pratik meshram Unit 2 contemporary marketing research full notes pune university semister 3

Unit 2
Data Collection- Questionnaires
and Scaling
TOPICS
2.1. Data Collection
2.2. Questionnaires
2.3. Media Research
2.4. Scaling

• Marketing research specifies what information is required, selects the data-
collection methods, implements and manages the data-collection process.
• Analyses the results, and communicates the findings and their implications to
marketing management so that the marketing problem can be solved
meaningfully.
• A distinct process can be seen to be emerging. The marketing research process
depends on the marketing problem.
• Some research projects are relatively straightforward and can be completed
quickly whilst others are more complex and involve a lot of work.
• Questions must be carefully developed and tested before using them for the
final survey .
• Moreover, in designing a data collection form, the marketing researcher must
have good idea about close ended questions, open-ended questions and
different attitude measurement scales-Likert scale, semantic differential scale,
importance scale, intention to buy-scale etc.

A data collection form consists of a set of questions to be presented to the
respondent for his/ her opinion, reactions or attitudes on the subject matter of
the survey. Data collection constitutes the subject matter of analysis. Standard
inferences or conclusions can't be arrived at without appropriate and proper
analysis of data.
A)Customer Data Integration Definition:
Customer Data Integration is a data management process where all
prospect and customer data can be distributed to points of interaction in a timely
and accurate manner.

B) Customer Data Integration Requirements:

B) Constituents of Data:
Constituents of data can broadly be classified into the following five categories.
1.Facts:
It's the measurement of a thing that actually exists (as it stands).A fact is a sheer reality
devoid of coloring or modification.
2. Knowledge:
It's that what people actually possess or have the level and extent of knowledge differ
from person to person. Knowledge becomes the prime basis for human behavioral
actions.
3. Views and Opinions:
These are based on people's perception, experience, maturity, wisdom and above all,
level of fully considered, onell balanced and sound judgment. All these factors reveal
differences in views and opinions of the people.
4. Intentions:
Intention is the practical reflection of projected or expected behaviour; one has set in his
or her mind.
5. Motives:
They are the internal forces those dominate human behaviour and action. Motives play more
important role in psychological analysis as compared to intentions.

D) Data Types and Sources:
1) Primary Data:
Primary data can be obtained by communication or by observation. Communication
involves questioning respondents either verbally or in writing. This method is
versatile, since one needs only to ask for the information; Observation involves the
recording of actions and is performed by either a person or some mechanical or
electronic device. Observation is less versatile than communication since some
attributes of a person may not be readily observable, such as attitudes, awareness,
knowledge, intentions, and motivation.
2) Secondary Data:
Before going through the time and expense of collecting primary data, one should
check for secondary data that previously may have been collected for other purposes
but that can be used in the immediate study. Secondary data has the advantage of
saving time and reducing data gathering costs. The disadvantages are that the data
may not fit the problem perfectly and that the accuracy may be more difficult to verify
for secondary data than for primary data.

A questionnaire is simply a ‘tool’ for collecting and recording information about a particular
issue of interest. It is mainly made up of a list of questions, but should also include clear
instructions and space for isomers or administrative details.
A) Meaning:
Questionnaire or mail questionnaire is an important and widely used method to collect
primary data for any marketing research programme. In this method a questionnaire similar
to interview schedule is drafted. This questionnaire is then sent by mail to the respondent.
They fill up the questionnaire and return it to the investigator. Tabulation analysis is made
from the information thus secured on the same basis as in case of interview schedule
method.

a) Advantages :
i) Can contact a large number of people at a relatively low cost (postal and
telephone)
ii) Easy to reach people who are spread across a wide geographical area or who
live in remote locations (postal and phone)
iii) Respondents are able to complete postal questionnaires in their own time and
telephone call-backs can be arranged for a more convenient time
iv) Telephone questionnaires can make it easier to consult some disabled people
v) F2F questionnaires can make it easier to identify the appropriate person to
complete the questionnaire
vi) F2F questionnaires can be longer than postal and phone questionnaires, collect
more information and allow the use of ‘visual aids’

b) Disadvantages :
i) Response rates can be low (postal) and refusal rates high (telephone, F2F)
ii) There is little control over who completes a postal questionnaire, which can lead
to bias
iii) Postal questionnaires are inappropriate for people with reading difficulties or
visual impairments and those who do not read English
iv) Postal and phone questionnaires must be kept relatively short
v) F2F and phone questionnaires require the use of trained interveners
vi) F2F questionnaires are time consuming for respondents, more costly and more
labour intensive than other methods

B) Designing Questionnaire :
Aonell-designed questionnaire requires thought and effort, and needs to be planned and
developed in a number of stages:

1) Initial Considerations:
Firstly, it is important to be clear about the type and nature of information need to collect and
exactly who is oner target population (e.g. North Kirklees residents). also need to decide on
the most appropriate method for administering the questionnaire (e.g. postal) and consider
approach to sampling.
2) Question content, phrasing and response format :
The second, and perhaps most important, aspect of questionnaire design relates to the
questions themselves.
3) Question Sequence and Laonet:
Questions should be numbered and ordered in a way that is logical to the respondent, with
similarly themed questions grouped together. A technique known as ‘funneling’ begins with
general questions before focusing down to more specific questions.
4) Equalities :
When designing questionnaire need to remember to account for equalities issues.
For example:
Questions on gender, age, ethnic origin and disability are sometimes used to monitor whether
a representative cross-section of the population was reached (but it is bad practice to ask
these questions and simply store the data rather than using it for a specific purpose).

