
5. Positive/Negative Affect
6. Risk-Taking
7. Type A and Type B Personality
57. SIXTH DIMENSION OF HOFSTEDE MODEL
Indulgence vs restraint
Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and
natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands for a
society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict
social norms.
58.
59. GLOBAL LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOR EFFECTIVENESS (GLOBE FRAMEWORK)
GLOBE project, included 170,000 managers in 162 countries. These studies identifiednine dimensions that describe
differences in national cultures.
1.PowerDistance. Power distance is the degree to which people accept an unequal distribution ofpower and status
privileges. In high power distance countries, there is respect for age and titles, people are expected to followrules, and
there is more tolerance for concentrated power. India, Mexico, and the Philippines have high power distance. The United
States, Australia, and Israel have lowpower distance.
2.Uncertainty Avoidance. The degree to which people are uncomfortable with risk,change, and ambiguityis called
uncertaintyavoidance. In high uncertaintyavoidance countries, there is a greater emphasis on rules, structure, order, and
predictability. France, Japan, and CostaRica, for example, are countries with high uncertaintyavoidance. The United States,
India, and Sweden have low uncertaintyavoidance.
3.Performance Orientation. Performance orientation is the degree to which innovation,high standards,and excellent
performance are encouraged and rewarded. Countries with high performance orientationvalue materialism and
competitiveness, and they expect to invest in trainingto promote performance improvements. The United States and
European countries have high performance orientations;Argentina, Russia, and Greece have low performance orientations.
4.Assertiveness. Assertiveness is the degree to which individuals are forceful, confrontational, and aggressive, as opposed to
cooperative and compassionate. In high assertiveness countries such as the United States, Germany, and Mexico,
communicationis direct and unambiguous. Individual initiative is encouraged, and relationships are likelyto be
competitive. Countrieswith lowassertiveness rankings are Switzerland and NewZealand. Managers in these countries are
more likely to look for consensus and cooperative decisionmaking.
60. GLOBE FRAMEWORK
1.Future Orientation.The degree to which delayed gratificationand planningfor the future are valued overshort-term gains is
called future orientation.Countrieswith high future orientation encourage investments for future payoffsoverimmediate
consumption.It is similarto the abilityofindividualsto delaygratification.Canada,Switzerland,and Malaysia havehigh future
orientation;Poland,Argentina,and Russiahavelowfuture orientation.
2.Humane Orientation.The degree to which fairness,altruism, generosity,and kindnessare encouraged and valued is a measure
of a country’s humane orientation.In nations with high humane orientation,individuals are responsible for promotingthe well-
beingof others as opposed to the state providingsocial and economicsupport.The Philippines,Ireland,and Egypt havehigh
humane orientation;France, Germany,and Singapore have lowhumane orientation.
3.Institutional Collectivism. Institutional collectivismis the degree to which organizational and societal institutions encourage
individuals to be integrated intogroups and organizations.In high institutional collectivism countries,collectivedistributionof
resources and collectiveaction are encouraged.Group loyaltyis encouraged,even if it undermines the pursuit ofindividual
goals.Sweden, Japan,and Singapore are examples ofcountries that havehigh institutional collectivism;Germany,Argentina,
and Italyhavelow institutional collectivism.In the United States,lowinstitutional collectivism has resultedin debates on
appropriate work-life balance.
4.In-Group Collectivism. In-group collectivismis the degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty,and cohesiveness in their
organizations orfamilies.In countries with high institutionalcollectivism,individuals identifywith their families or organizations
and duties and obligationsdetermine behaviors.A strongdistinctionis made between individuals who are in a group and those
who are not.India,Egypt,and China are examples ofcountries that havehigh institutional collectivism;Sweden,New Zealand,
and Finland havelowinstitutional collectivism.
5.Gender Egalitarianism. The degree to which male and female equalityis actualizedis called gender egalitarianism.Countries
with high gender egalitarianismprovide more opportunities forwomen and havemore women in positions ofpower. Sweden,
Poland,and Costa Rica havehigh gender egalitarianism.Japan,Italy,and Egypt havelowgender egalitarianism.In these
countries,women generallyhavelower status at work and in the culture.
62. DEFINITION OF ATTITUDE
According to Gordon Allport, “An attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness,
organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the
individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related.”
Frank Freeman said, “An attitude is a dispositional readiness to respond to certain
institutions, persons or objects in a consistent manner which has been learned and has
become one’s typical mode of response.”
Thurstone said, “An attitude denotes the sum total of man’s inclinations and feelings,
prejudice or bias, preconceived notions, ideas, fears, threats, and other any specific topic.”