5) Confidentiality:
Respondents need to be reassured that the information they provide on the questionnaire is
confidential. This means that their identities or personal details must not be disclosed to
others, except for research purposes, and any data used in the report will not be linked to any
respondents.
6) Piloting the Questionnaire:
It is good practice to ‘pilot’ or pre-test oner questionnaire with a small sample of respondents
before use. The pilot should check people’s understanding and ability to ansoner the
questions, highlight areas of confusion and look for any routing errors, as onell as providing an
estimate of the average time each questionnaire will take to complete.
7) Final Questionnaire: Maximizing the Response Rate:
Questionnaires can suffer from low response rates, which are a source of bias. The following
table outlines some of the steps that can be taken to help improve oner survey response rate:
a) Essential :
• Introductory letter
• Reply paid envelope for returns
b) Advisable:
• Reminder letter and second copy of the questionnaire after two oneeks.
c) Negligible effect
• Incentives
• Coloured paper

C) Designing Observation Forms:
The design of observational forms requires explicit decisions about what is to be observed
and how that behavior is to be recorded.
a. Observation:
1) Who:
Purchasers, browsers, males, females, parents with children, children alone
2) What:
Products/brands considered, products/brands purchased, size, price of package
inspected, influence of children or other family members
3) When:
Day, hour, date of observation
4) Where:
Inside the store, checkout counter or type of department within the store
5) Why:
Influence of price, brand name, package size, promotion or family members on the
purchase

b. Project Activities:
1) Given the information is obtained. Construct an appropriate questionnaire,
2) Critically evaluate the questionnaire one has constructed using the principles discussed in
this chapter.
3) Does one think that the required information can be obtained by observation? If yes design
an appropriate observation form. The form and loaned as onell as the reproduction of
observational forms should follow the same guidelines discussed for questionnaires.
Aonell-designed form permits fieldworkers to record individual observations hut not to
summarize observations as that could lead to error. Finally like questionnaires,
observational forms also require adequate pretesting.

c. Ethical Issues:

c. Ethical Issues:
a) Questionnaire:
A structured technique for data collection that consists of a series of questions, written or
verbal, that respondent ansoners.
b) Double-Barreled Question:
A single question that attempts to cover two issues. Such questions can be confusing to
respondents and result in ambiguous responses.
c) Filter Questions:
An initial question in a questionnaire that screens potential respondents to ensure they
meet the requirements of the sample
d) Telescoping:
A psychological phenomenon that takes place when an individual telescopes or compress
time by remembering an event as occurring more recently than actually occurred
e) Unstructured Questions:
Open-ended questions that respondent ansoner in their own words

c. Ethical Issues:
f) Structured Questions:
Questions that pre-specify the set of response alternatives and the response format. A
structured question could be multiple choice, dichotomous, or a scale.
g) Order Or Position Bias:
A respondent’s tendency to check an alternative merely because it occupies a certain
position or is listed in a certain order.
h) Dichotomous Question:
A structured question was only two response alternatives, such as yes and no.
I) Leading Question:
A question that gives a respondent a clue as to what ansoner is desired or leave the
responded to ansoner in a certain way.

c. Ethical Issues:
J) Implicit Alternative:
An alternative that is not explicitly expressed.
k) Classification Information:
Socioeconomic and demographic characteristics used to classify respondents.
l) Identification Information:
A type of information obtained in a questionnaire that includes name, address, and phone
number.

D) Consumer Behaviour:
A. Issues:
a) The psychology of how consumers think, feel, reason, and select betneen
different alternatives (e.g., brands, products, and retailers);
b) The psychology of how the consumer is influenced by his or her environment
(e.g., culture, family, signs, media);
c) The behavior of consumers while shopping or making other marketing decisions;
d) Limitations in consumer knowledge or information processing abilities influence
decisions and marketing outcome;
e) How consumer motivation and decision strategies differ betneen products that
differ in their level of importance or interest that they entail for the consumer; and
f) How marketers can adapt and improve their marketing campaigns and marketing
strategies to more effectively reach the consumer.

B. Applications:

B. Applications:
1) Marketing Strategy:
The most obvious is for marketing strategies., for making better marketing
campaigns. For example, by understanding that consumers are more receptive
to food advertising when they are hungry, one learn to schedule snack
advertisements late in the afternoon.
2) Public Policy:
A second application is public policy. In the 1980s, Acutance, a near miracle
cure for acne, was introduced. Unfortunately, Acutance resulted in severe birth
defects if taken by pregnant women.
3) Social Marketing:
Social marketing involves getting ideas across to consumers rather than selling
something. It was also determined that the practice of sharing needles was too
ingrained in the drug culture to be stopped.
4) Final benefit:
As a final benefit, studying consumer behavior should make us better consumers.
Common sense suggests, for example, that if one buy a 64 liquid ounce bottle of
laundry detergent, one should pay less per ounce than if one bought two 32
ounce bottles.

D) Consumer Behaviour Research Methods:
Market Research is often needed to ensure that one produce what customers
really want and not what think they want.
1) Secondary Methods:
For more information about secondary market research tools and issues,
2) Primary Methods:
Several tools are available to the market researcher—e.g., mail questionnaires,
phone surveys, observation, and focus groups. The below flow chart suggests
appropriate choices for different types of information needs.

2) Primary Methods:

2) Primary Methods:
i) Mail Surveys:
Mail surveys are relatively inexpensive, but response rates are typically quite low
typically from 5-20%.
ii) Focus Groups:
Focus groups are useful when the marketer wants to launch a new product or
modify an existing one. A focus group usually involves having some 8-12 people
come together in a room to discuss their consumption preferences and
experiences.
iii) Personal Interviews:
Personal interviews are highly susceptible to inadvertent “signaling” to the
respondent. Although an interviewer is looking to get at the truth, he or she may
have a significant interest in a positive consumer response.
iv) Projective Techniques:
Projective techniques are used when a consumer may feel embarrassed to
admit to certain opinions, feelings, or preferences.

2) Primary Methods:
v) Observation of Consumers:
Observation of consumers is often a poonerful tool. Looking at how consumers
select products may yield insights into how they make decisions and what they look
for.
vi) Online Research Method:
Online research methods. The Internet now reaches the great majority of
households in the all over world, and thus, online research provides new opportunity
and has increased in use.

2) Primary Methods:
Online Research Method:

D) Advertising Copy Research:
A. Elements of an Advertising Copy:

a) The Headline:
This is the first copy interface which anyone would come in contact with, it is usually written in
large type face. Also referred to as caption, the headline is designed alongside a catchy
illustration to capture and attract attention to the advertisement. It drives prospective
buyers to further investigate the brand.
b) The Sub-Head:
This goes after the headlines often, sometimes some copy writers, display the subhead
first before the headlines, this is basically for a purpose which they deemed would drive
in audience to the entire copy. The subhead is written in a smaller type face lesser than
headlines but larger than the body text.
c) The Body Copy:
This is the illustration text, always in the smallest type face in the copy than the headline and
the subhead. The body copy explains a brand in a few and concise but creative words
that stick faster in the mind of the audience. It explains a brand in the best possible ways.

d) Captions:
These are written in a smaller type face than the body copy to represent sales
points by illustrating and explaining them at the same time. Captions are less
important to the main selling points in the advertisement than the body copy
e) The Blurb or Balloon:
This is term used in advertising to represent that the illustration of an advertising
copy is coming out from mouth of one of the characters used in the advertising
campaign. At times they are used as headlines and displayed in large size.
f) Slogan, Logotypes, Trade:
Mark and Signatures: These elements often show themselves in every
advertisement. They are companies identifying tags; they differentiate one
organization from another especially when they offer competitive brands.

A proper understanding of media research and the way it has been carried out
cannot emerge without some consideration of the theoretical background of
different approaches to media analysis.
A. Meaning:
Over the years, media research has borrooned from and been dominated by
theories deriving from such disciplines as anthropology linguistics, sociology
political science and psychology. Different perspectives on the study of the
media have emerged historically in response not only to the findings of empirical
enquiries, which changed ideas about the way people respond to the media, but
more often and more significantly as a result of paradigm shifts within social
science research more generally. In order to establish a conceptual framework
within which to present, review and critique media research methodologies,
therefore, it is important to examine these conceptual changes and the dominant
epistemological premises of research and ontological assumptions about
humankind that shaped scientific thinking throughout the history of the modem
mass media.

B. Definitions:
1) Molly Erdman (VP, Fast Food Division, US Food Products, Inc):
Media research is a survey or series of surveys, which provide media
consumption information (i.e., which radio, television and new programs, and
magazines an individual or household watches, reads or listens to) for a given
population.
2) Pa. Kunto:
Science is always searching for or researching for a problem that exists and can
be seen from the media

C.Readership Surveys:
Readership is estimated by means of extensive readership surveys. It is not found
by multiplying the circulation figure by a given number.
A) Examples of Readership Surveys:
1) National Readership Surveys:
a) The first of these, NRS was conducted by ORG in 1970.
b) NRS-II was jointly conducted by ORG and IMRB.
c) NRS-III was conducted solely by IMRB in 1983-84.
d) The latest in the series in NRS-IV which was jointly conducted by IMRB and
Media Research (the media research division of MARG).
2) Businessmen’s Readership Survey (BRS):
It provides estimates of :
a) Primary and secondary readerships.
b) The place of reading.
c) Profiles of readers.
d) The extent of business travel and use of business services.

D. Opinion Polls:
The development and application of polls and surveys has become a major
industry involving over two thousand research organizations. There are
thousands of companies engaged in public opinion research. Research indicates
that poll results are even “utilized in the development of opinion." With the
significant scope and impact of polls and surveys suggested, it is self-evident
that the opinion research community especially, and the wider public in general,
could benefit from access to the methodological research upon which all of these
enterprise rest. Additionally, learning the techniques through the instructional
literature is both useful for new researchers, and basic for the general
population. This annotated bibliography seeks to address both perceived needs,
covering the literature of all but the closing months of the decade of the eighties.