63.
64. COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE
Cognitive Component – The opinion or belief segment of an attitude.
Affective Component – The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.
Behavioral Component – An intention to behave in a certain way towards
someone or something.
66. CHANGING ATTITUDES
Barriers to changing attitudes:
1. Prior commitment
2. Insufficient information
Methods to overcome barriers and change attitudes:
1. Providing new information
2. Use of fear
3. Resolving Discrepancies
4. Influence of friends and peers
5. The co-opting approach (appoint to membership of a committee or other body by
invitation of the existing members)
67. WHAT ARE THE MAJOR JOB ATTITUDES?
Job Satisfaction: A positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its
characteristics
Job Involvement: Degree of psychological identification with the job where perceived
performance is important to self-worth
Psychological Empowerment: Belief in the degree of influence over the job,
competence, job meaningfulness, and autonomy
Organizational Commitment: Identifying with a particular organization and its
goals, while wishing to maintain membership in the organization.
Three dimensions:
1. Affective – emotional attachment to organization
2. Continuance Commitment – economic value of staying
3. Normative - moral or ethical obligations
68. WHAT ARE THE MAJOR JOB ATTITUDES?
Perceived Organizational Support (POS): Degree to which employees believe
the organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being.
➢Higher when rewards are fair, employees are involved in decision-making, and
supervisors are seen as supportive.
➢ High POS is related to higher OCBs and performance.
Employee Engagement: The degree of involvement with, satisfaction with, and
enthusiasm for the job.
➢Engaged employees are passionate about their work and company.
69. MEASURING JOB SATISFACTION
There are two approaches for measuring job satisfaction
Single global rating
It consists of asking individualto respond to one question.
The respondent reply by circling a number between 1-5 that corresponds to answer from highly
satisfied to highly dissatisfied.
Summation score
It consist of identifyingkey elements in a job and ask for the employee’sfeeling about each.
70. WHAT CAUSES JOB SATISFACTION
Job conditions
Personality
Corporate social responsibility
Pay
71. OUTCOMES OF JOB SATISFACTION
Job Performance
Satisfied workers are more productive and more productive workers are more
satisfied!
The causality may run both ways.
Organizational Citizenship Behaviors
Satisfaction influences OCB through perceptions of fairness.
Customer Satisfaction
Satisfied frontline employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty.
Absenteeism
Satisfied employees are moderately less likely to miss work.
72. OUTCOMES OF JOB SATISFACTION
Turnover
Satisfied employees are less likely to quit.
Many moderating variables in this relationship.
Economic environment and tenure
Organizational actions taken to retain high performers and to weed out lower
performers
Workplace Deviance
Dissatisfied workers are more likely to unionize, abuse substances, steal, be tardy, and
withdraw.
Despite the overwhelming evidence of the impact of job satisfaction on the
bottom line, most managers are either unconcerned about or overestimate
worker satisfaction.
73. JOB DISSATISFACTION
HIRSCHMAN’S EXIT–VOICE–LOYALTY–NEGLECT (EVLN)
MODEL
•Exit refers to leaving the organization, transferring to another work unit, or at least trying to make these exits. Employee
turnover is a well-established outcome of job dissatisfaction, particularly for employees with better job opportunities
elsewhere.Conversely, companies whose employees have high job satisfaction report some of their industries’ lowest turnover
rates.
•Voice refers to any attempt to change, rather than escape from, a dissatisfying situation.Voice can be a constructive response,
such as recommending ways for management to improve the situation; or it can be more confrontational, such as filing formal
grievances.
•Loyalty has been described in different ways. The most widely held view is that “loyalists” are employees who respond to
dissatisfaction by patiently waiting—some say they “suffer in silence”—for a problem to work itself out or get resolved by
others.
•Neglect includes reducing work effort, paying less attention to quality, and increasing absenteeism and lateness. It is generally
considered a passiveactivity that has negative consequences forthe organization.
88. HERZBERG TWO FACTOR THEORY
•Two-factor theory hypothesized that are two different sets of factors governing job satisfaction and job
dissatisfaction: “hygienefactors,”or extrinsicmotivators and “motivation factors,”or intrinsicmotivators.
•Hygiene factors, or extrinsic motivators, tend to represent more tangible, basic needs—i.e., the kinds of needs included in
the existence category of needs in the ERG theory or in the lower levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Extrinsic
motivators include status, job security, salary, and fringe benefits. It’s important for managers to realize that not providing
the appropriate and expected extrinsicmotivators will sowdissatisfactionand decrease motivation amongemployees.