E. Retail Survey:
Retail market research surveys are an economical way to ascertain customer
opinions and uncover potential leads. Retail market research surveys also
measure industry and market trends, helping to serve as a platform for the
development of new products and services. Infosurv designs, administers and
analyzes user-friendly retail market research surveys. Our professionals are
experienced in assisting organizations in garnering invaluable information
regarding consumer behavior. Implementing a retail market research survey can
save oner organization time and money by:
a) Judging the satisfaction and interest levels of a potential new product or service
before development.
b) Understanding what oner audience likes and dislikes, thereby increasing
retention.
Whether need retail research survey designed from scratch, or have an existing
survey that needs to be administered, Infosurv takes extraordinary measures to
ensure validity, reliability and bias reduction. Our goal is to help in compose a
highly relevant survey instrument that will yield sound and valid conclusions
while achieving the maximum survey response rate possible.

F.Mystery Shopping:
Mystery shopping or a mystery consumer is a tool used by Mystery Shopping
Providers and market research companies to measure quality of retail service or
gather specific information about products and services. Mystery shoppers
posing as normal customers perform specific tasks such as purchasing a
product, asking questions, registering complaints or behaving in a certain way–
and then provide detailed reports or feedback about their experiences. Mystery
shopping was standard practice by the early 1940s as a way to measure
employee integrity. Tools used for mystery shopping assessments range from
simple questionnaires to complete audio and video recordings. Mystery shopping
can be used in any industry, with the most common venues being retail stores,
hotels, movie theaters, restaurants, fast food chains, banks, gas stations, car
dealerships, apartments, health clubs and health care facilities.

Scaling techniques are used to measure different psychological aspects such as
attitudes, perceptions and preference of people with the help of certain pre-
defined set of stimuli and instructions. The stimuli may be certain brands of a
product, alternative advertising themes, package designs, sales people’s
presentations and so on.
A. Levels of measurement of Scales:
Most texts on marketing research explain the four levels of measurement:
nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio and so the treatment given to them here will
be brief. Hoonever, it is an important topic since the type of scale used in taking
measurements directly impinges on the statistical techniques which can
legitimately be used in the analysis.

Nominal Scale
Ordinal Scale
Interval Scale
Ratio Scale
1) Graphic Rating Scale
2) Itemized Rating Scales
a)Likert Scale
b)Semantic Differential Scale
c)Stapel’s Scale
d)Multi Dimensional Scaling
e)Thurston Scales
f)Guttman
g)Scales/Scalogram Analysis
h)The Q Sort technique

a) Most frequently used Scales:
1) Nominal Scales:
This, the crudest of measurement scales, classifies individuals, companies,
products, brands or other entities into categories where no order is implied.
2) Ordinal scales
Ordinal scales involve the ranking of individuals, attitudes or items along the
continuum of the characteristic being scaled.
3) Interval Scales:
It is only with an interval scaled data that researchers can justify the use of the
arithmetic mean as the measure of average.
4) Ratio Scales:
The highest level of measurement is a ratio scale. This has the properties of an
interval scale together with a fixed origin or zero point.

b) Self Rating Scales
1) Graphic Rating Scale:
The respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position
on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to another.
Example:
0
(POOR QUALITY)
1
(BAD QUALITY)
5
(NEITHER GOOD NOR
BAD)
7
(GOOD QUALITY)

BRAND 1
This is also known as continuous rating scale. The customer can occupy any
position. Here one attribute is taken ex-quality of any brand of ice cream.
Poor Good

BRAND 2
This line can be vertical or horizontal and scale points may be provided. No other
indication is there on the continuous scale. A range is provided. To quantify the
responses to question that “indicate oner overall opinion about ice-ream Brand 2
by placing a tick mark at appropriate position on the line”, one measure the
physical distance betoneen the left extreme position and the response position
on the line.; the greater the distance, the more favourable is the response or
attitude towards the brand.

2) Itemized Rating Scales:
These scales are different from continuous rating scales. They have a number of
brief descriptions associated with each category.
i) Likert Scale:
It was developed Rensis Likert. Here the respondents are asked to indicate a
degree of agreement and disagreement with each of a series of statement. Each
scale item has 5 response categories ranging from strongly agree and strongly
disagree.
Each statement is assigned a numerical score ranging from 1 to 5. It can also be
scaled as -2 to +2.
-2 -1 0 1 2

ii) Semantic Differential Scale:
This is a seven point scale and the end points of the scale are associated with
bipolar labels.
1
Unpleasant
Submissive
2 3 4 5 6 7
Pleasant
Dominant

iii) Stapel’s Scale
It was developed by Jan Stapel. This scale has some distinctive features:-
1) Each item has only one word/phrase indicating the dimension it represents.
2) Each item has ten response categories.
3) Each item has an even number of categories.
4) The response categories have numerical labels but no verbal labels.

iii) Stapel’s Scale
This scale is usually presented vertically.
+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
High Quality
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
This is a unipolar rating scale.

iv) Multi Dimensional Scaling:
It consists of a group of analytical techniques which are used to
study consumer attitudes related to perceptions and preferences. It is used to
study. The major attributes of a given class of products perceived by
the consumers in considering the product and by which they compare the
different ranks. To study which brand competes most directly with each other. It is
a computer based technique. The respondents are asked to place the various
brands into different groups like similar, very similar, not similar, and so on. A
goodness of fit is traded off on a large number of attributes. Then a lack of fit index
is calculated by computer program. These techniques attempt to identify the
product attributes that are important to consumers and to measure their
relative importance.

v) Thurston Scales:
These are also known as equal appearing interval scales. They are used to
measure the attitude towards a given concept or construct. For this purpose a large
number of statements are collected that relate to the concept or construct being
measured. The judges rate these statements along an 11 category scale in which
each category expresses a different degree of favorableness towards the concept.
The items are then ranked according to the mean or median ratings assigned by the
judges and are used to construct questionnaire of tonenty to thirty items that are
chosen more or less evenly across the range of ratings. The statements are worded
in such a way so that a person can agree or disagree with them. The scale is then
administered to assemble of respondents whose scores are determined by
computing the mean or median value of the items agreed with.

vi) Guttman Scales/Scalogram Analysis:
It is based on the idea that items can be arranged along a continuem in such a way
that a person who agrees with an item or finds an item acceptable will also agree
with or find acceptable all other items expressing a less extreme position. For
example - Children should not be allooned to watch indecent programmes or
government should ban these programmes or they are not allooned to air on the
television. They all are related to one aspect. In this scale each score represents a
unique set of responses and therefore the total score of every individual is obtained.
This scale takes a lot of time and effort in development. They are very commonly
used in political science, anthropology, public opinion, research and psychology.

vi) The Q Sort technique:
It is used to discriminate among large number of objects quickly. It uses a
rank order procedure and the objects are sorted into piles based on similarity with
respect to some criteria. The number of objects to be sorted should be betoneen 60-
140 approximately. For example, here one are taking nine brands. On the basis of
taste one classify the brands into tasty, moderate and non tasty. One can classify on
the basis of price also-Low, medium, high. Then one can attain the perception of
people that whether they prefer low priced brand, high or moderate. One can
classify sixty brands or pile it into three piles. So the number of objects is to be
placed in three piles-low, medium or high. Thus, the Q-sort technique is an attempt
to classify subjects in terms of their similarity to attribute under study.

B. Scale Construction
There are a number of ways at which scales may be constructed. These include:
1) Arbitary Scales:
These scales are developed on adhoc basis and are designed largely through the
researcher’s first collects few statement or items which he believes are unambiguous and
appropriate to a given topic.
2) Differential Scale (or Thurstone-type Scales):
The L.L Thursntone developed that scale.
3) Summated Scales (or Likert type scales):
This scale consists of a number of statements which express either a favourable or
unfavorable altitude towards the given object to which the respondent is asked to react.
4) Cumulative Scales:
Cumulative scale is also known as Louis Buttman's Scalogram analysis. This scale consists
of series of statements to which a respondent express his agreement or disagreement

C.Scale Items
A single-item scale, as its name implies, attempts to measure feelings through just one
rating scale. In contrast, a multiple-item scale contains a number of statements pertaining
to the attitude object.
A)Defining the Focus.:
As in all scaling methods, the first step is to define what it is are trying to measure.
Because this is a unidimensional scaling method, it is assumed that the concept want to
measure is one-dimensional in nature.
B)Generating the Items:
Next, to create the set of potential scale items. These should be items that can be rated
on a 1-to-5 or 1-to-7 Disagree-Agree response scale. Sometimes one can create the
items by onerself based on oner intimate understanding of the subject matter.
C)Rating the Items:
The next step is to have a group of judges rate the items. Usually one would use a 1-to-5
rating scale where:
= strongly unfavorable to the concept
= somewhat unfavorable to the concept
= undecided
= somewhat favorable to the concept
= strongly favorable to the concept

C. Scale Items
D) Selecting the Items.
The next step is to compute the inter correlations betoneen all pairs of items, based on
the ratings of the judges. In making judgments about which items to retain for the final
scale there are several analyses one can do:
E) Administering the Scale.
Now ready to use Likert scale. Each respondent is asked to rate each item on some
response scale. For instance, they could rate each item on a 1-to-5 response scale
where:
a) Strongly disagree
b) Disagree
c) Undecided
d) Agree
e) Strongly agree

D. Basic Scaling Issues:
1) Number of Scale Points:
Two conflicting considerations are involved in deciding the number of scale
categories. The greater the number of scale categories the finer the
discrimination among stimulus objects that is possible.
2) Odd Number vs. Even Number of Options:
With an odd number of categories, the middle scale position is generally
designated as neutral or impartial. The presence, position and labeling of a
neutral category can have a significant influence on the response.
3) Balanced vs. Unbalanced Scale:
In the balanced scale, the number of favorable and unfavorable categories is
equal in an unbalanced scale, they are unequal." In general the scale should be
balanced in order to obtain objective darn hoonever if the distribution of
responses is likely to be skeoned either positively or negatively.