•Motivation factors, or intrinsic motivators, tend to represent less tangible, more emotional needs—i.e., the kinds of needs
identified in the “relatedness” and “growth” categories of needs in the ERG theory and in the higher levels of Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs. Intrinsic motivators include challenging work, recognition, relationships, and growth potential.
Managers need to recognize that while these needs may fall outside the more traditional scope of what a workplace ought
to provide, they can be critical to strongindividual and team performance.
•The factor that differentiatestwo-factor theory from the others we’ve discussed is the role of employee expectations.
•According to Herzberg, intrinsic motivators and extrinsic motivators have an inverse relationship. That is, intrinsic
motivators tend to increase motivation when they are present, while extrinsic motivators tend to reduce motivation when
they are absent.
•This is due to employees’ expectations. Extrinsic motivators (e.g., salary, benefits) are expected, so they won’t increase
motivation when they are in place, but they will cause dissatisfaction when they are missing. Intrinsic motivators (e.g.,
challengingwork, growth potential), on the other hand, can be a source of additionalmotivation when they are available.
90. MCCLELLAND’S NEED THEORY
•McClelland’s theory of needs (1995) is a motivational model that attempts to explain how the
needs for achievement, power, and affiliation affect the actions of people from a managerial
context:
•Achievement discusses how people with different levels of achievement needs seek tasks
with a correspondinglevel of risk. The higher the achievement need the higher the risk.
•Affiliation need is similar to achievement and differs only in the fact it is the need to be
associated with or accepted by a specific group.
•The power portion of the needs theory actually has two sub-sets, personal power and
institutional power. Personal power describes the individual who wants to direct others and
institutional power describes the individual who wants to organize the efforts of others for the
betterment of the institution.
91. GOAL SETTING THEORY
•Goal-setting theory refers to the effects of setting goals on subsequent
performance.
•Researcher Edwin Locke found that individuals who set specific, difficult goals
performed better than those who set general, easy goals.
•Locke proposed five basic principles of goal-setting: clarity, challenge, commitment,
feedback, and task complexity.
•Factors affecting goal-performance relationship
1. Goal commitment
2. Task complexity
3. National culture
92.
93. VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY
❖Vroom developed his Expectancy theory (1964) through his study of the
motivations behind decision making.
❖It proposes that an individual will decide to behave or act in a certain way
because they are motivated to select a specific behaviour over other
behaviours due to what they expect the result of that selected behaviour will
be (ie, their expectations based on pervious experience or observation).
❖This theory emphasises the needs for organisations to align rewards directly
to desired performance and to ensure that the rewards provided are both
deserved and wanted by the recipients
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101. MODERN WAYS OF MOTIVATION
❑Work from home
❑Telecommuting
❑Job sharing
❑Employee involvement programs
❑ESOP
104. OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
–Differentiate emotions from moods, and list the basic emotions and moods.
–Discuss whether emotions are rational and what functions they serve.
–Identify the sources of emotions and moods.
–Show the impact emotional labor has on employees.
–Describe Affective Events Theory and identify its applications.
–Contrast the evidence for and against the existence of emotional
intelligence.
–Apply concepts about emotions and moods to specific OB issues.
–Contrast the experience, interpretation, and expression of emotions across
cultures.
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105. WHY WERE EMOTIONS IGNORED IN OB?
➢The “Myth of Rationality”
Emotions were seen as irrational
Managers worked to make emotion-free environments
➢View of Emotionality
Emotions were believed to be disruptive
Emotions interfered with productivity
Only negative emotions were observed
➢Now we know emotions can’t be separated from the workplace
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107. THE BASIC EMOTIONS
While not universally accepted, there appear to be six basic emotions:
1. Anger
2. Fear
3. Sadness
4. Happiness
5. Disgust
6. Surprise
All other emotions are subsumed under these six
May even be placed in a spectrum of emotion:
Happiness – surprise – fear – sadness – anger – disgust
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108. BASIC MOODS: POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE AFFECT
•Emotions cannot be
neutral.
•Emotions (“markers”) are
grouped into general mood
states.
•Mood states affect
perception and therefore
perceived reality.
•Positivity offset
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109. WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF EMOTION?
➢Do Emotions Make Us Irrational?
Expressing emotions publicly may be damaging to social status
Emotions are critical to rational decision-making
Emotions help us understand the world around us
➢What Functions Do Emotions Serve?