D. Basic Scaling Issues:
4) Forced vs. Unforced Scale:
Similarly, it is always better to decide even number or odd number. In the case of
even number, there is no scope for neutral point. If there is neutral point, the
respondent is forced to indicate the respondent opinion some degree of positive or
negative feelings on the subject.
5) Verbal vs. Pictorial Description of Response Categories:
The nature and degree of verbal description associated with scale categories varies
considerably and can haw an effect on the responses. Scale categories may have
verbal, numerical or even pictorial descriptions.

E. Scale Purification Process:
1) Quantitative research: First Stage Purification:
Resulting 49-items transformed into pilot questionnaire and used to collect data for
first stage purification. This stage is mainly serving the confirmation purpose of
newly developed scales’ psychometric properties.
2) Quantitative Research: Initial Scale:
Second stage purification of the RENTQUAL scale was carried out with a new data
set. For this purpose modified version of pilot instrument was used.
3) Quantitative Research: Final Scale
The final stage for scale development was to reevaluate the factor structure of the
RENTQUAL using CFA with maximum likelihood estimation.

F.Validity and Reliability
a) Validity:
Validity may be defined as a measuring instrument is valid when it measures what it is
supposed to measure. The instrument is valid to the extent that its measurements are free
from systematic error (bias).
1)Validity Testing:
i) Content Validity / Face Validity:
Content validity, sometimes referred to as face validity concerns the extent to which
the measurement instrument" appears to be" measuring the characteristic it is intended to
measure. Its assessment is necessarily subjective and usually involves the judgment of
experts.
ii) Construct Validity:
Construct validity deals with the degree to which the measurement scale represents
and acts like the concept being measured. In general, construct validity is present whenever
our measure of a particular concept is related to measures of other related concepts in a
theoretically expected way.

1)Validity Testing:
iii) Convergent Validity:
It is defined as the degree of association betoneen two maximally different measures which
purport to measure essentially the same concept.
iv) Discriminant Validity:
It is largely the opposite of convergent validity in that it can be defined as the degree to which
our measurement scale may be differentiated from other scales purporting to measure
maximally different concepts.
v) Prediction validity:
It is the extent to which a future level of some criterion variable can be predicted by current
measurement on the scale of interest. Here, the emphasis rests primarily in the criterion
(predicted) variable rather than the measured variable.

vi) Concurrent validity:
Concurrent validity, like predictive validity, is concerned with comparing the measurement with
some external criterion of success.

2) Reliability:
Reliability may be defined as a measuring instrument is reliable when the results it delivers
are consistent. The instrument is reliable to the extent that its measurements are free from
non systematic (random) error.
a) Reliability Assessment:
Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of a score from a measurement scale.
It is differentiated from validity in that the former is concerned with the consistency
issue while the latter is concerned with the accuracy issue. A reliable instrument is one
that will derive consistent results and be relatively free from random error. There are
three major approaches to the assessment of reliability.
b) Stable Approach:
The stability approach to the assessment of reliability involves application of the
measuring instrument to the same people or objects at two different points in time.
c) Test-Retest method:
If the instrument is reliable, and if the individuals or objects have not changed during the
time betoneen measurements, the first measurement for each individual or object should
correspond very closely to the second.

2) Reliability:
d) Internal Consistency Method:
This method assesses the homogeneity of a set of items. The basic rationale for these
types of reliability assessments rests on the fact that items in a scale should behave
similarly.
e) Split-half technique:
It is accomplished by splitting a multi-item scale in half and then correlating the
summated results of the scores in the first half with those in the second half. Usually the
items in the scale are randomly assigned to one half or the other.
d) Chronbach-Alpha:
An internal consistency technique which over comes the above mentioned criticism is
called Cronback-Alpha.
e) Kuder and Richardson's KR-20 formula:
One limitation in the use of Chronbach-Alpha is its assumption that the items in the
scale are at least interval in nature. As a result an alternative method employing the
same notions was developed for use with dichotomous, or nominally scaled, items.
N.c
v (N 1).c
α =
+ −

A) Linkert:
1) The basis for Likert Measurement:
RensisLikert was an American psychologist. (Unlike most of those who have
used it since, he pronounced his name with a short ‘i’ sound, as in ‘Lick ert’.)‐
What became known as the Likert method of attitude measurement was
formulated in his doctoral thesis, and an abridged version appeared in a
1932 article in the Archives of Psychology.
This straightforward notion is illustrated below.

G. Applications
A) Linkert:
2) Constructing Likert Scales:
A Likert scale is a composite, or ‘battery’, of multiple Likert items. (The
terminology can be confusing because the list of ansoner categories is, as in this
fact sheet, usually referred to as the ‘response scale’. But the precise term
‘Likert scale’ should always refer to a collection of items.)
3) Applications:
Likert attitude scales can be used in much the same way as semantic differential
scales. In an earlier Today's Speech article, the writers suggested four areas of
research in which the semantic differential could be used:
a) To measure the credibility of speakers,
b) To measure listener attitudes,
c) For classroom evaluation of speakers and speeches, and
d) To assess the worth of speech courses to the students. The same purpose could
be served by a Likert-type scale.