Darwin argued they help in survival problem-solving
Evolutionary psychology: people must experience emotions as there is
a purpose behind them
Not all researchers agree with this assessment
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Decision-Making
Feeling
Thinking
110. SOURCES OF EMOTIONS AND MOODS
➢ Personality
There is a trait component– affect intensity
➢ Day and Time of the Week
There is a common pattern for all of us:
Happier in the midpoint of the daily awake period
Happier toward the end of the week
➢ Weather
Illusory correlation– no effect
➢ Stress
Even low levels of constantstress can worsen moods
➢ Social Activities
Physical, informal, and dining activities increase positive moods POOJA MALIK
111. MORE SOURCES OF EMOTIONS AND MOODS
➢ Sleep
Poor sleep quality increases negative affect
➢ Exercise
Does somewhat improve mood, especially for depressed people
➢ Age
Older folks experience fewer negative emotions
➢ Gender
Women tend to be more emotionally expressive, feel emotions more
intensely, have longer lasting moods, and express emotions more frequently
than do men
Due more to socialization than to biology
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112. EMOTIONAL LABOR
An employee’s expression of organizationally desired emotions during
interpersonal transactions at work
Emotional Dissonance:
Employees have to project one emotion while simultaneously feeling another
Can be very damaging and lead to burnout
Types of Emotions:
Felt: the individual’s actual emotions
Displayed: required or appropriate emotions
Surface Acting: displaying appropriately but not feeling those emotions internally
Deep Acting: changing internal feelings to match display rules - very stressful
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113. AFFECTIVE EVENTS THEORY (AET)
➢An event in the work environment triggers positive or negative emotional reactions
Personalityand mood determine response intensity
Emotions can influence a broad range of work variables
➢Implications:
1.An emotional episode is actuallythe result of a series of emotional experiences triggered
by a single event
2.Current and past emotions affect job satisfaction
3.Emotional fluctuationsover time create variations in job performance
4.Emotion-driven behaviors are typically brief and variable
5.Both negative and positive emotions can distract workers and reducejob performance
➢Emotions provide valuable insights about behavior
➢Emotions, and the minor events that cause them, should not be ignored at work:POOJA MALIK
115. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
➢A person’s ability to:
Be self-aware
Recognizing own emotions when experienced
Detect emotions in others
Manage emotional cues and information
➢EI plays an important role in job performance
➢EI is controversial and not wholly accepted
Case for EI:
Intuitive appeal;predicts criteria that matter; is biologically-based
Case against EI:
Too vague a concept; can’t be measured; its validity is suspect
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116. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
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Self-awareness= Know how you feel
Self-management = Manage your emotions and impulses
Self-motivation = Can motivate yourself and persist
Empathy = Sense and understand what others feel
Social Skills = Can handle the emotions of others
118. OB APPLICATIONS OF EMOTIONS AND MOODS
Selection
EI should be a hiring factor, especially for social jobs.
Decision Making
Positive emotions can lead to better decisions.
Creativity
Positive mood increases flexibility, openness, and creativity.
Motivation
Positive mood affects expectations of success; feedback amplifies this
effect.
Leadership
Emotions are important to acceptance of messages from organizational
leaders.
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119. MORE OB APPLICATIONS OF EMOTIONS AND
MOODS
Negotiation
Emotions , skillfully displayed, can affect negotiations.
Customer Services
Emotions affect service quality delivered to customers which, in turn, affects customer
relationships.
EmotionalContagion:“catching” emotions from others.
Job Attitudes
Can carry over to home but dissipate overnight.
Deviant Workplace Behaviors
Negative emotions lead to employeedeviance (actionsthat violate norms and threaten the
organization).
Manager’s Influence
Leaders who are in a good mood, use humor, and praise employees increase positive moods
in the workplace. POOJA MALIK
120. GLOBAL IMPLICATIONS
Do people experience emotions equally?
No. Culture can determine type, frequency, and depth of experienced
emotions
Do people interpret emotions the same way?
Yes. Negative emotions are seen as undesirable and positive emotions are
desirable
However, value of each emotion varies across cultures
Do norms of emotional expression vary?
Yes. Some cultures have a bias against emotional expression; others
demand some display of emotion
How the emotions are expressed may make interpretation outside of one’s
culture difficult
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121. SUMMARY AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS
•Moods are more general than emotions and less contextual
•Emotions and moods impact all areas of OB
•Managers cannot and should not attempt to completely control the
emotions of their employees
•Managers must not ignore the emotions of their co-workers and
employees
•Behavior predictions will be less accurate if emotions are not
taken into account
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122. WORK STRESS
Stress
A dynamic conditionin which an individual is confrontedwith an opportunity,
constraint,or demand related to what he or she desires and for which the outcome is
perceived to be both uncertain and important.