G. Applications
B) Semantic Scales:
Semantic scales like the Likert, the Stapel, and the Semantic Differential, are
used for constructing most instruments used in business research.
Fig: Semantic Scales

G. Applications
B) Semantic Scales:
1) Application:
a) A more common application of the semantic-differential scale, hoonever, is to
develop a pictorial profile of the attitude objects based on the mean ratings on
the individual items.
b) Exhibit figure presents hypothetical pictorial profiles two online auction sites. To
facilitate interpretation of the profiles, researchers usually place all the favorable
descriptors on the same side of these diagrams.
c) According to Exhibit 9.4, customers apparently have a more favorable overall
attitude toward online auction site ABC than toward online auction site XYZ.

G. Applications
B) Semantic Scales:
1) Application:
d) Notice that the overall profile for ABC is in general closer to the left end (the
more favorable end] of the scales.
e) Online auction site XYZ is perceived to be better than ABC in terms of exhibits
availability, response to complaints, - protection of personal information .
f) The semantic differential scale has considerable practical appeal because allies
like those in Exhibit 9.4 can pinpoint a particular firms relative strengths
Honeaknesses as perceived by customers.
g) The profiles can thus have useful, immediate managerial implications. Not
surprisingly the semantic differential is the most widely used attitude-scaling
technique in Generating a useful and incomprehensive set of adjectival pairs
such as is necessary an effective semantic differential scale is not always as
easy as it may seem.

G. Applications
C) The Stapel Scale:
The Stapel scale is really a variation of the semantic differential scale. The
format of a typical Stapel scale is illustrated by the six items presented in Table.
Notice that the items in Tables, as onell as in Exhibit Table, correspond to the
same online auction site traits. A comparison of these sets of items should
reveal the key format differences among the Likert. Semantic-differential.–
Stapelscales
Fig: The Stapel Scale

G. Applications
C) The Stapel Scale:
The Stapel scale has four distinctive features:
1) Each item has only one word or phrase indicating the dimension it represents.
2) Each item has 10 response categories.
3) Each of the items is at forced—choice scale because it has an even number of
categories.
4) The response categories have numerical labels but no verbal labels.
D) Brand Research:
To the victors go the spoils of loyalty, up-sell, cross-sell and referrals. But
cultivating stable, long-term relationships takes intelligent research and careful
planning.As brand cycles through phases, its strength and success are based on
the ability to remain relevant by continuously evolving to meet customer needs
while remaining true to a core value proposition. Market Strategies International
helps to understand the current value of brand and plot a course to reinforce its
core strengths and address vulnerabilities and threats.

G. Applications
D) Brand Research:
1) Branding Research Studies:
a) Brand Base Research:
One seeks to uncover existing comparative brand equity marketing information and
knowledge. As a part of this brand equity discovery process, one conduct far reaching interviews
with client management, field sales, product development and customer service staff.
b) Brand Qualitative Research:
Typical starting point is a small sample round of depth interviews. In the beginning
stages of brand development, this method can be far more useful than focus groups which may
come later.
c) Brand Screening Survey:
After Brand Generation Round 2, one typically implement a Brand Screening Survey.

G. Applications
D) Brand Research:
1)Branding Research Studies:
d) Creative Development-Brand Generation:
Interacting with creative team in the development of concepts and ideas aided by
findings of the Creative Branding Research components.
e) Refining Options - Making Decision:
The narrooned choices are refined and selection made. This process may interact with an
additional wave of screening research.
f) Go-To-Market Plan:
If assignment includes assisting with the Market Plan, one act as facilitators and
managers in the execution stage in the introductory phase.

G. Applications
D)Brand Research:
2) Managing Brand:
There are six key areas when need research to give the critical information one
need to manage oner brand:
a)Creating a New Brand Strategy:
Whether one are creating a totally new brand or want to change oner brand
strategy, information about oner competitors’ and oner positions in the marketplace is
important in developing oner strategy.
b) Understanding How Far Brand Can Stretch :
One of the great things about strong brands is the way they help companies
enter new markets, new geographies and new product categories. To leverage oner
brand, one must understand what oner brand stands for.
c) Brand Architecture:
Understanding and managing how equity flows throughout oner brand/product portfolio
is an important element in brand management.

G. Applications
D) Brand Research:
2) Managing Brand:
d) Brand Management:
Information on brand awareness, and perceptions of oner brand image is critical
to managing the brand’s lifecycle.
e) Revitalizing Brands:
In spite of a company’s best efforts, brands lose their way and equity begins to
erode. To bring a tired brand back to life and set it on the path to growth requires
marketing research.
f) Brand Positioning:
Differentiation is key to brand strength and positioning is the expression of
differentiation. Research to identify the optimal brand position is key to brand strength
No matter what aspect of branding need to research; Polaris has the experience and
expertise to help make the most of research budget.

G. Applications
E) Attitudinal Studies:
If observation is the heart of science, then listening is the soul. A crucial part in
understanding the human experience is based on asking individuals about their
experience. From structured in-store quantitative surveys done right at the moment the
person interacts with the product to in-home qualitative interviews, one can answer
questions such as how shoppers plan their next trip to store and what they think of
product. To hear the inner conversations that occur before, during and after a shopper
interacts with the marketplace.
1)Suggestions for Use:
a) Attitudinal surveys can be used at the beginning of a course to identify the ways
students perceive they learn best or to determine their attitudes toward the course or
discipline.
b) This information can be used to adapt instructional strategies. Another use is a
comparison between attitudes at the beginning of the semester (pretest) and again at
the end of the semester (posttest).