Demands
Responsibilities, Pressures, obligations, uncertaintiesat work
Resources
Things underyour control which can be used to resolve demands
Stress = Demands > Resources
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123. TYPE OF STRESS
Some level of stress can increase productivity
Too little or too much stress will reduce performance
Eustress
When seen as an opportunity, it offers potential gain
Distress
When seen as constraints or demands, it offers threat
or loss
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125. TYPES OF STRESSORS
ChallengeStressors
Stress associated with workload, pressure to completetasks, and time urgency
HindranceStressors
Stress that keeps you from reaching your goals, such as red tape
Cause greater harm than challenge stressors
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126. WORK STRESS
Potential stress will become actual stress only if there is uncertainty
about an important outcome. It is only when there is doubt or
uncertainty regarding whether the opportunity will be seized, the
constraint removed, or the loss avoided, that there is stress.
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127. YOU KNOW YOU ARE STRESSED WHEN:
▪You undergo frequent mood swings.
▪You feel anxious most of the time about work, deadlines, office, home,
etc.
▪You develop a rash or other skin problems when you are anxious.
▪You are constantly tired, have poor concentration and memory.
▪Your sleeping and eating patterns change drastically: to very little or
very much.
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130. POTENTIAL SOURCES OF STRESS
Environmental Factors
Economic uncertainties, e.g. slowdown
Political uncertainties
Technological uncertainties due to new innovations which might make
an employee’s skills and experience obsolete in a very short time
Terrorism in threats to physical safety and security
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131. POTENTIAL SOURCES OF STRESS
OrganizationalFactors
Task demands –job design, work setting, working conditions
Role demands –role conflict, role overload, role ambiguity
Interpersonaldemands –lack of social support, poorinterpersonal relationships
Organizational structure –rules and regulations, decision making, hierarchy levels
Organizational leadership –managerial style of senior executives (tight controland
unrealisticpressures lead to tension, fear and anxiety)
Organization’s life stage –i.e. growth, stability, or decline (more stress with more
uncertainty)
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132. POTENTIAL SOURCES OF STRESS
Individual Factor
Family and personal relationships
Economic problems
Personality problems arising from basic disposition
Individual Differences
Perceptual variations of how reality will affect the individual’s future, e.g.
perception about job loss.
Greater job experience moderates stress effects: they become more stress
resistant, develop better coping styles
Social support buffers job stress by mitigating negative effects
Internal locus of control lowers perceived job stress.
Strong feelings of self-efficacy (confidence in own abilities) reduce reactions
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133. CONSEQUENCES OF STRESS
Forgetfulness regarding appointments & dates, etc.
Excessive daydreaming about “getting away from it
all”.
Sudden outbursts of temper or hostility.
Irritable and boredom.
Unable to concentrate.
Decision making becomesdifficult.
Anxious and nervousness.
Nightmares & depression.
Helplessness & confusion.
Suspiciousness & negative attitude/thoughts.
Loneliness.leadership (managerial style).
High Levels of Stress
Physiological
Symptoms
Behavioral
Symptoms
Psychological
Symptoms
– Hypertension.
– Heart disease.
– Migraine & Ulcers.
– Asthmatic conditions.
– Chronic backaches.
– Allergies and skin disorders.
– More frequent infections.
– Sexual dysfunctions.
– Stomach distress and dizziness.
– Fatigue and weakness.
– Sweating and insomnia.
– Muscle tension.
– Impulsive behavior and
Inappropriate crying
– Aggressive & blaming.
– Overeating.
– Lack of initiative.
– Accident prone.
– Nervous laughing.
– Inflexible.
– Drugs & alcohol.
134. INVERTED-U RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
STRESS AND JOB PERFORMANCE
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Organizational
consequences:
- Performance
declines.
- Withdrawal.
- Low productivity.
- Anger/frustration.
- Work related
injuries.
- Lack of
concentration.
136. MANAGING STRESS
Individual Approaches
Implementing time management –making daily lists of activities to be done,
prioritizing by importance and urgency and scheduling accordingly
Increasing physical exercise
Relaxation training, e.g. meditation, biofeedback, etc.
Expanding social support network
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137. MANAGING STRESS
OrganizationalApproaches
Improved personnel selection and job placement, i.e. who can handlewhat
Training to increase self-efficacy and decrease strain
Use of realistic goal setting, i.e. specific and challenging goals with feedback,
increases motivation and decreases frustration, role ambiguity, and stress
Redesigning of jobs, in terms of responsibility, meaning, control and autonomy
Increased employee involvement
Improved organizational communication
Offering employee sabbaticals
Establishment of corporatewellness programmes
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