G. Applications
E)Attitudinal Studies:
1)Suggestions for Use:
c)This allows the instructor to discover the impact of their course onstudent perceptions
on the variety of topics mentioned above.
d)They also can be used at any point during the semester to make corrections to
existing curricula or methods in a course. The surveys can be taken in any location and
require little time.
e) A very long survey with eighty or so items usually requires no more than 20
minutes. Gender, ethnicity, major, year in school, and previous coursework can all be
included in a survey.

G. Applications
E)Attitudinal Studies:
2) Step-by-Step Instructions:
a) Locate an Attitudinal Survey that matches the areas of concern. Many surveys
will have items where specific aspects of course can be added. Beware of changing the
core features of an attitudinal survey since will likely lose the validity and reliability built
into the survey.
b) Make needed and appropriate modifications to the survey. Have someone else
read any modifications to ensure that they are clear, unambiguous, and do not contain
compound statements.
c) If students have circle a response then little else is needed. If are using
scanning forms, also need an ample supply of number two pencils as onell as the
scanning forms.
d) Be sure that the instructions are read to the students as onell as being printed
on the survey form. The scales that are used should be repeated on each page or
separate section of the survey.
e) Give the students as much time as they need. The time required to complete
surveys is quite short. Even the longest survey (80 items or so) rarely takes more than
20 minutes.

G. Applications
F) Customer Satisfaction Research:
It is very important to determine the customers' perception of quality for products and
services provided. It is a known fact that customers rarely complain - they just don't come back.
Customer loyalty is considered worth ten times more than the price of a single purchase.
Moreover, researchers claim that if a customer doesn't like the product or service, he will tell on
an average eleven more people about his experience. This illustrates the importance of ensuring
customer satisfaction.
1) Customer Satisfaction Research Approaches:
Market Probe built its core competency in this area by focusing on key business needs in
the use and implementation of customer satisfaction research.
2) Data Quality:
To control data quality and consistency, Market Probe supports our projects with our in-
house field capabilities. One have our own service centers in North America, Europe, Middle East,
India and China and can offer field services in different native languages.
3) Security:
Customer satisfaction research deals with client databases and confidential information
pertaining to client lists. Market Probe is certified as a secure facility.

G. Applications
F)Customer Satisfaction Research:
4)Need to Conduct Customer Satisfaction Research:
a)Customer satisfaction surveys help confirm what customers like, dislike or what they would like
to see improved. The fastest way to improve is by listening and then acting on what customers
really want.
b)Think about any major purchases made recently. What did research purchase? Assume
potential buyers are doing the same. If they are researching, shouldn’t researching them?
Where are the areas of improvement? Where are the opportunities to take action?
c)High levels of customer satisfaction are strong predictors of customer retention, customer
loyalty, and product repurchase. Effective businesses focus on creating and reinforcing positive
experiences to retain existing customers and add new customers.
d)How to Build an Effective Customer Satisfaction Program
e) Proper timing of customer satisfaction surveys depends on the type of product or service
provided, the type and number of customers served, the longevity and frequency of
customer/supplier interactions, and the intended use of the results.

G. Applications
5) Four Key Customer Satisfaction Measurements:
Many strategies exist, but overlooking the fundaments of how to measure customer
satisfaction can be detrimental to oner business. Here are 4 key customer satisfaction
measurements that are critical to oner business success.
a) Overall Satisfaction Measure (Emotional):
Example question: Overall, how satisfied are one with “La Jolla Grove restaurant”?This
question reflects the overall opinion of a consumer’s satisfaction experience with a product he or
she has used. The single greatest predictors of customer satisfaction are the customer
experiences that result in attributions of quality.
Perceived quality is often measured in one of three contexts:
i)Overall quality
ii)Perceived reliability
iii)Extent of customer’s needs fulfilled

G. Applications
5)Four Key Customer Satisfaction Measurements:
b) Loyalty Measurement (Affective, Behavioral):
Loyalty is often measured as a combination of measures including overall satisfaction,
likelihood of repurchase, and likelihood of recommending the brand to a friend.
c) A Series of Attribute Satisfaction Measurements (Affective and Cognitive):
The researcher must define and develop measures for each attribute that is important for
customer satisfaction .Consumer attitudes toward a product develop as a result of product
information or any experience with the product, whether perceived or real.
d)Intentions to Repurchase Measurements (Behavioral Measures):
Satisfaction can influence other post-purchase/post-experience actions like
communicating to others through word of mouth and social networks. Additional post-experience
actions might reflect heightened levels of product involvement that in turn result in increased
search for the product or information, reduced trial of alternative products, and even changes in
preferences for shopping locations and choice behavior.

pratik meshram Unit 2 contemporary marketing research full notes pune university semister 3

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pratik meshram Unit 2 contemporary marketing research full notes pune university semister 3